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IN   MEMORIAM 
BERNARD  MOSES 


A   MANUAL 


OF 


Medieval  and  Modern 


HISTORY. 


BY 

M.  E.  THALHEIMER, 

FOR:aERLY  TEACHER   OF  HISTORY  AXD  COMPOSITION  IN  THE  PACKER  COLLEGIATE 
INSTITUTE,   BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 


WILSON,  HINKLE  &  CO., 

K17  WALXUT  ST.,  28  BOND  ST., 

CINCINNATI.  NEW  YORK. 


T5 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congiess,  in  tlie  year  1874,  by 

WILSON,  HINKLE  &  CO., 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


BERNAW)  IWWE8 


si  t"  t,7  d  «^t,'«»        ,  0  ^*S  c^\i  ^r>" 


ELECTKOTYI'ED  AT  ECLECTIC  PRESS  : 

FKANKLIN  TYPE  FOUNDRY,  WILSON,  HINKLE  Ic  CO. 

CINCINNATI.  CINCINNATI. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  pages  contain  a  sketch  of  fourteen  centuries,  from  the 
fall  of  one  Empire  at  Ravenna  to  the  establishment  of  another  at  Berlin. 

To  give  perfect  literary  form  to  such  a  mass  of  details  would  be  a  task 
beyond  either  the  power  or  the  ambition  of  the  present  writer,  even  were 
it  not  complicated  by  the  necessity  of  bringing  the  work  within  certain 
material  limits  adapted  to  the  wants  of  students.  Our  humbler  attempt 
has  been  to  convey  some  impression  of  the  continuity  of  the  civil  history 
of  Europe  and  its  dependencies,  under  the  successive  leadership  of  the 
Goths  and  the  Franks,  the  Empire  and  the  Spanish  power,  France  and 
England,  until  the  supremacy  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  at  the  opening  of 
the  period  finds  its  counterpart  in  the  predominance  of  the  new  German 
Empire  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  at  its  close. 

This  object  has  been  sought  through  a  simple  narration  of  events. 
Larger  generalization  might  have  been  more  interesting  to  the  mature 
reader,  but  students  will  only  be  able  to  form  and  rightly  to  estimate 
theories  when  they  are  in  thorough  possession  of  the  facts. 

In  the  grouping  of  incidents,  two  methods  lay  open  to  the  writer.  By 
presenting  the  States  of  Europe  in  a  series  of  separate  histories,  greater, 
completeness  of  execution  could  have  been  combined  with  the  easy  flow 
of  a  continuous  narrative.  But  these  advantages  would  have  been  neu- 
tralized by  the  lack  of  any  comprehensive  view  of  Europe  as  a  whole  — 
a  whole,  complex,  indeed,  but  possessing,  under  all  its  superficial  diver- 
sities, several  grand  principles  of  unity,  whose  workings,  if  we  succeed  in 
making  them  apparent,  are  of  more  value  than  the  mere  annals  of  any  or 
all  the  individual  States.  The  confluence  of  German  ideas  and  customs  with 
Roman  civilization  and  religion  must  be  studied  in  almost  every  country 
in  Europe,  from  the  subjugation  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Italy,  and  the  "  mis- 
sions "  of  Gregory  the  Great,  to  the  recent  rivalries  of  northern  statesmen 
and  prelates,  and  the  correspondence  of  Bismarck  with  the  Vatican.  The 
religious  unity  of  mediaeval  Europe,  which  alone  could  have  produced  the 
great  tidal  movements  of  the  Crusades,  is  not  broken  by  the  Teutonic 
Reformation  before  another  and  very  different  sort  of  unity,  formed  and 
fostered  by  diplomacy,  has  been  already  three  quarters  of  a  century  in 
growth.     The   new   relations   arising    from  discoveries,  colonization,  and 

(iii) 

887326 


iv  PREFACE. 

-      *  ,      •    *" 

'  •"■  *  >  ,*  *  •    *  *,A  ^  •  •' 

consequent  extension  of  commerce, 'lead/oT  ne^essit^,  to  improvements  in 

international  laAV — a  s(?i^^^cp»^ylH<;l^*  i^f  pppecje^*, would  realize  and  surpass 

the  unjustly  derided  dream  o±''  fl^enry  *lV,* 'b*y  knitting  all    Christendom 

into  a  commonwealth  of  sovereign  States,  Avhere  reason    should  take  the 

place  of  force,  and  the  ultimate  interests  of  each,  be  recognized  as  identical 

with  the  interests  of  all. 

No  apology  is  offered  for  the  space  allotted  to  Europe  as  compared  with 
Asia,  Africa,  or  America.  In  a  natural  history  of  mankind,  Fijians  and 
Hottentots  would  of  course  claim  an  equal  share  of  attention  with  English- 
men. The  philosopher  who  studies  distinctions  of  race,  as  revealed  in 
language,  literature,  or  mythology,  can  by  no  means  neglect  the  ancient 
and  high  civilizations  of  India,  China,  and  Japan.  Our  task  is  limited  to 
the  civil  history  of  man,  and  still  more  narrowly  to  those  nations  whose 
laws  or  customs  have  more  or  less  intimately  affected  our  own.  It  is  con- 
ceivable that  Hindus  or  Chinese,  through  their  literature  or  by  immigra- 
tion, may  become  so  important  an  element  in  our  society,  that  acquaintance 
•with  their  national  history  may  be  essential  to  a  liberal  education.  But 
the  time  has  not  come,  nor  are  materials  yet  accessible.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  history  of  our  own  country  is  so  universally  taught  in  our  schools  of 
every  grade,  that  we  anticipate  a  ready  pardon  for  occupying  our  limited 
space  chiefly  with  details  less  familiar,  though  in  a  large  vicAv  not  less 
essential  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  our  national  institutions. 

Whatever  want  of  continuity  may  result  from  the  arrangement  which 
we  have  adopted,  will  be  obviated,  it  is  hoped,  by  the  Review  Questions  at 
the  end  of  each  Book,  and  by  the  Index  which  with  this  view  has  been 
made  as  copious  as  possible.  "  The  lack  of  chronological  tables  has  been 
supplied  partly  by  the  lists  of  sovereigns  in  the  Index,  and  partly  by  refer- 
ences to  pages  on  whose  margins  the  dates  will  be  found.  The  Eecapitula- 
tions  following  each  section  will  aid  teachers  in  passing  lightly  over  certain 
periods  whenever  the  exigencies  of  the  class  may  require  it,  while  students 
at  leisure  may  be  guided  to  a  more  liberal  course  of  reading  by  the  list  of 
books  at  the  end  of  the  volume.  The  twelve  maps,  copied  from  Spruner's 
new  Historical  Atlas,  afford  an  invaluable  supplement  to  the  text — filling 
a  want  which  has  been  lately  deplored  by  one  of  the  ablest  living  historians 
as  accounting  for  much  of  the  popular  confusion  of  ideas  on  historical 
questions.     (Freeman's  Historical  Essays,  pp.  162,  163.) 

It  only  remains  to  express  the  author's  sincere  and  profound  gratitude 
for  the  kind  reception  accorded  to  the  "  jManual  of  Ancient  History,"  with 
the  hope  that  an  equally  lenient  judgment  may  await  the  present  more 
difficult  and,  therefore,  perhaps,  more  presumptuous  enterprise. 

BuooKLYN,  N.  Y.,  A^ivil,  1874. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGB 

Divisions  of  Mediseval  and  Modern  History 13 

Book  I.— The  Dark  Ages. 

Period  l.—From  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the  Rise  of  the  Carlovingian  Power. 

Geograpliical  Sketcli  of  Europe .       .•      .       .       15 

Settlements  of  Gotlis,  Franks,  Burgundians,  Saxons,  etc 17 

Character  and  Religion  of  the  Germans 18 

Frankish  Kingdom  of  Clovis  and  his  Descendants 18,19 

Rise  of  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace 20 

Ostrogothic  Kingdom  founded  by  Theodoric  21-23 

The  Lombards  in  Italy  23,24 

Accession  of  the  Emperor  Justinian.    Conquests  of  Belisarius      ....       25 

Laws  of  Justinian 26 

His  Successors.    Wars  of  Heraclius  27 

Reform  of  the  Empire  by  Leo  III 28 

Moliammed  and  tlie  Saracen  Conquests 29-32 

Battle  of  Tours.    Rise  of  the  Abbassides 32 

Period  11.— From  the  Battle  of  Tours  to  the  Battle  of  Fontenaye. 

Growth  of  the  Papal  Power 33 

Rise  of  the  Carlovingian  Monarchy  under  pati-onage  of  the  Popes      ...  34 

Revival  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  in  Charlemagne 36 

Division  of  the  Carlovingian  Monarchies  by  Treaty  of  Verdun     ....  38 

Growth  of  Arabic  Learning 39 

War  of  Iconoclasm  40 

Division  of  Italy  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empires        ....  41 

Progress  of  Christian  Monarchies  in  Spain  and  England 42 

Enterprise  of  the  Northmen 43 

Rise  of  the  Feudal  System 44 

Independence  of  Germany,  Italy,  Burgundy,  France 46 

Settlement  of  Danes  in  France  and  England 47. 

Establishment  of  the  Capet  Dynasty  in  France  48- 

Norman  Conquests  in  England  and  Southern  Italy  49,  50 

(v) 


vi  -  CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

Growth  of  the  Italian  Republics 51,52 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire.    Reunion  of  Italy  and  Germany          .       .       .  .       53 

Hildebrand  and  Henry  IV 54-56 

Eastern  Emperors;  Basil  I  to  Alexis  I 56-59 

Book  II.— The  Middle  Ages. 

Period  I.— The  Crusades. 

Supremacy  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  in  Western  Asia 61 

Preaching  of  Peter  the  Hermit  62 

Departure  of  the  First  Crusade  63 

Capture  of  Jerusalem  :  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  King      .......       65 

Rise  of  Hospitallers  and  Templars 66 

The  Second  Crusade 67 

Reconquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin 68 

The  Third  Crusade,  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 68-71 

The  Fourth  Crusade 71 

Capture  of  Constantinople  by  French  and  Venetians 72 

Fifth  Crusade.    Germans  in  Egypt     .       .       .       .       , 74 

Sixth  Crusade.    Frederic  II,  King  of  Jerusalem  75 

Seventh  Crusade,  led  by  Louis  IX  of  France 76 

Last  Crusade.    Capture  of  Acre  by  the  Turks        . 77 

Extension  of  Commerce  resulting  from  the  Crusades 78 

Contests  of  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  80-85 

Accession  of  the  Plan tagenets  in  England  ...*....       86 

Magna  Charta  and  the  first  English  Parliament  . 87 

Rise  of  Free  Cities  in  France 88 

War  of  Philip  II  against  the  Albigenses;  Age  of  the  Lawyers       .       .       .         89,90 

Beginnings  of  Modern  Literature 90 

Tlie  Religious  Orders  and  the  Inquisition 91 

Tl)e  Vehm-geHcht 91, 92 

State  of  Europe  in  A.  D.  1300 93,  94 

Extinction  of  the  Templars 95 

Rise  of  the  Swiss  Republics  96 

Disputed  Succession  in  the  Empire  and  France.    Battle  of  Cr6cy  ...       97 

War  in  Brittany  and  Castile.    Death  of  the  Black  Prince 98 

Joanna  I  of  Naples.    Rienzi's  Tribunate  at  Rome 99 

The  Black  Death • 100 

Henry  V  in  France.    Battle  of  Agincourt.    Joan  of  Arc 102 

Wars  of  the  Roses.    The  Tudor  Dynasty  in  England 103 

Louis  XI  and  Cliarles  the  Bold  104, 105 

Brittany  annexed  to  France 106 

Progress  of  the  Empire.    Battle  of  Sempach 107 

The  Great  Schism.    Council  of  Constance 108 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PAOK 

Council  of  Basle 109 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks  .       , 110 

Exertions  and  Death  of  Pope  Pius  II Ill 

Rival  Claimants  to  Naples 112 

Constitutions  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Florence 113 

Spain  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 114-116 

Europe  at  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.    The  Hanseatic  League  .       .       .       .117 

Printing  and  the  Use  of  Gunpowder 118, 119 

TheSclioolmen.    Universities.    Rise  of  Modern  Languages  .       .       .      120,121 

Revival  of  Learning  and  Arts 122 

Mohammedan  Empire:  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Gaznevides 123 

Conquests  of  Tim  our,  Zenghis,  and  the  Golden  Horde 124 

Rise,  Greatness,  and  Fall  of  the  Seljukian  Dynasly 125,120 

The  Ottoman  Empire 126, 127 

The  Mamelukes 127,128 

Book  III,— The  Modekn  Eka. 

Prom  the  Discovery  of  America  to  the  Close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Early  Discoveries  of  America 131 

Enterprise  of  Portuguese  and  Spaniards 132 

Voyages  of  Columbus 133-135 

Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru 130, 137 

Spanish  Colonization.    Enterprise  of  the  French 138 

Rise  of  the  European  States-System 139 

Europe  at  the  Opening  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 140 

Charles  VIII.  in  Italy 141-143 

Accession  and  Enterprises  of  Louis  XII. 144 

Kingdom  of  Naples  acquired  by  Ferdinand  of  Spain 145 

Reign  of  Pope  Julius  II 147 

Tlie  League  of  Cam  bray 148-150 

The  Holy  League 151 

The  "  Thunderbolt  of  Italy."    Battle  of  Ravenna 1^2 

Dissolution  of  the  Holy  League 153 

Character  nnd  Policy  of  Pope  Leo  X. 154 

Henry  VIII.,  Francis  I.,  and  Charles  V 155-157 

Francis  in  Italy ;  his  Alliance  with  the  Medici.    Death  of  Fei'dinand        .       .     158 

League  of  Cambray  dissolved  by  Peace  of  Brussels 159 

Death  and  Character  of  Cardinal  Ximenes 160 

The  Field  of  Cloth  of  Gold 161 

Causes  of  the  Reformation.    Martin  Luther  162 

Sale  of  Indulgences 163 

Luther's  Ninety-five  Theses 164 

His  Appearance  at  Worms.    Reformation  in  Switzerland 165 


vui  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Conference  at  Calais 167 

Death  of  Leo  X.    Accession  of  Adrian 168 

Persecution  of  the  Moors  in  Spain 169 

Conquest  of  Rhodes  by  the  Turks.    Defection  of  Bourbon 170 

Battle  of  Pavia.    Captivity  of  Francis  1 171-173 

Two  Captures  of  Rome.    Pope  Clement  VII.  a  Prisoner 174, 175 

The  Ladies'  Peace 176 

Revolt  of  the  German  Peasantry.    League  of  Torgau 177 

Invasion  of  Hungary  by  the  Turks.    Battle  of  Mohacz 178 

Confession  of  Augsburg.    League  of  Smalcald.    Peace  of  Nuremberg         .       .     180 

Reformation  in  England.    Papal  Supremacy  Annulled  181 

Crusade  of  Charles  V.  in  Africa  : 182 

His  Invasion  of  France 183 

His  Oppression  of  Spain  and  the  Netherlands 184 

Alarming  Progress  of  the  Turks 185 

Battle  of  Solway  Moss.    Accession  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots  .       ...     186 

Persecution  of  Vaudois  and  Lutherans  in  France 188 

The  Council  of  Trent 189 

Elector  of  Saxony  and  Landgrave  of  Hesse  in  Captivity 190 

Accession  of  Edward  VI.  in  England  ;  Henry  11.  in  France 191 

Ascendency  of  the  Guises  in  France  and -Scotland 192,193 

First  Religious  War  in  Germany  ended  by  Peace  of  Passau 195 

Unsuccessful  Siege  of  Metz  by  Charles  V 196 

Mary,  Queen  of  England ,  her  Marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain        .       .       .       .197 

Abdication  and  Death  of  Charles  V.    Rise  of  the  Jesuits 198-200 

"Wars  of  France  and  Spain  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands  .       .       .       .       ,     201 

Peace  of  Cateau  Cambr6sis.    Accession  of  Elizabeth  in  England  ...     202 

Persecutions  in  France.    Death  of  Henry  II. 203 

Suppression  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain 205 

Wars  of  Religion  in  France 206, 207 

Crusade  against  the  Moriscoes 208 

War  with  the  Turks.    Victory  of  Christendom  at  Lcpanto 209 

Reign  and  Imprisonment  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 210 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Eve 211 

Prosperity  of  the  Netherlands 212 

Regency  of  the  Duchess  of  Parma.    Rise  of  the  "  Beggars  " 213 

Duke  of  Alva,  Regent.    His  "  Council  of  Blood  " 214 

Resistance  by  the  Prince  of  Orange.    Death  of  Egmont  and  Horn        .       .       .215 

Siegesof  Haarlem,  Alkmaar  and  Leyden .      216,217 

Pacification  of  Glient 218 

Henry  of  Valois  resigns  the  Crown  of  Poland  for  that  of  France  .       .       .     219 

Rise  of  the  League  220 

Portugal  and  its  Dependencies  conquered  by  Philip  II 221 

John  of  Austria,  Regent  of  tiie  Netherlands,  succeeded  by  Alex,  of  Parma       .     223 


CONTENTS, 


IX 


PAOB 

Nortliern  Netherlands  joined  in  Union  of  Utrecht 224 

Dulie  of  Anjoii  chosen  Protector  of  the  Netlierlands 225 

His  Treachery  and  Expulsion.    Assassination  of  the  Prince  of  Orange       .       .     226 

Siege  and  Ruin  of  Antwerp 227 

England  threatened  by  the  Invincible  Armada  229 

Religious  Wars  in  France.    Murder  of  Guise  and  of  Henry  III.     .       .       ,      230,  231 

Accession  of  Henry  of  Bourbon 232 

Disasters  and  Death  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain 233 

Decline  of  Turkish  Power.    Europe  at  close  of  the  16tli  Century    .       .       .      234,235 

Reign  of  Henry  IV.    Improvement  of  French  Industries 236 

Death  of  Elizabeth  of  England.    Truce  of  Bergen-op-Zoom 238 

Counter-reformation  in  Southern  Germany 239 

Assassination  of  Henry  IV.    War  for  the  Cleve-Duchies 240 

Rise  of  Richelieu.    Regency  of  Marie  de  Medici 241 

Thirty  Years'  War  begun  in  Bohemia 242-244 

Condition  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Poland 245,  246 

Military  Training  of  Gustavus  Adolphus •   .       .       .247 

Richelieu,  Prime  Minister  of  France 248,249 

Intervention  of  Christian  of  Denmark  in  the  Thirty  Years' War         .       .      250,251 

Invasion  of  Germany  by  the  King  of  Sweden 252 

Victory  at  Leipzig.    Capture  and  Occupation  of  Mentz 253 

Death  of  Tilly.    Treachery  of  Wallenstein 254 

Battle  of  Lutzen.    Death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 255 

Congress  of  Heilbronn.  Death  of  Wallenstein.  Defeat  of  Swedes  at  Nordliugen    256 

Alsace  and  Lorraine  annexed  to  France 257 

Portugal  independent  of  Spain.    Dynasty  of  Bragan 5a 259 

Death  of  Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII.    Mazarin  Minister.    Louis  XIV.  King      .     260 
Victories  of  Cond6  and  Turenne.    Accession  of  Christina  of  Sweden  .       .      261 

Thirty  Years'  War  ended  by  Peace  of  Westphalia       .       .       .  262-264 

Book  IV.— Modern  Era  Continued. 

From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  French  Revolution, 

Progress  of  Civil  Liberty  in  England 267 

Acts  of  the  Long  Parliament.    Civil  War 268 

Execution  of  Charles  I.    His  Son  Crowned  in  Scotland 269 

The  English  Commonwealth.    War  with  the  Dutch 270 

Oliver  Cromwell,  Protector 271 

Restoration  of  Charles  II 273 

Minority  of  Louis  XIV,    Civil  War  of  the  Fronde 274 

Death  of  Mazarin.    Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees 276 

Reign  of  Louis  XIV.    His  War  for  the  Spanish  Netherlands           ....  277 
Peace  of  Breda.    Triple  Alliance.    Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle         .       .       .       .278 

Subserviency  of  England  to  Fraiice.    Peace  of  Nimeguen 280 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGS 

Abdication  of  Christina  of  Sweden.    Ambition  of  Charles  X 281 

Wars  of  Poland,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 282-284 

Venice  and  the  Empire  at  war  with  the  Turks.    Treaty  of  Vasvar        ...     285 

Deliverence  of  Vienna  by  John  Sobieski 286 

Venetian  Conquests  in  Greece.    Eugene  of  Savoy 287 

Self-education  and  National  Reforms  of  Peter  the  Great  ....      288,  289 

Captureof  Strasbourg  by  Louis  XIV. 290 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 291 

Reign  of  Charles  II.  in  England 292 

Rye  House  Plot.    Execution  of  Russell  and  Sidney.    Accession  of  James  II.         293 

Flight  of  the  King.    Accession  of  William  and  Mary 294 

Grand  Alliance  against  Louis  XIV.  295 

Peace  of  Ryswlck.    Treaty  for  Partition  of  Spanish  Possessions  ...     297 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 298-303 

Treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt 303-305 

Death  of  Anne  of  England  and  Louis  XIV.  of  Fiance 305 

Wars  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  with  Peter  of  Russia 307,  308 

Defeat  of  Charles  at  Pultawa.    His  Flight  to  the  Turks 309 

His  Return  and  Death.    Peace  of  Nystadt.    Ascendency  of  Russia      .       .      310,311 

European  Colonies  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America 311-319 

Louis  XV.  King  of  France.     Regency  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans       .       .       .       .319 

The  Mississippi  Scheme.    Colonization  of  Louisiana 820 

"  Pragmatic  Sanction  "  of  Emperor  Charles  VI. 321 

War  of  the  Polish  Succession 322 

Establishment  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons  at  Naples 323 

War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.    Age  of  Frederic  the  Great  .       .       .      324-829 

Seven  Years' War 330-336 

Reign  of  Catherine  the  Great.    Partition  of  Poland 337-342 

Oppression  of  British  Colonists  in  America.    Their  Resistance      .       .       .      343, 344 

Declaration  of  Independence.    Aid  from  France 345 

Alliance  with  Spain  and  Holland.    Armed  Neutrality  of  Northern  Nations         316 

Treaty  of  Paris.    Independence  of  the  United  States 347 

Adoption  of  the  Constitution.    Geo.  Wasliington,  President  ....      348 

Expulsion  and  Suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  Europe 349 

Innovations  of  Joseph  II.    The  Age  of  Revolutions 350-^353 

Book  V.— Modern  Era  Continuku. 

The  Age  of  Mevolutions, 

The  French  Revolution 355-357 

Intervention  of  Foreign  Powers 358,359 

The  Reign  of  Terror 360 

Trial  and  Execution  of  Louis  XVI 361,362 

Fall  of  the  Gironde.    Execution  of  the  Queen.    Worship  of  Reason    ...     363 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGK 


Counter  Revolution  in  La  Vend6e.    Capture  of  Toulon ,304 

Fall  of  Robespierre  and  the  Jacobins 3g5 

French  Victories  in  Belgium  and  Holland.    The  Batavian  Republic    .       .       .366 

Death  of  Louis  XVII.    The  Directory 367 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  Italy 368,  369 

Peace  of  Cam po  Forniio.    Fall  of  the  Venetian  Republic 370 

Revolution  in  Switzerland.  Helvetic  Republic  allied  with  P'rance  .  .  .371 
Wars  in  Italy  and  Germany.    The  Parthenopean  Republic     ....      373,  374 

P'rench  Directory  abolished.    Bonaparte  First  Consul 375 

His  Second  Campaign  in  Italy 376 

Peace  of  Luneville.    Armed  Neuti-ality  of  the  Northern  Nations        .       .       .377 

Treaty  of  Amiois.    Preparation  of  the  Code  Napoleon 378 

Napoleon  downed  Emperor  of  the  French  and  King  of  Italy  ....  380 
Victories  at  Ulm,Nordlingen,  Austerlitz.    Defeat  off  Trafalgar     ....     381 

Overthrow  of  the  *' Roman  Empire" 382 

Napoleon's  Campaign  against  Prussia.  His  Entry  into  Berlin  ....  383 
British  Orders  in  Council.    Napoleon's  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees         ...      384 

Peace  of  Tilsit 385 

Fi-ench  Conquest  of  Portugal.    Braganga  Empire  in  Brazil 386 

Joseph  Bonaparte,  King  of  Spain 387 

War  with  Austria.    Revolt  of  the  Tyrol  388 

Peace  of  Schonbrunn.    Austrian  Marriage  of  Napoleon  389 

Peninsular  War.    Victories  of  Wellington 390 

Napoleon's  Invasion  of  Russia.    Burning  of  Moscow 391,  392 

German  War  of  Liberation.    Napoleon's  Victories  iu  Saxony        ....      393 

His  Defeat  at  Leipzig.    Dissolution  of  his  Empire -394 

Capture  of  Paris  by  the  Allies.  First  Abdication  of  Napoleon  .  .  .  .395 
Restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  Napoleon's  Return  from  Elba  ....  396 
Battle  of  Waterloo.    Abdication,  Exile,  and  Death  of  Napoleon    ....     397 

Warof  Great  Britain  with  the  United  States 399 

Treaties  of  Ghent  and  Paris.    Congress  of  Vienna.    The  Holy  Alliance     .       .     400 

Restoration  of  Spanish  and  Italian  Bourbons 402 

Liberalism  in  Italy,  Hungary,  and  Germany 403 

Revolutions  of  A.  D.  1830  in  France  and  Belgium         .       .       .       .       .       .       .     405 

War  of  Greek  Independence 407-409 

French  and  English  Intervention  in  Syi'ia 410 

Isabella  II.  in  Spain.    Carlists  and  Christinos 411 

Second  Frencli  Republic.    Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  President  .       .       .412 

Revolutions  of  1818  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Italy 413-417 

Cowp  d'«/a<  at  Paris.    Napoleon  III.  Emperor  of  t lie  French    ....      418,419 

War  of  France,  England,  and  Turkey  M'itli  Russia 420 

Invasion  of  the  Crimea.    Capture  of  Sevastopol "^21 

War  of  Italian  Nationality.  Battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino  .  .  .  422,423 
Victor  Emmanuel  King  of  Italy.    War  for  Schleswig  and  Holstein      ...     424 


xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Seven  Weeks'  War.    Extinction  of  Kingdom  of  Hanover 425 

Leadership  in  Germany  transferred  to  Prussia .426 

Liberal  Reforms  in  t  lie  Austro-Hungarian  Monarcliy 427 

Rise  of  the  British  Empire  in  India 428-430 

AVars  with  Chinese,  Afghans,  and  Sikhs 431,  432 

Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys.    Siege  of  Lueknow 433 

The  British  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand    ....        ....      434,  485 

Rapid  Growth  of  the  United  States.    War  with  Mexico 437,  438 

The  Missouri  Compromise.    Its  Repeal 489 

Secession  of  eleven  States.    Civil  War 440-443 

The  Fi'encli  in  Mexico.    Maximilian,  of  Austria,  Emperor 444 

Bismarck  and  Bencdetti.    Flight  of  Isabella  II.  from  Spain    ....      445,446 

Franco-Prussian  War 447 

Surrender  of  the  Emperor  at  Sedan 448 

Fall  of  the  Empire.    Siege  of  Paris 449 

Provisional  Government.    Surrender  of  Strasbourg  and  Metz       .       .       .       .450 

The  New  German  Empire.    Surrender  of  Paris 451 

Cession  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.    The  Commune 452 

Annexation  of  the  Roman  States  to  Italy.    The  Spanish  Republic      ...     453 

MAPS, 

I.  Europe  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Sixth  Century       ....       to  face  17 

II.  The  Carlovingian  Empire 33 

III.  Europe  during  the  latter  Half  of  the  Tenth  Century 49 

IV.  Syria  at  the  Time  of  the  Crusades 65 

V.  France  before  A.  D.  1461 97 

VI.  Northern  Italy,  from  1492  to  1797 145 

VII.  Europe  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War       .              257 

VIII.  The  British  Isles,  showing  Places  of  Historical  Interest       .       .       .       .273 

IX.  Map  of  the  World,  showing  the  Colonial  Possessions 305 

X.  Region  between  Paris  and  Berlin,  showing  the  Principal  Battle  Fields.  337 

XL  Europe  during  the  Reign  of  Napoleon  I 385 

XIL  Europe  in  1872 449 


INTRODUCTION. 


Medieval  History  covers  the  tliousand  years  which  divide  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Eoman  dominion  in  the  West  from  the  formation 
of  the  modern  European  States-system,  near  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  This  interval  between  the  old  order  and  the  new  may,  how- 
ever, be  conveniently  viewed  in  two  widely  contrasted  periods.  During 
the  first  six  hundred  years,  the  forces  which  tend  to  anarchy  and  disso- 
lution Avere  apparently  the  stronger,  excepting  while  they  were  held  in 
check  by  the  genius  of  Charlemagne.  These  six  centuries  are  kpown  as 
the  Dark  Ages.  Their  chief  events  were  the  migrations  of  the  northern 
tribes;  the  repulse  of  the  Saracens,  who  aimed  to  annex  Europe  to  the 
dominion  of  the  Caliphs;  the  revival  of  the  Western  Empire,  and  the 
rise  of  the  Feudal  System. 

The  next  four  centuries  are  more  properly  called  the  Middle  Ages. 
They  are  marked  by  greater  activity  of  the  tendencies  to  order  and 
civilization :  tribes  settle  into  nations,  the  remnant  of  the  migratory 
impulse  expending  itself  in  pilgrimages  and  crusades;  languages  are 
developed  and  improved;  chivalry  refines  the  manners  of  the  warrior, 
but  itself  declines,  as  feudal  chiefs  become  subject  to  consolidated  mon- 
archies; learning  is  diflfused,  and  industry  attains  something  of  its  just 
dignity  and  importance. 

Modern  History  may  with  equal  advantage  be  divided  into  three  parts, 
comprising  respectively  the  Rise,  Establishment,  and  Dissolution  of  the 
Balance  of  Power  in  Europe;  the  first  period  nearly  coinciding  with 
that  of  the  discoveries  and  explorations  upon  the  western  continent,  and 

(13) 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

the  opening  of  maritime  traffic  with  the  eastern;  the  second  with  the 
founding,  and  the  third  with  the  emancipation,  of  the  greater  number 
of  European  colonies  in  America. 

This  Manual  includes,  therefore,  five  Books: 

I.   The  Dark  Ages,  A.  D.  476-1096. 
II.   The  Middle  Ages,  A.  D.  1096-1492. 

III.  Discoveries    in    America,    and    Rise    of   States-system    in    Europe, 

A.  D.  1492-1648. 

IV.  From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  Beginning  of  Revolutions  in 

Europe,  A.  D.  1648-1789. 
V.    From  the  Frencli   Revolution  to  the  Rise  of  the  German  Empire, 
A.  D.  1789-1871. 


BOOK  I. 

THE    DARK   AGES, 

A.  D.  476-1096. 


Period  I.     From  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the 
KisE  OF  the  Carlovingian  Power,  A.  D.  476-732. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH   OF  EUROPE. 

1.  The  field  of  Ancient  History  comprised  only  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  a  part  of  Western  Asia,  the  seat  of  empire  having 
been  gradually  removed  westward  from  Nineveh  to  Rome.  Mediaeval 
History  is  concerned  with  Europe  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  Only  within  the  Modern  period  have  improvements  in  naviga- 
tion, together  with  the  increase  of  enterprise  and  intelligence,  drawn  the 
whole  world  within  the  circle  of  national  and  commercial  intercourse. 

2.  Europe,  though  the  smallest  and  least  fertile  of  the  continents,  is 
the  nursery  whence  art,  learning,  and  civilization  have  been  trans- 
planted to  the  remotest  regions  of  the  globe.  Its  position  at  the  center 
of  the  land-hemisphere,  its  varied  coast-line  deeply  indented  by  inlets 
of  the  sea,  and  its  islands  richly  endowed  with  metals  and  other  valua- 
ble productions,  have  made  it,  if  we  may  so  say,  the  most  sociable  of 
the  continents,  inviting  at  every  point  the  entrance  of  influences  from 
abroad.  Its  climate  is  most  favorable  to  human  energy;  the  moderate 
fertility  of  its  soil  has  developed  the  skill,  industry,  and  strength  of  its 
inhabitants,  while  intensifying  the  idea  of  property,  so  essential  to  civil- 
ization, but  always  lacking  in  races  which  live  indolently  upon  the 
bounties  of  a  more  indulgent  Nature.  That  least  favored  of  the  Eu- 
ropean countries,  formed  by  the  marshy  and  sandy  deltas  of  the  Rhine, 
the  Meuse,  and  the  Scheldt — partly  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and 
preserved  from  inundation  only  by  incessant  vigilance  and  toil  —  became, 
in  fact,  five  centuries  ago,  the  richest  and  most  populous  portion  of  the 
continent. 

(15) 


16  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

3.  It  is  only  needful  to  stetcli  those  natural  features  of  Europe, 
which  have  had  an  important  influence  upon  its  history.  The  three 
great  southern  peninsulas  were,  almost  of  necessity,  for  more  than  two 
thousand  years  its  most  civilized  portion.  Several  ranges  or  systems  of 
mountains,  including  the  Pyrenees,  Cevennes,  and  Alps,  the  Carpathian 
and  Caucasian  ranges,  form  a  nearly  continuous  wall  separating  the 
scenes  of  the  old  civilization  from  those  peculiar  to  the  new.  North- 
ward of  these  mountains  begins  an  immense  plain,  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Atlantic  and  German  Oceans,  and  the  mountains  of  Norway;  on 
the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Ural  Mountains 
and  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  western  portion  of  this  plain  is  traversed  by 
many  small  but  important  rivers,  of  which  the  Loire,  Seine,  Rhine,  Elbe, 
Oder,  and  Vistula  are  chief. 

The  central  and  eastward  portion  is  divided  by  a  range  of  low  hills, 
which  separate  the  head-waters  of  the  Dwina  and  Petchora,  on  the  north, 
from  those  of  the  Volga,  Don,  and  Dnieper,  on  the  south.  The 
northern  section  is  an  almost  barren  waste,  marshy  in  summer  and 
frozen  in  winter.  The  southern  is  fertile  in  grain,  excepting  the  steppes 
bordering  the  Black  Sea,  which  produce  only  a  coarse  grass.  This  great 
inland  plain,  though  the  scene  of  many  interesting  events  between  the 
ninth  and  the  twelfth  centuries,  has  only  within  the  last  two  hundred 
years  had  any  important  sliare  in  the  general  interests  of  Europe. 

4.  Among  European  islands,  we  need  only  mention  the  most  important 
of  all,  the  British  group.  Situated  in  the  current  of  the  Gulf-stream, 
and  thus  endowed  with  a  mild  and  equable  climate,  England  is  the 
home  of  the  most  vigorous  race  on  the  globe.  Her  natural  gifts  are 
those  which  stimulate  and  aid,  instead  of  superseding,  enterprise.  The 
tin  mines  of  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Isles  first  drew  Phoenician  mariners 
to  explore  those  remote  seas;  and  innumerable  manufactures,  supported 
by  native  coal  and  iron,  have  made  England  the  great  commercial  center 
of  the  world.  Her  part  in  history  before  the  Norman  Conquest  was 
comparatively  unimportant.  During  the  wars  and  tumults  of  the  Dark 
Ages,  Ireland,  protected  by  her  stormy  seas,  afforded  the  most  secure  and 
peaceful  refuge  for  piety  and  learning;  and  the  spirit  of  independence, 
nurtured  by  their  insular  position,  has  ever  since  made  these  islands  an 
hospitable  asylum  for  victims  of  oppression  in  other  lands.  The  channel 
which  separates  England  from  the  continent,  though  narrow,  is  sufficiently 
dangerous  of  navigation,  owing  to  its  variable  winds  and  currents,  to  have 
formed  a  usually  effective  barrier  against  hostile  invasions. 


'Toj,. 


^■^-J_ .-}  ^•^ 


-adi^^4^ 


'««* 


4..  Ji   ^    ''i  ■'    r 


JiUDc 


/  ir^.  ^-^^  ^ 


d.^lT^l  /i 


.A  '^.„ , 


--'""? 


THE  NORTHERN  NATIONS. 


SETTLEMENTS  OF  THE  NORTHEKN  NATIONS. 

5.  When  Odoacer,*  assuming  the  royal  title,  ended  the  illusory  reign 
of  Romulus  Augustulus,  the  Teutonic  or  German  race  was  already  pre- 
dominant in  Europe.  The  Visigothic  kingdom  of  Euric  covered  all  Spain, 
and  that  part  of  Gaul  which  is  bounded  by  the  Loire  on  the  north  and 
by  the  Rhone  on  the  east.  His  court  at  Aries  was  a  center  of  learning 
and  refinement,  and  nations  even  as  distant  as  the  Persians  acknowl- 
edged by  their  embassies  his  preeminence  among  European  sovereigns. 
His  weaker  descendants  were  driven  south  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  their 
kingdom  in  Spain  lasted  two  hundred  years,  until  it  was  overthrown  by 
the  Saracens,  A.  D.  711.  The  Suevi  in  north-western  Spain  were  tribu- 
tary to  Euric.  The  Ostrogoths  were  at  this  time  between  the  Danube 
and  the  Adriatic.  The  Franks,  who  soon  by  their  conquests  gave  a  new 
name  to  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Gaul,  were  still  mostly  beyond  its 
limits.  Of  the  many  tribes  bearing  this  common  name,  the  Ripuarians 
were  on  the  Rhine  near  Cologne,  and  the  more  powerful  Salians  were 
between  the  Seine,  the  Meuse,  and  the  Scheldt.  The  Burgundians,  in 
the  country  comprising  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Swiss  lakes, 
had  impressed  their  name  on  that  great  dominion  which  as  kingdom, 
duchy,  or  county,  though  often  dismembered  and  sometimes  subdued,  was 
yet  for  a  thousand  years  to  rival  the  power  of  the  French  kings. 

6«  Great  numbers  of  the  Saxons,  whose  piratical  craft  had  vexed  the 
coasts  of  Europe  for  a  century,  were  now  settled  among  the  wooded 
inlets  of  northern  Gaul,  and  with  their  kindred  allies,  the  Angles,  had 
made  the  important  conquest  of  southern  Britain.  Of  their  eight  king- 
doms in  that  island,  Wessex  (West  Saxony)  became  ultimately  most 
powerful,  and  its  chiefs  were  the  ancestors  of  all  English  sovereigns 
but  five,  since  the  ninth  century.  The  continental  Saxons  occupied  the 
country  from  a  little  northward  of  the  Rhine  to  the  Baltic.  The  Alemanni 
possessed  southern  Germany,  with  Alsace  and  northern  Switzerland.  The 
Tliuringians  were  between  the  head-waters  of  the  Danube  and  those  of  the 
Elbe.  The  Gepidce  possessed  the  region  now  covered  by  Moldavia,  Wal- 
lachia,  and  eastern  Hungary.  The  Vandals,  beside  their  original  seats 
south  and  east  of  the  Baltic,  had  been,  since  A.  D.  4p9,  masters  of  north- 
ern Africa,  with  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  the  Balearic  Isles. 

7,  In  contrast  with  all  these  German  tribes,  colonies  of  Bretons,  expelled 
from  their  native  island  by  the  Saxons,  were  mingled  with  the  original 
Celtic  inhabitants  of  north-western  Gaul,  and  occupied  the  peninsula 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Seine  and  Loire,  which  still  bears  their  name. 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  mountains  of  Wales  were  also  inhabited  by 
unconquered  Celts.     A  fragment  of  the  ancient  empire  was  still  main- 


•^See  Anc.  Hist.,  p.  361. 
M.  H.— 2. 


18  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

tained  in  the  heart  of  Gaul,  by  Syagrius,  who  called  himself  "King  of  the 
Romans."  In  the  great  plains  eastward  from  the  Elbe  dwelt  the  Slavo- 
nians, a  pastoral  people,  more  numerous  but  less  powerful  than  the 
Teutons  —  ancestors  of  the  modern  Poles,  Bohemians,  Bulgarians,  Illyrians, 
and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  Russians.  The  Finnish  tribes  occupied 
the  frozen  marshes  to  the  northward.  In  the  south-east,  the  Eastern  or 
Greek  Empire  covered  nearly  the  present  dominion  of  the  Turks. 

8.  The  Germans,  from  whom  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  are  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  descended,  were  described  by  Tacitus  as  distin- 
guished from  the  degenerate  races  of  the  south  by  their  huge  and  robust 
frames  animated  by  unbounded  energy,  by  their  respect  for  the  sacred 
dignity  of  women,  and  by  "a  sense  they  called  honor,  which  led  them  to 
sacrifice  their  life  rather  than  their  word."  In  the  time  of  Tacitus  they 
were  divided  into  fifty  tribes,  but  these  were  united  into  five  confedera- 
tions: the  Saxons,  Franks,  Alemanni,  Burgundians,  and  Goths.  The 
Saxons  on  the  continent  had  no  kings  except  in  war,  when  the  nobles 
chose  by  lot  one  of  their  own  number  to  be  their  leader.  The  other  tribes 
had  each  a  royal  family  supposed  to  be  descended  from  Odin,  from  which 
the  king  was  elected  by  a  free  vote  of  his  comrades ;  as  the  Ostrogoths 
had  the  Amals,  the  Visigoths  the  Balti,  the  Franks  the  Merovings,  etc. 
The  affairs  of  the  Franks  were  settled  in  an  assembly  of  all  the  warriors 
or  freemen,  held  every  year  in  March,  or  afterward  in  May. 

9.  In  their  northern  forests  the  German  tribes  worshiped  Odin  as 
supreme,  with  Freya,  his  wife;  Thor,  the  thunderer,  their  son;  Baldur, 
the  sun-god,  and  others  of  less  importance.  At  the  commencement  of  our 
period  a  majority  of  the  Teutonic  race  was  still  pagan,  but  tlie  Goths, 
Vandals,  and  Burgundians  were  Arian  Christians.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
were  instructed  in  Christianity  by  an  embassy  of  monks,  sent,  A.  D.  592, 
by  Pope  Gregory  I.;  and  Winifrid  of  Devonshire  became,  in  turn,  the 
Apostle  of  Germany,  to  whose  intrepid  zeal  100,000  continental  Saxons 
owed  their  conversion.  He  is  better  known  by  his  Roman  name  and 
title,  as  St.  Boniface. 

10.  The  Frankish  Kingdom.  Chlodwig,  or  Clovis,  succeeded  his 
father  as  king  of  the  Salian  Franks,  A.  D.  481,  and  became  the  first  Ger- 
man ruler  of  all  France.  He  drew  to  his  standard  the  other  Frankish 
tribes,  extinguished  the  remnants  of  Roman  power  in  the  person  of 
Syagrius,  and  conquered  the  Alemanni  in  a  great  battle  at  Ziilpich, 
A.  D.  496.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  victory  that  he  renounced  the 
worship  of  Odin.  His  wife,  a  Burgundian  princess,  was  a  Christian;  and 
his  confidence  in  the  sincerity  of  her  faith  led  him  to  invoke  "Clotilda's 
God  "  in  the  heat  of  the  battle.  He  was  subsequently  baptized  at  Rheims, 
with  3,000  followers.  The  conversion  of  Clovis  gained  him  the  powerful 
support  of  the  clergy,  both  against  the  pagan  tribes  and  against  the  Arian 


THE  NORTHERN  NATIONS.  19 

Goths  and  Burgundians.     He  defeated  the  latter  A.  D.  500,  and,  in  507, 
broke  the  power  of  the  Visigoths  by  a  battle  near  Poitiers. 

The  alliance  of  the  Church  with  the  Frankish  monarchy  made  each,  in 
its  own  sphere,  preeminent  in  France.  The  clergy,  representing  Roman 
culture,  and  alone,  as  a  class,  skilled  in  the  Latin  language,  served  not 
only  as  mediators  with  the  people,  but  as  embassadors  to  foreign  courts. 
The  civil  government  south  of  the  Loire  was  chiefly  in  their  hands.  On 
the  other  hand,  French  kings,  from  Clovis  down,  have  vaunted  their  title 
of '' Eldest  Sons  of  the  Church."  All  the  barbarian  sovereigns  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Graul  acknowledged  the  superiority  of  the  Court  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  and  it  was  therefore  no  unmeaning  compliment  when  Anastasius, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  sent  to  Clovis  the  purple  robe  and  diadem  of  a 
consul,  thus  raising  his  dignity,  in  the  eyes  of  his  Gallo-Roman  subjects, 
to  that  of  a  lieutenant  of  the  empire.  By  the  murder  of  many  Merovin- 
gian princes,  Clovis  made  himself,  toward  the  end  of  his  life,  sole  monarch 
of  the  Franks. 

11,  The  four  sons  of  Clovis,  upon  his  death  in  A.  D.  511,  divided  his 
dominions  among  them.  Theodoric,  the  eldest,  reigned  at  Metz  over  the 
north-eastern  country.  The  fourfold  division  into  Austrasia,  Neustria, 
Burgundy,  and  Aquitaine  was  effected  somewhat  later.  Theodoric,  while 
himself  pursuing  a  savage  career  of  violence,  caused  wise  men,  versed  in 
ancient  customs,  to  frame  separate  codes  of  laws  for  his  Ripuarian,  Ale- 
mannic,  and  Bavarian  subjects,  substituting  Christian  for  pagan  principles 
where  these  prevailed.  Theodebert,  his  son,  received  gifts  both  from  the 
Emperor  Justinian  and  from  Vitiges,  king  of  the  Italian  Goths,  as  the 
price  of  his  alliance  in  their  war  against  each  other.  He  defeated  both 
armies  near  Pavia,  A.  D.  539,  and  then  ravaged  the  peninsula,  until 
famine  and  disease  had  destroyed  two-thirds  of  his  forces,  and  he  with- 
drew beyond  the  Alps.  To  avert  similar  incursions  in  future,  Justinian 
resigned  the  claim  of  the  Eastern  empire  to  the  sovereignty  of  Gaul,  and 
thenceforth  the  German  kings  placed  their  own  instead  of  the  imperial 
image  upon  their  coins. 

12.  The  fierce  dissensions  of  the  family  of  Clovis  fill  some  of  the  darkest 
pages  of  history.  Sigebert  and  Chilperic,  his  grandsons,  married  two 
daughters  of  the  king  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain.  Galswintha,  the  elder, 
was  soon  murdered  by  Fredegonde,  a  low-lived  favorite  of  her  husband, 
Chilperic,  who  rewarded  the  crime  by  raising  the  murderess  to  the  throne 
of  Neustria.  Brunehaut,  the  wife  of  Sigebert,  stirred  him  to  revenge  upon 
his  brother  the  death  of  her  sister;  and  the  mutual  hatreds  of  the  two 
queens  distracted  the  Frankish  dominion,  not  only  during  the  reigns  of 
their  husbands,  but  during  the  long  minorities  of  their  children  and 
grandchildren. 

The  personal  strife  was  aggravated  by  the  rivalry  between  Neustria  and 


20  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

Austrasia,  i.  e.,  between  the  Romanized  and  the  purely  German  party 
among  the  Franks.  The  people  near  the  Rhine,  continually  reinforced  by 
fresh  arrivals  of  their  countrymen,  kept  their  German  habits  almost  un- 
mixed with  Roman  influences ;  while  the  Franks  of  the  interior,  though 
conquerors,  were  so  for  outnumbered  by  the  Gallo-Roman  population, 
that  they  soon  adopted  the  language  and  culture  of  their  subjects. 
Brunehaut,  though  queen  of  Austrasia,  belonged  to  the  Roman  party, 
through  her"  ardent  love  for  literature,  art,  and  Christianity.  She  was  a 
friend  and  correspondent  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  whom  she  aided  in 
his  scheme  for  the  conversion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons ;  and  though  herself  a 
prey  to  cruel  passions,  she  warred  for  fifty  years  against  barbarian  misrule, 
in  the  interests  of  Christian  civilization.  She  was  defeated  at  last  by  the 
Austrasian  nobles,  led  by  Pepin  of  Landen,  and  aided  by  the  forces  of 
Neustria  and  Burgundy.  Falling  into  the  hands  of  Clotaire,  son  of  Fred- 
egonde,  the  aged  queen  sufiered  three  days  of  torture,  ended  by  a  brutal 
death. 

13.  Clotaire  II.  reigned  as  sole  king  of  the  Franks,  A.  D.  613-628. 
Under  his  son  Dagobert  the  Merovingian  race  reached  its  greatest  extent 
of  dominion,  only  to  sink  immediately  into  indolence  and  incapacity. 
For  a  hundred  years  the  kings  bear  no  higher  title  in  history  than  those 
of  faineants,  or  do-nothings,  and  insensati,  or  idiots.  The  real  power  was 
exercised  by  the  bishops  and  great  nobles,  especially  by  a  class  of  officials 
called  Mayors  of  the  Palace.  Among  these  Pepin  of  Heristal,  grandson 
of  Pepin  of  Landen,  became  chief  ruler  in  Austrasia,  vanquished  the 
Neustrian  nobility  in  a  decisive  battle  at  Testri,  A.  D.  687,  and  made 
himself  master  of  France,  which  he  governed  twenty-seven  years  with 
great  prudence  and  success.  The  Merovingian  king,  a  mere  phantom  of 
royalty,  was  shown  to  the  people  once  a  year  at  the  Field  of  March ;  at 
other  times  he  was  held  in  a  sort  of  mild  captivity. 

Charles  Martel,  the  still  more  powerful  son  of  Pepin,  established  his 
authority  over  the  three  kingdoms  of  Burgundy,  Neustria,  and  Austrasia. 
He  divided  many  rich  lands  of  the  Church  among  his  followers,  on  condi- 
tion of  military  service,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  feudal  system 
in  France.  (See  H  76,  78.)  The  great  crisis  of  the  Arab  invasions — 
soon  to  be  described  under  the  history  of  the  Saracens  —  led  to  the  rise 
of  his  family  into  an  important  dynasty  of  kings. 

At  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  Europe  was  largely  governed  by  Teutonic  tribes, 
of  which  the  Goths,  Franks,  and  Saxons  were  most  powerful.  The  few  unconquered 
Celts  were  on  the  west,  and  the  yet  uncivilized  Slavonians  on  the  east  of  the  Germans ; 
while  the  Finns  occupied  the  north,  and  the  Greek  empire  a  part  of  the  south  of 
Europe.    The  German  worshipers  of  Odin   and  Thor  were  superior  in  virtue,  thotigh 


OSTROGOTHIC  KINGDOM  IN  ITALY.  21 

inferior  in  civilization,  to  the  Romans.  England  was  Christianized  through  the  teach- 
ings of  Augustine ;  Germany,  through  those  of  St.  Boniface.  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks, 
allied  himself  with  the  Church,  and  received  the  consular  dignity  from  the  emperor 
of  the  East.  The  crimes  of  his  successors  produced  a  century  of  anarchy  and  misery  In 
the  Prankish  dominions.  The  Merovingians  then  sinking  into  incapacity,  the  "Mayors" 
gained  power,  and  the  Carlovingian  race  became  supreme. 


OSTROGOTHIC   KINGDOM  IN  ITALY,  A.  D.  493-554. 

14.  In  Italy  the  dominion  of  the  Hemlian  Odoacer  gave  way,  after 
seventeen  years,  to  that  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  East  Goths.  This  great 
leader  had  been  educated  as  a  hostage  at  the  court  of  Constantinople, 
where  he  added  Greek  discipline  to  Gothic  energy;  and  under  his  firm 
and  wise  rule  of  thirty-three  years,  peace  and  prosperity  returned  to  the 
half  depopulated  country.  Though  the  Gothic  soldiers  received  one-third 
of  the  lands  of  the  peninsula,  they  equally  shared  the  taxes  and  were 
forced  to  respect  the  rights  of  their  Italian  neighbors;  and  while  the 
former  were  ready  at  any  moment  to  follow  their  chiefs  to  Avar,  the  latter 
were  encouraged  and  protected  in  the  industrious  arts  of  peace.  Two 
consuls,  of  whom  one  was  chosen  by  the  emperor,  the  other  by  the  Gothic 
king,  preserved  the  venerated  forms  of  Roman  government.  All  the  Teu- 
tonic nations  looked  up  to  Theodoric  as  their  head.  During  the  minority 
of  his  grandson,  Amalaric,  who  was  also  a  grandson  of  Euric,  he  became 
ruler  of  the  West  Goths,  and  his  united  dominions  extended  from  Sicily 
to  the  Danube,  and  from  Belgrade  to  the  Atlantic.  When  Amalaric 
became  of  age,  he  was  lifted  upon  the  shields  of  the  Visigothic  chiefs, 
and  became  king  of  Spain,  A.  D.  522. 

15.  Himself  an  Ariau,  Theodoric  protected  all  forms  of  religion  among 
his  subjects.  The  shops,  synagogues,  and  dwellings  of  the  Jews  having 
been  burnt  in  several  cities  during  fanatical  riots,  the  mobs  were  com- 
pelled to  make  good  the  property  they  had  destroyed.  This  impartial 
justice  turned  their  rage  against  the  king ;  and  the  last  days  of  Theodoric 
were  iinbittered  by  the  proof  that,  while  laboring  for  the  best  interests  of 
his  people,  he  had  failed  to  win  their  love.  Boethius,  *  the  most  illustri- 
ous member  of  the    Senate,  and  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the 


*  In  his  prison  at  Pavia,  Boethius  wrote  an  admirable  treatise  on  the  "  Consolation 

of  Philosophy,"   which   was  afterward  translated  into  Saxon  by  Alfred  the  Great. 

Cassiodorus,  the  learned  secretarj--  of  Theodoric,  founded  at  Ravenna  the  oldest  of 
modern  public  libraries.  After  thirty  years  of  high  office  at  court,  he  retired  at  the  age 
of  seventy  to  a  monastery  which  he  established  at  Squillacc ;  and  during  his  thirty  re- 
maining years  — for  his  life  was  prolonged  to  nearly  a  century  — he  gave  an  impulse  to 
monastic  learning  which  lasted  through  the  Middle  Ages.  lie  expended  large  sums  for 
manuscripts,  which  he  encouraged  the  monks  to  copy ;  and  during  the  tumults  of  the 
following  centuries,  convent  libraries  were  the  safe  depositaries  of  the  learning  of  the 
western  world. 


22  MEDIJSVAL  HISTORY. 

court,  was  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of  plotting  with  the  Eastern  emperor 
for  the  expulsion  of  the  Goths  from  Italy.  The  execution  of  his  father- 
in-law,  the  venerable  Symmachus,  soon  followed ;  but  remorse  for  these 
acts  hastened  the  death,  also,  of  Theodoric,  who  died  A.  D.  526. 

16.  His  grandson,  Athalaric,  succeeded  to  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  at 
the  age  often  years,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  Amalasontha.  The 
reign  of  this  Gothic  queen,  aided  by  the  experience  of  Cassiodorus,  was  as 
wise  and  beneficent  as  that  of  her  father ;  but  her  son  disappointed  the 
anxious  care  which  she  expended  upon  his  education.  He  rebelled  against 
her,  incited  by  his  barbarous  companions,  who  taught  him  to  despise  the 
joint  authority  of  a  woman  and  a  philosopher;  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
this  last  of  the  Amals  died  of  intemperance.  His  mother,  in  spite  of  the 
Gothic  law  or  custom  which  excluded  women  from  the  throne,  plotted  to 
retain  sovereign  power  in  her  own  hands,  while  conferring  the  name  of 
king  upon  her  cousin  Tlieodatus,  whom  she  married.  But  Theodatus,  in- 
censed at  being  made  the  tool  of  his  ambitious  wife,  ordered  Amalasontha 
to  be  strangled  in  her  bath,  A.  D.,  534. 

17.  The  Emperor  Justinian,  now  reigning  at  Constantinople,  gladly 
asserted  his  supremacy  by  interfering  as  tlie  avenger  of  Amalasontha. 
His  great  general,  Belisarius,  who  had  lately  overthrown  the  Vandal 
kingdom  in  Africa,  landed  with  a  small  force  in  Sicily,  quickly  subdued 
that  island,  and  wrested  southern  Italy  from  the  Goths.  Rome  was  sur- 
rendered without  a  blow,  by  its  senate  and  clergy,  A.  D.  536 ;  but  Vitiges, 
the  successor  of  Theodatus,  mustered  a  powerful  army  and  besieged 
Belisarius  more  than  a  year  in  the  Eternal  City.  The  sepulcher  of 
Hadrian,  now  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  was  then  first  used  as  a  fortress, 
and  the  beautiful  Greek  statues  which  adorned  it  were  hurled  down  upon 
the  heads  of  the  besiegers. 

In  a  single  assault  the  Goths  lost  30,000  men ;  and,  at  length,  Vitiges 
was  compelled  to  draw  off  his  reduced  army  to  Ravenna,  leaving  all  Italy 
to  Belisarius.  Ten  thousand  Burgundians,  who  had  come  to  the  aid  of 
the  Goths,  destroyed  the  splendid  city  of  Milan ;  and  the  next  year  The- 
odebert,  their  Prankish  sovereign,  passed  the  Alps  with  100,000  men, 
disguising  his  intentions  until  he  fell,  almost  at  the  same  moment,  upon 
both  the  Gothic  and  the  Roman  army  near  Pavia,  and  gained  a  complete 
victory.  .  (See  01-) 

18.  Ravenna,  which  could  not  be  taken  by  force,  was  at  length  reduced 
by  famine.  The  Goths,  weary  of  the  unfortunate  reign  of  Vitiges,  begged 
Belisarius  himself  to  become  their  king.  He  pretended  to  accept  their 
offer;  but  as  soon  as  the  keys  of  the  fortress  were  in  his  hands,  he  de- 
clared that  he  held  them  only  as  the  faithful  subject  and  lieutenant  of 
Justinian.  Vitiges  exchanged  his  uncomfortable  crown  for  the  rank  of 
senator,  and  ample  estates  in  the  Eastern  empire. 


OSTROGOTHIC  KINGDOM  IN  ITALY.  23 

19.  Pavia  alone,  with  its  garrison  of  1,000  Goths,  still  held  out;  but  as 
soon  as  Belisarius  had  been  recalled  to  Constantinople,  the  new  king, 
Totila,  commenced  his  rapid  and  triumphant  march  for  the  recovery  of 
Italy.  Many  cities  which  had  welcomed  Belisarius  as  a  deliverer,  had 
now  suffered  long  enough  from  the  fraud  and  oppression  of  the  Byzantine 
officials,  to  sigh  for  a  return  of  the  Gothic  rule.  Rome  was  retaken  by 
Totila,  A,  D.  546;  its  senators  were  carried  away  to  Campanian  prisons, 
and  its  people  were  scattered  in  exile.  Belisarius,  returning,  soon  regained 
the  city,  and  defeated  the  Goths  in  a  decisive  battle.  But  the  great  gen- 
eral was  fettered  by  the  ungenerous  suspicions  of  his  master.  Totila, 
A.  D.  549,  again  took  Rome,  following  up  his  success  by  the  conquest  of 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  and  the  invasion  of  Greece.  An  embassy, 
undertaken  by  the  Pope  himself,  now  induced  Justinian  to  send  a  suffi- 
cient force,  under  Narses,  for  the  recovery  of  Italy.  In  a  great  battle 
near  Tagina,  Totila  was  slain,  and  Rome  for  the  fifth  time  in  one  reign 
changed  masters,  A.  D.  552. 

20.  Teias,  the  last  king  of  the  Italian  Goths,  implored  aid  from  the 
German  rulers  of  France,  but  before  it  could  arrive  he  was  killed  in  a 
battle  at  Cumse,  A.  D.  553.  The  following  autumn,  75,000  Germans 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  ravaged  all  Italy  as  far  as  Messina  and  the  Straits 
of  Otranto.  But  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  after  sixty  years'  duration 
(A.  D.  493-553)  had  already  yielded  to  the  lieutenants  of  the  empire,  who 
ruled  all  Italy  with  the  title  of  Exarchs  of  Ravenna.  The  Goths  either 
emigrated  in  quest  of  fresh  lands  or  became  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  the 
people.  Narses,  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  exarchs,  reigned  A.  D.  554- 
668.  The  territories  wrested  from  the  Vandals  were  likewise  erected  into 
the  exarchate  of  Africa. 

21.  The  Lombard  Kingdom,  A.  D.  572-774.  The  Ostrogoths,  during 
the  time  of  their  power,  efiectually  guarded  the  line  of  the  Danube  against 
fresh  incursions  of  the  northern  barbarians ;  but  during  the  long  wars  in 
Italy,  the  Gepidse  crossed  the  river  and  occupied  many  unguarded  fort- 
resses. To  expel  these  intruders,  Justinian  called  in'  the  Lombards,  or 
Long-Beards,  a  savage  though  Teutonic  race,  who  were  pictured  to  the 
terrified  imaginations  of  the  Greeks  as  drinking  human  blood  with  the 
mouths  of  dogs.  With  the  aid  of  the  Huns,  a  still  fiercer  horde  of  Asiatic 
savages,  the  Lombards,  in  thirty  years,  conquered  and  exterminated  the 
Gepidse.  The  Huns  were  rewarded  with  the  territories  now  comprising 
Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Transylvania,  and  the  parts  of  Hungary  beyond  the 
Danube,  where  their  empire  lasted  230  years.     (See  I  54.) 

22.  The  Lombards,  under  Alboin  their  king,  turned  upon  Italy.  As 
if  to  further  their  plans,  Narses  had  been  degraded,  and  replaced  by  the 
incompetent  Longinus.  Though  the  strong  walls  of  Pavia  withstood  a 
three  years'  siege,  the  rest  of  the  country,  as  far  as  Ravenna  and  Rome, 


24  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

was  easily  conquered  and  divided  into  thirty  duchies.  Upon  the  death  of 
Clepho,  the  successor  of  Alboin,  the  thirty  dukes  continued  ten  years 
(A.  D.  574-584)  to  govern  in  council  without  a  king.  But  this  divided 
government  was  insufficient  defense  against  the  Greeks  on  the  east  and 
the  Franks  on  the  west. 

Autharis,  son  of  Clepho,  receiving  the  crown,  successfully  withstood 
three  Frankish  invasions,  and  extended  his  kingdom  from  the  Rhsetian 
Alps  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy,  where  he  founded  the  great 
duchy  of  Benevento.  His  widow,  Theodolinda,  was  intrusted  by  the 
nation  with  the  choice  of  his  successor.  She  chose  Agilulf,  duke  of  Turin; 
reclaimed  him,  with  many  of  his  subjects,  from  the  Arian  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  was  rewarded  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  with  the  famous  Iron  Crown, 
which  was  said  to  have  been  forged  from  one  of  the  nails  of  the  True 
Cross. 

23.  Italy  was  now  divided  between  the  Lombard  kingdom  and  the  ex- 
archate of  Eavenna  —  the  latter  including  a  great  part  of  the  recent  states 
of  the  Church,  beside  Venice,  Naples,  and  the  Calabrian  coast.  The 
Lombards  never  mingled,  as  the  Goths  had  done,  on  friendly  terras  with 
the  Italians.  The  rude  manners  of  the  former  and  the  cowardly  self- 
indulgence  of  the  latter  were  objects  of  reciprocal  disdain.  Nevertheless, 
the  long-bearded  monsters  of  the  north  had  already  acquired  some  of  the 
best  fruits  of  civilization :  the  system  of  laws  framed  by  their  king, 
Kotharis,  is  esteemed  the  best  of  the  barbarian  codes, ^  and  their  kingdom 
in  Italy  was  more  peaceful  and  prosperous  than  any  other  which  had  been 
formed  from  the  fragments  of  the  empire. 

Theodoric  the  Great  founded  the  second  barbarian  kingdom  in  Italy,  and  bestowed  one- 
third  of  its  lands  upon  his  Ostrogothic  followers.  Peace,  justice,  and  liberality  were  the 
glories  of  his  reign,  but  its  end  was  marred  by  criminal  severity,  and  he  died  burdened 
with  remorse.  His  daughter,  Amalasontha,  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty,  first  as  regent  for 
her  son,  Athalaric,  and  afterward  in  the  name  of  her  husband,  Theodatus.  Her  violent 
death  was  avenged  in  the  invasion  and  subsequent  conquest  of  Italy  by  Belisarius.  Rome 
was  thrice  taken  by  the  Eastern  Romans,  twice  reconquered  by  the  Goths.  Vitiges  was 
deposed,  Totila  and  Teias  slain,  and  the  Gothic  kings  of  Italy  were  succeeded  by  the  Greek 
exarchs  of  Ravenna. 

After  the  extermination  of  the  Gepidoe,  the  Huns  founded  a  kingdom  near  the  Danube, 
while  the  Lombards  proceeded  to  the  conquest  of  Italy.  Thirty  Lombard  dukes  formed  a 
feudal  aristocracy.  The  laws  of  King  Rotharis  were  the  most  civilized  of  the  barbarian 
codes. 


*  Six  codes  of  laws  were  in  force  among  the  Lombards:  the  Roman,  Gothic,  Salian, 
Ripuarian,  Alemannic,  and  the  Lombard  of  King  Rotharis.  Any  man,  when  summoned 
into  court,  might  declare  by  which  code  he  lived  and  desired  to  be  judged ;  but  unless  he 
could  prove  himself  a  member  of  a  Teutonic  tribe,  the  Roman  law  prevailed.  The  barba- 
rian codes  were  all  based  upon  the  immemorial  usages  of  tlie  German  race;  but  assuming 
their  permanent  form  after  tlie  respective  nations  were  Christianized,  they  were  largely 
modified  by  the  precepts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 


THE  EMPIRE.  25 


THE   EMPIRE. 


24.  Under  the  Eoman  name  and  forms,  the  empire  at  Constantinople 
maintained  the  splendor  without  the  power  of  its  great  founder.  After 
the  death  of  Arcadius,  A.  D.  408,  it  was  governed  first  by  the  minister 
Anthe^mius,  then,  during  the  long  minority  and  after  the  death  of  Theo- 
dosius  II.,  by  his  sister  Pulcheria,  whose  able  and  peaceful  reign  continued 
forty  years.  Her  husband,  Marcian  (A.  D.  453-457),  was  succeeded  in 
turn  by  Leo  the  Thracian,  Zeno,  Anastasius,  and  Justin;  but  the  fifty 
years  of  their  successive  reigns  present  nothing  worthy  of'our  notice. 

The  last-named  emperor  was  a  Bulgarian  peasant,  raised  to  the  throne 
by  reason  of  his  soldierly  virtues.  The  reign  of  his  nephew, 
Justinian,  was  long  and  eventful.  Its  first  five  years  were 
absorbed  in  a  costly  and  unprofitable  war  with  Persia,  terminated  by  what 
was  fondly  called  the  "  Endless  Peace."  At  the  close  of  this  war,  Constan- 
tinople was  convulsed  by  a  sedition,  which,  breaking  out  between  the  blue 
and  the  green  factions  in  the  hippodrome,  came  near  to  lay  the  whole  city 
in  ashes  and  to  revolutionize  the  empire.  A  nephew  of  Anastasius  was 
proclaimed;  30,000  persons  were  slain  in  the  tumult;  but  at  length, 
through  the  firmness  of  the  Empress  Theodora,  and  the  energy  of  Belisa- 
rius,  the  imperial  party  was  triumphant.  To  punish  the  mob,  the  games 
of  the  hippodrome  were  suppressed  during  several  years. 

25.  In  the  year  following  the  sedition,  Belisarius  conquered  the  Vandal 
kingdom  in  Africa,  more  than  a  century  from  its  foundation  by  Genseric 
(A.  D.  429-533).  Gelimer,  the  captive  king,  and  a  long  train  of  nobles, 
adorned  the  victor's  triumph,  which  was  the  first  ever  celebrated  in  the 
city  of  Constantine.  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  the  smaller  islands  of  the 
western  Mediterranean  became  subject  to  the  exarchs  of  Africa.  The 
Italian  Goths  rejoiced  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Vandals,  who  had  injured 
them  in  the  person  of  Amalafrida,  sister  of  Theodoric  the  Great,  and  wife 
of  Thrasimond,  the  Vandal  king.  The  conquest  of  Africa  was,  however, 
soon  followed  by  that  of  the  Gothic  kingdom,  which  has  been  described 
in  ^1  17-20. 

26.  During  the  same  year  with  the  capture  of  Ravenna  by  Belisarius, 
a  vast  horde  of  Bulgarians  swept  over  the  Grecian  peninsula,  destroying 
thirty-two  cities,  and  dragging  away  120,000  captives.  Another  horde 
crossed  the  Hellespont  and  ravaged  Asia.  Twenty  years  later,  the  Danube 
being  frozen,  a  multitude  of  Bulgarians  and  Slavonians  overran  Thrace, 
and  encamped  almost  within  sight  of  Constantinople.  In  a  D  559 
the  panic  which  filled  the  court  and  the  capital,  the  nged 
Belisarius  was  called  from  his  well-earned  repose  to  assume  command. 
By  a  swift  and  decisive  movement  of  his  forces,  he  again  saved  the  empire. 
But  the  conqueror  of  two  kingdoms,  the  defender  of  the  throne  against 


26  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

both  Persians  and  barbarians,  the  faithful  servant  of  an  ungrateful  and 
jealous  sovereign,  was  now  too  popular  to  be  secure.  The  shouts  of  joy 
and  gratitude  which  welcomed  his  return  to  Constantinople,  awakened 
the  suspicions  of  Justinian.  Three  years  later,  Belisarius  was  thrown  into 
a  dungeon  on  a  false  charge  of  treason ;  his  possessions  were  confiscated, 
and  though  he  was  restored  to  the  light  a  few  months  before  his  death, 
this  event  was  hastened  by  the  harshness  with  which  he  had  been 
treated. 

27.  During  the  reign  of  Justinian  the  culture  of  silk  was  introduced 
into  Greece,  the  eggs  of  the  silkworm  concealed  in  a  hollow  cane  having 
been  secretly  brought  from  China  by  two  Persian  monks.  The  production 
and  manufacture  of  this  curious  material  were  eventually  extended  to 
Sicily,  whence  they  spread  into  Spain,  Italy,  and  France,  and  gave  em- 
ployment to  many  thousands  of  people. 

The  reign  of  Justinian  was  still  more  distinguished  by  the  number  and 
grandeur  of  his  public  buildings,  among  which  the  metropolitan  church 
of  Santa  Sophia  —  esteemed  by  the  emperor  as  rivaling  the  glories  of  Sol- 
omon's Temple  —  was  the  chief.  More  substantial  monuments  of  the 
period  are  found  in  the  multiplied  fortifications,  which,  however,  revealed 
the  weakness  rather  than  the  strength  of  the  empire.  The  Danube  was 
guarded  by  more  than  eighty  fortresses.  Long  walls  protected  the 
friendly  Goths  of  the  Crimea  from  their  northern  neighbors ;  and  the 
"rampart  of  Gog  and  Magog,"  built  from  the  Black  to  the  Caspian  Sea, 
at  the  joint  expense  of  the  Persian  king  and  the  emperor,  served  to  pro- 
tect the  dominions  of  both  from  the  barbarous  hordes  which  overswept 
southern  Russia.  Beyond  the  Euphrates,  the  three  fortresses  of  Amida, 
Edessa,  and  Dara  defended  the  Persian  frontier. 

28.  Justinian  suppressed  the  schools  of  Athens,  and  abolished  the  con- 
sulship, which,  from  an  august  dignity,  had  descended  into  a  mere  useless 
and  expensive  show.  The  chief  glory  of  his  reign  is  derived  from  the 
Code,  the  Pandects,  and  the  Institutes,  which,  compiled  under  his  direc- 
tion by  the  ablest  lawyers  of  his  time,  form  the  foundation  of  civil  law 
for  all  the  European  nations.  The  Institutes  contained  the  elementary 
principles  of  law;  the  Code  was  a  condensed  and  revised  edition  of  the 
enactments  of  all  the  emperors  since  Hadrian ;  the  Pandects  were  a  digest 
of  precedents  and  decisions  of  the  wisest  judges,  which  had  been  accu- 
mulating a  thousand  years  since  the  preparation  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
and  now  filled  thousands  of  volumes,  "  which  no  fortune  could  purchase 
and  no  capacity  could  comprehend."  To  extend  the  advantages  of  the 
new  system,  law-schools  were  founded  or  newly  endowed  at  Eome,  Con- 
stantinople, and  Beirdt. 

2f).  The  later  years  of  Justinian  were  marked  by  fresh  and  formidable 
movements  among  the  northern  nations.     The  Turks,  a  tribe  of  iron- 


THE  EMPIRE.  27 

forgers  from  the  Altai,  issued  from  their  mountains  and  established  a  new 
empire  in  Tartary.  They  subdued  the  Huns  or  Avars  on  the  Til.  A 
remnant  of  the  conquered  people  fled  to  the  Caucasus,  where,  hearing 
of  the  Greek  empire,  they  resolved  to  claim  its  protection  and  enlist  in 
its  service.  Justinian  received  them  with  liberality,  and  encouraged 
them  to  invade  the  Bulgarian  and  Slavonian  territories.  Within  ten 
years  they  destroyed  many  tribes,  imposed  tribute  and  service  on  the 
rest,  and  extended  their  camps  to  the  Elbe.  Though  Justinian  afterward 
renounced  their  friendship  for  the  more  powerful  alliance  of  the  Turks, 
they  were  able,  in  the  reign  of  his  successor,  to  conquer  the  present  terri- 
tories of  Hungary  and  European  Turkey,  and  establish  the  kingdom  of 
their  "Chagans"  which  lasted  two  hundred  and  thirty  years.  (See 
II  21,  54.) 

30.  Justin  II.  resigned  his  crown,  A.  D.  574,  in  favor  of  Tiberius, 
captain  of  his  guards.  Eight  years  later,  this  emperor  was  succeeded  by 
Maurice,  who,  unable  to  deliver  Italy  from  the  Lombards  at  the  request 
of  the  Pope,  invited  the  Franks  to  be  his  substitutes.  Childebert,  grand- 
son of  Clovis,  was  the  last  of  the  Merovingians  who  crossed  the  Alps. 
Defeated  in  two  expeditions,  he  was  more  successful  in  a  third;  but  for 
want  of  support  from  the  Greeks,  he  made  no  permanent  conquests. 
A  sedition  arising  in  the  Eastern  army,  Phocas  was  declared 

emperor,  and  Maurice,  with  his  five  sons,  was  murdered  at 
Chalcedon.     Heraclius,  exarch  of  Africa,  refused  tribute  to  the  usurper, 
and  sent  his  son   with  a  fleet  to  Constantinople.     Phocas  was  dragged 
from  his  palace  and  beheaded,  and  Heraclius  the  Younger  was  crowned. 

31.  Chosroes  II.,  now  king  of  Persia,  took  advantage  of  the  first  revo- 
lution to  invade  the  empire  and  subjugate  all  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Africa 
as  far  as  Tripoli ;  while  another  Persian  army,  advancing  to  the  Bosporus, 
took  Chalcedon,  and  maintained  its  camp  ten  years  in  sight  of  Constanti- 
nople. Heraclius,  whose  empire  was  thus  suddenly  reduced  to  a  few 
maritime  districts,  conveyed  his  army  by  sea  to  the  borders  of  Syria 
and  Cilicia,  and  on  the  very  spot  where  Alexander  of  Macedon  had, 
nearly  a  thousand  years  before,^  defeated  the  ancestor  of  Chosroes, 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Persian  host.  In  a  second  expedition 
he  penetrated  to  the  heart  of  Persia,  and  forced  Chosroes  to  recall  his 
armies  from  the  Nile  and  the  Bosporus;  in  a  third,  by  a  battle  fought 
above  the  buried  ruins  of  Nineveh,  he  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the 
Persian  forces,  A.  D.  627.     The  glory  of  the  Sassanidae  died  with  Chosroes. 


*  Battle  of  Issus,  B.  C.  333.  ITallam  well  remarks:  "That  prince  may  be  said  to  have 
stood  on  the  verge  of  both  hemispheres  of  time,  whose  youth  Avas  crowned  with  the  last 
victories  over  the  successors  of  Artaxerxes,  and  whose  age  was  clouded  by  the  first  calami- 
tics  of  ^Mohammedan  invasion." 


28  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

He  was  murdered  by  his  son,  and  the  Second  Persian  Empire  fell  into  a 
confusion  only  ended  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest. 

32.  The  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  exhausted  by  the  extraordinary  efforts 
of  Heraclius,  fell  in  his  old  age  into  a  rapid  decline.  The  Saracens  seized 
the  provinces  which  he  had  rescued  from  the  Persians,  and  the  boundaries 
of  the  empire  were  gradually  narrowed  until  they  included  only  Constan- 
tinople and  its  suburbs.  Of  the  two  sons  of  Heraclius,  who  received  the 
title  of  Augustus  during  his  life,  the  elder,  Constantine  III.,  only  survived 
his  father  a  few  months,  and  the  younger,  Heracleonas,  was  deposed  by 

the  Senate.     Constans  II.  came  to  the  throne ;  but  havinar, 

A.  D.  G41-<;68.  .  '  ^^ 

a  few  years  later,  ordered  the  death  of  his  brother  Theodo- 
sius,  he  was  overwhelmed  with  remorse  and  went  into  voluntary  exile. 
He  was  murdered  in  Sicily  by  a  slave.  Constantine  IV.,  his  son,  shared 
with  his  two  brothers  the  name,  but  kept  for  himself  the  substance  of 
imperial  power. 

33.  Justinian  II.  (A.  D.  685-711)  outraged  the  people  by  the  rapacity 
and  cruelty  of  his  ministers,  and  was  driven  into  exile  among  the  Tartars, 
while  Leontius  and  Absimar  successively  occupied  the  throne.  He  re- 
turned after  ten  years  to  execute  a  barbarous  revenge.  Eavenna  was 
plundered  and  its  chief  citizens  massacred,  and  an  army  was  sent  to 
destroy  the  free  city  of  Cherson,  in  the  Crimea.  These  distant  cities, 
whose  wealth  attracted  the  avarice  of  Justinian,  were  the  principal 
emporia  of  the  trade  between  India  and  Europe,  and  to  the  great  com- 
mercial importance  of  their  situations  was  owing  their  recovery  from  so 
great  a  calamity.  But  the  last  act  had  filled  the  measure  of  the  emperor's 
iniquities.  Exiles  from  many  provinces  assembled  in  the  Crimea,  and 
proclaiming  a  new  emperor,  sailed  for  Constantinople,  where  Justinian 
and  his  son  were  put  to  a  sudden  and  violent  death.  With  them  ended 
the  race  of  Heraclius,  which  had  ruled  the  Eastern  world  a  hundred 
years. 

34.  The  six  years  between  the  fiill  of  the  Heraclian  and  the  rise  of  the 
Isaurian  dynasty  were  filled  by  the  three  reigns  of  Philippicus,  Anastasius 

^  7i7_'-4i  •^^•'  ^"^  Theodosius  III.  Leo  IH.,  the  Isaurian,  then  raised 
himself  from  the  army  to  the  throne,  and  by  his  great  abili- 
ties arrested  the  tendencies  to  decline,  earning  the  title  of  Second  Founder 
of  the  Eastern  Empire.  The  name  Byzantine,  which  modern  historians 
apply  to  the  reformed  empire,  dates  properly  from  his  reign.  Though 
Greek  was  henceforth  the  language  of  the  court,  the  church,  and  the 
people,  yet  the  control  of  the  government  was  usually  in  the  hands  of 
Asiatics  —  particularly  Armenians,  who  filled  the  highest  military  com- 
mands. The  artisans  and  middle  class  were  commonly  Greek ;  the  lowest 
orders,  including  porters  and  day-laborers,  were  Slavonian. 

35.  Leo's  defense  of  Constantinople  against  the  flower  of  the  Moslem 


THE  SARACENS.  29 

force  (A.  D.  71G-718)  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  exploits  of  that  war- 
like age,  and  formed  a  turning-point  in  the  relations  of  the  Eastern  em- 
perors with  the  caliphs.  What  his  arms  had  saved  from  destruction,  his 
wise  government  continued  to  consolidate  and  protect.  The  highest  moral 
and  material  civilization  of  their  time  was  found  in  the  dominions  of  Leo 
and  his  successors.  The  unchangeable  regularity  of  Roman  law  main- 
tained that  social  security  which  is  the  vital  breath  of  commerce;  and 
the  prosperity  of  the  trading  class,  as  well  as  a  great  increase  of  free 
labor  upon  the  soil,  contributed  in  turn  to  the  stability  of  the  reorganized 
empire. 

36.  An  attempted  religious  reform  led  to  the  war  of  Iconoclasm,  which 
for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  agitated  Christendom,  and  was  a  chief 
cause  of  the  reestablishment  of  the  Western  Empire.  The  use,  and  by 
degrees  the  worship,  of  images  and  pictures,  had  crept  into  the  Christian 
Church,  especially  in  the  great  cities  where  wealth  and  luxury  encouraged 
art.  The  taunts  of  the  Jews  and  Arabs  were,  however,  echoed  by  the 
more  simple  and  severe  of  the  Christian  sects,  who  heard  with  horror  the 
charge  of  idolatry  applied  to  the  usages  of  the  metropolitan  churches. 
Leo  IIL  had  imbibed  among  his  native  mountains  a  hatred  of  images 
which  made  him  the  first  of  the  Iconoclasts.  The  details  of  the  con- 
troversy belong,  however,  to  the  ensuing  period;  for  the  great  power 
which,  issuing  from  the  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia,  threatened,  to  all  human 
view,  to  overwhelm  Christianity  itself,  must  for  the  moment  take  prece- 
dence of  the  strife  which  divided  the  Christian  nations. 

The  Eastern  empire  kept  its  name  and  forms  1058  years  after  its  separation  from  the 
Western.  Under  Justinian,  the  great  general  Belisarius  gained  important  victories  over 
the  Persians,  subdued  the  iS7A-a  sedition  in  the  capital,  conquered  the  Vandals  in  Africa  and 
the  Goths  in  Italy,  and  repeatedly  put  to  rout  barbarian  invaders  of  the  empire.  Reign  of 
Justinian  was  commemorated  by  many  buildings  and  fortifications,  but  still  more  by  his 
grfeat  works  of  jurisprudence,  which  still  form  the  basis  of  the  civil  law  of  Europe.  The 
Turks  at  this  period  first  appear  in  history,  driving  the  Huns  into  Europe,  and  fixing  their 
own  empire  in  Tartary.  The  emperors  Justin  II.,  Tiberius,  Maurice,  and  Phocas  preceded 
the  rise  of  the  Heraclian  dynasty,  which  ruled  the  empire  A.  D.  GlO-711.  Heraclius  I. 
drove  back  the  armies  of  Chosroes  II.,  who  had  extended  the  Persian  dominion  nearly 
to  its  ancient  western  limits.  From  this  point  the  Persian  empire  fell,  and  the  Greek 
rapidly  declined,  until  Leo  the  Isaurian,  by  a  complete  reorganization,  gave  it  new  vigor. 
He  began  the  war  against  images,  which  ultimately  destroyed  the  Byzantine  power  in 
Italy. 

THE  SARACENS. 

37.  Mohammed,  the  camel-driver  of  Mecca,  in  his  journeys  to  the 
Syrian  fairs,  met  travelers  of  all  nations  and  religions.  The  Christian 
Church  was  at  that  time  rent  by  schism  and  weakened  by  luxury;  the 


w« 


30  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

Jews  had  to  a  great  degree  lost  their  religious  character  in  that  of 
traders;  the  Persians  were  worshipers  of  fire;  the  Arabians  still  adored 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Mohammed  conceived  the  grand  idea  of  raising 
upon  the  ruins  of  all  these  creeds  the  worship  of  One  God,  of  whom  he 
aspired  to  be  considered  the  prophet  and  apostle.  How  much  of  his 
extraordinary  career  must  be  ascribed  to  sincere  though  fanatical  enthu- 
siasm, and  how  much  to  selfish  ambition  and  willful  deceit,  can  probably 
never  be  decided. 

38.  Three  years  were  spent  in  privately  winning  fourteen  converts, 
before  Mohammed  publicly  claimed  the  office  of  a  prophet;  and  he  dwelt 
ten  years  more  within  the  walls  of  Mecca,  preaching  to  a  slowly  increas- 
ing congregation  concerning  his  own  mission,  the  sinfulness  of  idolatry, 
and  the  unity  of  God.  The  tribe  of  Koreish,  to  which  he  belonged,  were 
incensed  at  his  pretensions,  and  vowed  neither  to  eat  nor  drink  until  they 
had  slain  the  self-appointed  prophet.  Mohammed  fled  with  his  friend 
Abu  Beker  to  Medina,  where  he  had  already  a  powerful  party ;  and  this 
Hegira,  or  Flight,  A.  D.  622,  is  the  era  from  which  Mussulmans  still  date 
their  lunar  year  of  354  days. 

39.  Within  seven  years  all  Arabia  submitted  to  Mohammed;  and  in  the 
same  year  with  the  conquest  of  Mecca,  A.  D.  630,  his  forces  first  came  into 
collision  with  those  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  at  Muta,  near  Damascus.  The 
Prophet  now  opened  to  his  followers  a  career  of  conquest,  in  which  re- 
ligious zeal  sharpened  and  sustained  their  military  valor.  Its  motives  may 
be  found  in  the  Koran.  *  "  The  sword  is  the  key  of  heaven  and  of  hell. 
A  drop  of  blood  shed  in  the  cause  of  God,  a  night  spent  in  arms,  is  of 
more  avail  than  two  months  of  fasting  and  prayer.  Whoever  falls  in 
battle,  his  sins  are  forgiven."  The  Moslems  were  assured  that  no  man 
can  die  until  the  moment  appointed  him  by  Fate;  at  that  moment  he 
would  fall  dead  in  his  house  or  expire  in  his  bed;  until  its  arrival  he 
is  safe  under  the  darts  of  the  enemy.  Under  such  a  system  no  peril 
can  be  feared  or  avoided ;  and  the  soldiers  of  Islam  have  been  distin- 
guished a  thousand  years  for  their  reckless  and  dauntless  bravery. 

40.  Within  a  hundred  years,  under  the  "caliphs,"  or  successors  of 
Mohammed,  the  Saracen  empire  had  extended  from  the  boundaries  of 
India  to  the  Atlantic,  and  embraced  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  Northern 
.   ^  -.>^  Africa,  and  Spain.     Even  Scythian  shepherds  burned  their 

A.  D.  G40.  '  '-  "  '■ 

idols   at  the  command  of  the  Prophet.     Alexandria,   then 
the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  world,  was  taken  by  a  siege,  bravely 


*  Mohammed  claimed  to  have  received  from  the  archangel  Gabriel  a  volume  bound  in 
silk  and  gems,  written  with  a  finger  of  light,  and  containing  the  Divine  Decrees.  He  made 
known  its  contents  only  in  successive  fragments,  which  were  written  out  by  his  disciples, 
on  palm-leaves  or  on  the  shoulder-bones  of  sheep,  to  be  distributed  among  the  faithful. 
After  his  death  they  were  collected  and  published  by  his  successor,  Abu  Beker. 


THE  SARACENS.  31 

resisted  for  fourteen  months.  Twice  during  the  next  four  years  it  was 
reconquered  by  the  forces  of  the  empire,  but  twice  recaptured  by  Amrou, 
the  Mohammedan  general.  More  enlightened  than  his  brethren  of  that 
period,  Amrou  would  willingly  have  spared  the  Library,  which  since  the 
days  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  —  though  partly  burned  during  the  visit 
of  Csesar  —  had  been  the  glory  of  the  Egyptian  capital.  But  the  caliph 
Omar  interposed,  with  the  narrow  bigotry  peculiar  to  ignorance.  "If 
these  writings  of  the  Greeks,"  said  he,  "  agree  with  the  Koran,  they  are 
useless,  and  need  not  be  preserved;  if  they  disagree,  they  are  pernicious, 
and  ought  to  be  destroyed."  The  inestimable  manuscripts  were  dis- 
tributed for  kindling  among  the  4,000  baths  of  the  city;  and  such  was 
their  multitude  that  six  months  were  required  for  their  consumption. 

41.  Constantinople  was  twice  besieged,  once  for  seven  years  (A.  D.  668- 
675),  and  again  for  thirteen  months  (see  ^  35),  by  the  Moslem  hosts.  It 
was  only  saved  by  Greek  Fire,  a  compound  of  naphtha,  sulphur,  and  pitch, 
which  was  either  poured  in  death-dealing  torrents  over  the  ramparts,  pro- 
jected in  red-hot  balls,  arrows,  and  javelins,  or  blown  through  tubes  from 
the  front  and  sides  of  ships,  which  thus  assumed  the  appearance  of  fire- 
breathing  monsters.  It  exploded  with  great  noise,  heavy  smoke,  and  a 
fierce,  almost  inextinguishable  flame.  Ignorance  increased  the  terror  of  its 
victims.  The  secret  of  its  composition  was  said  to  have  been  revealed  by 
an  angel  to  Constantino  the  Great,  and  it  was  closely  kept  more  than  four 
centuries  by  the  Greeks. 

42.  At  the  western  extremity  of  the  ancient  empire,  the  Saracens  gained 
a  more  sudden  and  easy  victory.  Count  Julian,  a  Spaniard  who  com- 
manded the  African  fortress  of  Ceuta,  had  been  injured  by  his  sovereign, 
Roderick,  who  has  sometimes  been  called  the  Last  of  the  Goths.  Unable 
to  revenge  himself  by  his  own  arms,  the  faithless  chief  betrayed  his  trust, 
and  led  a  Moslem  host  into  the  heart  of  Spain.  This  advanced  guard 
ravaged  the  beautiful  province  of  Andalusia,  and  the  next  .   ^  ^,, 

^  A.  D.  711. 

year  a  still  larger  army  of  Arabs  and  Moors  crossed  the 

strait.     In  a  seven  days'  battle  near  Cadiz,   the  strength  of  the  Gothic 

kingdom  was  broken.     Roderick  was  drowned  in  the  Guadalete,  and  in  a 

few  months  the  Saracens  had  overrun  the  peninsula  from  Gibraltar  to  the 

Bay  of  Biscay.     A  few  brave  Goths  retired  with  their  prince,  Pelayo,  to  the 

mountains  of  Asturias,  and  became  the  founders  of  the  modern  kingdom  of 

Spain. 

43.  Musa,  the  Saracen  emir,  jealous  of  Tarik,  his  victorious  lieutenant, 
followed  with  yet  greater  forces,  occupied  all  the  principal  cities,  and 
made  Cordova  the  seat  of  a  kingdom  which  lasted  in  Spain  nearly  eight 
hundred  years.  Colonies  of  Moslems  from  Syria  and  Arabia  flocked  into 
the  conquered  country,  and  Spain  became  as  completely  Arab  as  it  had 
before  been  Gothic,  Roman,  or  Phoenician.    Successive  troops  of  invaders 


32  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  reduced  all  south-western  France  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Ehone  to  the  obedience  of  the  Prophet.  Tlie  new  do- 
minion which  was  ultimately  to  overthrow  the  Eastern  empire,  thus  came 
face  to  face  with  that  which  was  already  rising  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Western. 

44.  The  Merovingian  monarchy  was  distracted  between  the  weakness 
of  the  king  and  the  strength  of  the  nobles.  Southern  Gaul  had  never 
been  thoroughly  subdued  by  the  Franks.  Many  territorial  lords  aimed  to 
make  themselves  independent,  and  one  of  them,  Eudes  of  Aquitaine,  had 
even  assumed  the  title  of  king.  He  defeated  the  Mussulmans  in  some 
of  their  earlier  incursions;  but  returning  in  greater  force,  under  Abderrah- 
man,  their  ablest  and  most  experienced  general,  they  had  now  fixed  their 
capital  at  Narbonne,  while  their  cavalry  overran  the  country  as  far  as 
Lyons  and  Besan^on,  marking  their  progress  with  the  'smoking  ruins 
of  once  flourishing  towns. 

It  was  their  purpose,  after  conquering  France  and  Germany,  to  follow 
the  Danube  to  its  mouth,  overturn  the  Greek  empire,  and  thus  surround 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  with  one  great  Moslem  dominion.  To  this  end 
troops  were  collected  from  Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  Barbary  states,  as  well 
as  from  Spain ;  while  Charles  Martel,  son  and  successor  of  Pepin  d'Heristal 
as  Mayor  of  the  Austrasian  Franks,  drew  to  his  standard  all  the  Teutonic 
tribes  from  the  forests  of  Germany  and  the  marshes  of  the  North  Sea. 

45.  Near  the  center  of  France,  between  Tours  and  Poitiers,  the  two 
hosts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  Germans  and  Arabs,  stood  seven  days  confront- 
ing each  other,  only  partial  skirmishes  foretokening  the  great  battle  which 

.   ^  ..o^  was  to  decide  whether  modern  Europe  should  be  Moham- 

A.  D.  732.  ^ 

medan    or    Christian.     At    length    the   Saracen    horsemen 

spurred  against  the  German  spears,  which  stood  "  like   a  wall  of  iron, 

a  rampart  of  ice,"  to  receive  them.     The  combat  lasted  all  day,  and  was 

renewed  the  next  morning  with  unremitting  fury;  but  at  length  the  Arabs 

gave  way ;  Abderrahman  was  slain ;    the  other  generals  quarreled  among 

themselves,  and  each  sought  his  own  safety  by  a  separate  and  silent  flight. 

Their  deserted  camp  was  found  filled  with  the  wealth  of  the  East  and  the 

spoils  of  France.     Charles  with  his  Germans  had  gained  one  of  the  most 

complete  and  decisive  battles  in  the  world's  history.     Though  retaining  for 

twenty  years  their  foothold  in  Septimania,  the  Saracens  made  no  more 

serious  attempts  at  conquest  north  of  the  Pyrenees. 

46.  The  Empire  of  the   Caliphs,  soon   divided  in   itself,   was   indeed 
unable  to  avenge  its  defeat.     The  house  of  Ommiyah,  which  had  ruled 
A  D  661-750       iiin'Sty  years,  was  overthrown,  and  the  Abbassides,  descend- 
ants of  the  uncle  of  Mohammed,  rose  into  power.     Spain, 

however,  revolted,  A.  D.  755,  in  favor  of  the  last  of  the  Ommiades  —  a 
youth  named  Abdalrahman,  who,  by  a   wonderful  series  of  adventures, 


y      AV.  of  GreeinvicJi       (» 


THE  CABLOVINGIANS.  33 

escaped  the  massacre  which  overwhelmed  his  family,  and  lived  to  estab- 
lish an  independent  kingdom  at  Cordova.  This  kingdom,  itself  too  weak 
to  disturb  the  repose  of  Christian  Europe,  was  a  rampart  against  Saracen 
invasion  on  the  side  of  Spain.  The  descendants  of  Ali,  cousin  and  first 
convert  of  Mohammed,  reigned  at  the  same  time  in  Persia  and  Mauri- 
tania; and  the  three  dynasties  —  the  Abbassides  of  Bagdad,  the  Ommiades 
and  the  Fatimites*  — became  the  heads,  respectively,  of  the  blacky  the 
white,  and  the  green  factions,  into  which  the  Moslem  empire  was  now 
permanently  divided. 

The  Saracen  Empire  had  its  rise  in  fanaticism,  and  was  extended  by  the  sword,  the  Flight 
of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina  being  the  era  of  its  chronology.  His  successors 
reigned  from  the  Indus  to  the  Atlantic.  Their  conquest  of  Spain  was  aided  by  the  treachery 
of  Count  Julian ;  but  their  progress  in  France  was  checked  by  the  victory  of  Charles  Martel, 
near  Tours.  Their  empire  was  soon  divided,  the  Abbassides  obtaining  the  caliphate  in 
Asia,  the  Ommiades  in  Spain,  the  Fatimites  in  Persia,  Egypt,  and  northern  Africa. 


Period  II.  From  the  Battle  of  Tours  to  the  Battle  of 
FONTENAYE,  A.  D.  732-841. 

47.  The  tide  of  Saracen  invasion  having  rolled  back,  two  powers  are 
seen  arising  in  the  West,  whose  varying  relations  with  each  other  form 
the  framework  of  Mediseval  History.  One  is  the  restored  Empire;  the 
other,  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  popes. 

48.nV"hile  the  exarchs  of  Ravenna  were  losing  power  in  Italy,  the 
bishops  of  Rome  were  often  the  only  protectors  of  their  people  against 
barbarian  incursions.  The  neglected  duties  and  forfeited  honors  of  the 
temporal  rulers  fell  to  them ; /and  while  still  professing  themselves  the 
obedient  subjects  of  the  emperors,  they  began  to  be  regarded  as  not  only 
the  spiritual  but  the  civil  lieads  of  society.  The  war  of  the  Iconoclasts 
completed  the  separation  thus  begun  between  Italy  and  the 
empire.  Casting  off  the  shadow  of  imperial  authority,  Rome 
resumed  the  form  of  a  republic,  the  bishop  being  the  chief  magistrate  or 
prince  of  the  city.  Two  successive  popes,  Gregory  II.  and  III.,  excom- 
municated the  agents  who  were  charged  with  the  destruction  of  the 
images. 

The  emperor  sent  forces  to  plunder  Rome  and  arrest  the  latter  pope. 


So  called  from  Fatima,  the  favorite  daughter  of  Mohammed  and  the  wife  of  Ali. 
M.  H.— 3. 


34  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

His  fleet  was  defeated  and  destroyed  off  Eavenna,  but  the  Lombards 
seizing  the  opportunity,  besieged  tlie  papal  city.  Gregory  III.  appealed 
to  the  great  mayor,  Charles  Martel  —  who  had  now  extended  his  power 
throughout  France  by  the  conquest  of  Burgundy,  Provence,  and  Aqui- 
taine  —  offering  him  the  titles  of  Patrician  and  Consul,  and  hinting 
that  Rome  was  ready  to  revive  the  empire  of  the  West  in  the  person 
of  its  most  powerful  sovereign.  Before  the  desired  aid  could  be  ren- 
dered, the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  mayor  all  died  within  one  year, 
A.  D.  741. 

49.  Pepin  the  Short,  son  of  Charles,  with  the  approbation  of  Pope 
Zacharias,  exchanged  his  inadequate  title  of  Mayor  of  the  Palace  for 
that  of  King  of  the  Franks.  Astolphus,  king  of  the  Lombards,  had 
now  seized  Ravenna,  put  an  end  to  the  exarchate,  185  years  from  its 
foundation  by  Narses,  and  was  threatening  Rome.  Pope  Stephen  IL 
crossed  the  Alps  to  implore  the  aid  of  Pepin,  who  the  next  spring  led 
a  powerful  army  into  Italy,  besieged  Pavia,  and  extorted  from  Astolphus 
a  promise  to  cede  all  the  cities  of  the  exarchate  to  the  pope.  As  soon 
as  the  Franks  had  retired,  the  promise  was  forgotten.  Astolphus  ravaged 
the  environs  of  Rome,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  chief  pontiff 
himself. 

With  redoubled  energy  Pepin  recrossed  the  Alps,  and  chastised  the 
Lombard  so  severely  that  he  was  glad  to  buy  peace  with 
a  third  part  of  his  treasures  and  the  keys  of  twenty-two 
towns,  which  were  laid  upon  the  altar  of  St.  Peter.  The  sovereignty 
of  these  towns  remained  to  the  victor,  but  their  rich  revenues,  with  the 
feudal  control  of  multitudes  of  vassals,  went  to  the  pope,  who  thus  be- 
came the  most  powerful  baron  of  Rome.  The  authority  of  the  exarchs 
in  the  imperial  city  was  transferred  to  the  Carlovingian  king,  with  the 
title  of  "Patrician."  In  his  name  money  was  coined,  justice  adminis- 
tered ;  and  even  the  choice  and  consecration  of  the  popes  was  subject  to 
his  supervision. 

50.  Since  their  overthrow  by  Charles  Martel,  the  Arabs  had  kept 
possession  of  the  province  of  Septimania ;  and  by  their  superior  skill  in 
fortification,  defended  their  capital,  Narbonne,  during  a  seven  years' 
siege.  It  was  surrendered  at  last,  A.  D.  750,  by  the  treachery  of  some 
Goths  within  the  walls,  and  the  whole  province  was  added  to  the  do- 
minion of  Pepin.  The  great  duchy  of  Aquitaine,  comprising  a  fourth 
part  of  France,  had  cast  off  its  allegiance  to  the  Carlovingians,  but  it 
was  reconquered  in  a  long  and  obstinate  war  of  ten  campaigns.  In  the 
year  of  its  surrender  Pepin  died,  leaving  to  his  two  sons,  Charles  and 
Carloman,  a  well-compacted  dominion  reaching  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Pyrenees.  Carloman  survived  his  father  only  three  years.  The  power 
of  the  family  was  raised  to  its  highest  degree  by  his  brother,  whose  name 


THE  CARLOVINGIANS.  35 

and  honorary   title   have    become   inseparable   in    history    as   Charle- 

MAGKE.  ^ 

51.  The  heathen  Saxons  —  only  exasperated  when  not  converted  by  the 
preaching  of  St.  Boniface — had  broken  out  into  renewed  rage  during  the 
long  wars  of  Pepin  in  Aquitaine.  By  thirty-three  years  of  almost  unre- 
mitted warfare,  Charlemagne  subdued  or  scattered  this  fierce  but  freedom- 
loving  people.  Many  times  the  humbled  warriors  sued  for  peace,  and 
assumed  the  white  robes  of  Christian  converts,  only  to  renew  their  ravages 
as  soon  as  the  Prankish  chief  was  engaged  in  Spain  or  Italy.  Many  times 
his  avenging  armies  desolated  the  Saxon  country  with  fire  and  sword,  on 
one  occasion  slaughtering  4,500  captives;  on  others,  transporting  thousands 
to  settlements  in  France  or  Italy,  and  supplying  their  places  with  colonies 
of  Franks, 

Many  bishoprics  were  established,  not  less  as  military  posts  than  as 
centers  of  religious  influence ;  while,  faithful  to  his  great  plan  for  Chris- 
tianizing all  Europe,  Charlemagne  caused  his  Saxon  hostages  and  prisoners 
to  be  diligently  instructed  in  the  true  faith,  that  they  might  become  the 
teachers  of  their  people.  In  one,  at  least,  of  his  forays,  Charlemagne 
came  in  collision  with  the  Northmen  of  the  Baltic,  who,  though  defeated 
in  this  first  assault,  became  a  most  formidable  scourge  to  the  dominions 
of  his  descendants.  The  duchy  of  Bavaria,  after  existing  two  hundred 
years  under  one  race,  was  absorbed  into  the  dominion  of  the  Franks. 

52.  In  the  mean  time,  Charlemagne  made  good  his  inherited  title  of 
Eldest  Son  of  the  Church,  by  crossing  Mt.  Cenis  to  the  aid  of  Pope 
Adrian  I.  against  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards.  Pavia  was  reduced 
by  fifteen  months'  siege;  Desiderius  and  his  family  were  imprisoned  for 
the  remainder  of  their  lives,  and  Charlemagne  himself  received  the  Iron 
Crown,  the  native  dukes  and  counts  being  confirmed,  as  his  vassals,  in 
the  possession  of  their  estates.  Within  two  years  they  conspired  with 
the  Greek  emperor  to  crown  the  son  of  Desiderius.  Charlemagne  crossed 
the  Alps  in  the  depth  of  winter,  took  several  cities  by  storm  or  siege, 
and  effectually  crushed  the  conspiracy,  leaving  his  faithful  Franks  in  all 
places  of  trust,  instead  of  the  Lombard  nobles. 

53.  At  the  request  of  the  emir  of  Saragossa,  who  besought  his  aid 
against  the   caliph   of  Cordova,   Charlemagne  invaded  Spain,   captured 


*  It  may  be  said,  once  for  all,  that  this  Manual  admits  the  common  French  names 
of  the  Franlvish  sovereigns  only  for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  in  obedience  to  a  custom 
too  long  established  to  be  easily  changed.  In  strict  accuracy,  Clovis  should  have  been 
written  Hlodwig  or  Chlodwig  (the  original  of  Louis);  Charlemagne  is  Karl  the  Great; 
Eudes  is  more  properly  Odo.  The  student  can  not  too  carefully  bear  in  mind  that  both 
Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  sovereigns  were  Germans,  and  were  always  regarded  as 
foreigners  by  the  Gauls  and  Romans  whom  they  governed.  The  foundation  of  the 
modern  French  monarchy  dates  from  the  accession  of  Hugh  Capet.    See  §  85. 


36  medijEVAL  history. 

many  cities,  restored  the  emir,  delivered  the  Gothic  Christians  from 
oppression,  and  extended  his  own  dominion  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Ebro.  Residing  at  Barcelona,  the  Frankish  governor  of  the  "Spanish 
March"  held  sway  over  Roussillon,  Catalonia,  and  the  infant  kingdoms 
of  Aragon  and  Navarre. 

54.  Italy  and  Aquitaine  were  erected  into  separate  kingdoms  for  two 
sons  of  Charlemagne ;  and  while  he  himself  was  conquering  the  tract  be- 
tween the  Elbe  and  the  Oder,  the  young  king  of  Italy  added  to  his 
dominion  the  provinces  of  Istria  and  Liburnia,  on  the  Adriatic.  Between 
the  father  and  son  lay  the  dense  thickets  of  Pannonia,  where  the  Huns 
had  laid  up  in  nine  enormous  "  Rings,"  fortified  by  impenetrable  hedges, 
the  plunder  of  Europe  and  Asia  since  the  time  of  Attila.  During  recent 
wars  of  Cliarlemagne,  they  had  dared  to  extend  their  forays  into  Italy  and 
Bavaria;  and  in  a  Diet  held  at  Worms,  A.  D.  791,  they  were  doomed  to 
a  signal  revenge.  Two  armies  entered  Pannonia  from  the  north  and 
south,  while  a  fleet  descended  the  Danube.  In  one  campaign  the  Huns 
were  humbled  and  despoiled;  and  five  years  later  the  country,  with  its 
buried  treasures,  was  added  to  the  empire  of  the  Franks.  The  defense 
of  the  long  eastern  frontier,  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Baltic,  was  com- 
mitted to  noblemen  called  Margraves  or  Counts  of  the  Border. 

55.  As  Patrician  of  Rome,  Charlemagne  was  called  to  protect  Pope 
.   ^ Leo   III.   ajrainst  the  assaults  of  his  enemies   within  the 

A.  D.  800.  ^  ^ 

city.  He  went  to  Rome,  heard  the  accusations,  and  ac- 
cepted the  solemn  oath  of  Leo  as  proof  of  his  innocence.  As  he  was 
offering  his  devotions  on  Christmas  Day  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  the 
Pope  suddenly  placed  upon  his  head  a  golden  crown,  hailing  him  at  the 
same  time  with  the  ancient  imperial  titles:  "Long  life  and  victory  to 
Charles  Augustus,  crowned  of  God,  great  and  peace-giving  Emperor 
of  the  Romans  I"  Clergy  and  people  echoed  the  acclamation,  and  the 
king  of  the  Franks  was  acknowledged  as  the  successor  of  the  Csesars. 

56.  By  the  deposition  of  Romulus  Augustulus,  the  Western  empire  had 
not  been  abolished,  but  only  reunited  with  the  Eastern;  the  exarchs 
represented  imperial  authority  in  Italy  and  Africa;  and  the  proudest 
barbarian  kings  had  their  dignity  increased  by  the  patrician  ornaments 
which  marked  them  as  lieutenants  of  the  empire.  But  the  throne  of 
Constantinople  was  now  usurped  by  Irene,  a  mere  pretender,  whose 
crime  in  supplanting  her  son,  the  lawful  sovereign,  neutralized  her 
claims  to  allegiance.  The  supremacy  which  Rome  had  unwillingly  re- 
linquished to  the  younger  capital  was  held  to  be  rightly  resumed,  and 
Charles  was  declared  the  successor  of  Constantine  VI.,  as  temporal  head 
of  Christendom.  Disregarding  the  insignificant  series  of  emperors  who 
had  followed  Theodosius  in  the  West,  he  was  numbered  as  sixty-eighth 
in  order  through  the  Eastern  line  from  Csesar  Octavianus. 


THE  CARLOVINGIANS,  37 

57.  All  the  world  hastened  to  recognize  his  greatness;  Saxons  of 
England  and  Goths  of  Spain  sought  his  protection;  and  even  from  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris,  Haroun  al  Raschid  sent,  with  other  gifts,  the  keys 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  acknowledging  the  Western  em- 
peror as  the  official  head  of  Christendom.  During  forty-six  years  of  un- 
exampled activity,  as  king  and  emperor,  Charlemagne  labored  for  the 
union  and  civilization  of  Europe.  Germany  at  his  accession  was  little 
more  than  a  heathen  wilderness,  possessing  no  towns  except  those  upon 
the  Rhine  and  Danube  which  had  been  colonies  of  the  Romans. 

Under  his  vigorous  administration,  order  and  good  government  pro- 
duced their  just  effects.  Many  schools  yet  existing  owe  their  origin  to 
him ;  and  towns  grew  up  as  centers  not  only  of  commerce,  but  of  intel- 
ligence and  Christianity.  Diets  to  which  bishops  as  well  as  nobles  were 
summoned,  took  the  place  of  the  ancient  March-  and  May-fields  of  the 
Frankish  warriors.  The  discussions  were  in  Latin,  and  this  circumstance 
alone  gave  a  commanding  influence  to  the  clergy.  The  Capitularies  of 
Charlemagne  contain  a  great  variety  of  general  and  special  enactments, 
showing  his  minute  attention  to  the  details  of  government,  and  his 
sincere  desire  to  guard  the  poor  against  the  oppressions  of  the  rich. 

58.  His  favorite  capital,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  was  adorned  with  the  fine 
marbles  and  mosaics  of  Italy,  the  sculptures  of  Greece,  and  enriched  by 
an  extensive  library,  a  richly  endowed  college,  and  a  school  of  sacred 
music.  The  first  organs  were  by  his  order  brought  from  Greece  into 
northern  Europe,  and  singers  from  Italy  introduced  the  Gregorian  chant. 
Learned  men  from  all  countries*  were  his  favorite  companions;  and 
wherever  his  camp  was  pitched  —  on  the  ancient  battle-fields  of  Italy 
and  Spain,  or  amid  the  wilds  of  the  Danube  or  the  Baltic  — their  con- 
versation was  his  constant  delight.  The  empire  of  the  West,  revived  in 
Charlemagne,  lasted  1,006  years,  until  it  was  subverted  by  Napoleon.  Its 
titles,  stripped  of  most  of  their  significance,  are  retained  by  the  sovereigns 
of  Austria. 

59.  Louis  the  Mild,  though  king  of  Aquitaine  from  his  fourth  year, 
and  already  associated  in  the  imperial  dignity  before  his  father's  death, 
was  better  fitted  for  a  cloister  than  a  throne.  He  reformed  the  court, 
sent  commissioners  throughout  his  realm  to  investigate  and  redress  wrongs, 
raised  the  conquered  Saxons  to  a  level  with  his  other  subjects,  repelled 
Norman  invasions,  and  subdued  revolts  in  Italy  and  other  distant  prov- 
inces.    But  in  the  necessary  execution  of  the  ringleaders  of  these  revolts, 


*  Alcuin,  the  English  philosopher,  was  his  most  familiar  friend.  He  had  previously 
been  provost  of  the  High  School  at  York,  in  England,  where  was  one  of  the  few  libra- 
ries then  existing  in  Western  Europe.  Alcuin,  at  the  request  of  Charlemagne,  sent 
scholars  to  make  copies  of  the  books  at  York,  as  a  foundation  for  the  libraries  which  he 
attached  to  all  the  schools  in  Germany. 


38  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

his  sensitive  conscience  became  burdened  with  remorse.  He  voluntarily 
underwent  a  public  penance;  and  his  turbulent  and  unscrupulous  nobles, 
instead  of  being  moved  to  follow  his  example,  saw  with  contempt,  in 
the  humbling  of  the  imperial  dignity,  an  opportunity  to  augment  their 
own.  The  power  which  his  father  had  bestowed  upon  the  Church  was 
ungenerously  used  against  the  son. 

60.  As  early  as  A.  D.  817,  Lothaire,  the  eldest  son  of  Louis,  was 
joined  with  his  father  in  the  empire,  while  his  brothers,  Louis  and 
Pepin,  received  each  an  ample  domain,  with  the  title  of  king.  Charles, 
the  son  of  a  second  marriage,  was  afterward  endowed  with  Switzerland 
and  Suabia;  and  although  this  gift  did  not  infringe  their  territories,  it 
was  made  a  pretext  to  draw  the  three  elder  sons  into  repeated  revolts 
against  their  father,  who  was  twice  deprived  of  his  crown  by  the  rebell- 
ious princes,  aided  by  the  bishops. 

At  length  the  emperor,  worn  out  by  cares  and  sorrows,  died  upon  a 
little  island  in  the  Rhine.  His  son  Pepin  had  preceded  him.  Lothaire, 
according  to  the  terms  of  his  coronation,  demanded  the  oath  of  allegiance 
from  every  subject  of  his  father.  He  was  supported  by  the  Italians  and 
the  Austrasian  Franks,  who  cherished  the  Roman  idea  of  a  united  empire. 
His  brothers,  Louis  and  Charles,  in  claiming  to  hold  their  respective 
dominions  in  full  sovereignty,  were  supported  by  the  Germans,  who  had 
never  been  fully  reconciled  to  tlie  restored  empire,  and  who  insisted  on 
referring  the  question  of  partition  to  the  issue  of'  battle,  or,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  times,  to  the  "judgment  of  God."  * 

61.  At  Fontenay,  near  Auxerre,  300,000  men,  representing  nearly  all 
the  nations  that  had  obeyed  Charlemagne,  met  in  unseemly  strife,  led 
by  the  three  brothers.  The  battle  was  long,  obstinate,  and  indecisive. 
At  length  Lothaire  withdrew,  leaving  40,000  of  his  soldiers  dead  upon 
the  field.     An  equal  number  had  fallen  upon  the  other  side.     The  flower 

of  Frankish  chivalry  was  destroyed,  and  the  empire  was 
left  unprotected  equally  against  the  Scandinavian  and 
Moorish  pirates.  By  a  subsequent  treaty  at  Verdun,  the  dominions  of 
Charlemagne  were  divided  among  his  three  grandsons.  Italy,  with  a 
long  strip  of  land  extending  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  German 
Ocean,  between  the  Rhone  and  Meuse  on  the  west,  and  the  Alps  and 
Rhine  on  the  east,  was  assigned  to  Lothaire,  that  with  the  imperial 
crown  he  might  also  possess  the  two  capitals,  Rome  and  Aix;  the  coun- 


*  "Trial  by  battle,"  either  single  or  general,  was  a  common  mode  of  determining  dis- 
putes during  the  Middle  Ages,  because  it  was  believed  that  Heaven  would  award  the 
victory  to  the  right,  punishing  a  perjured  man,  or  vindicating  the  innocence  of  one  un- 
justly accused.  Women  and  infirm  old  men,  if  accused  of  deadly  crimes,  were  allowed 
to  choose  their  champions;  but  if  the  champion  lost  the  battle,  the  man  was  hanged  or 
the  woman  burnt. 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  THE  CARLOVINGIANS.  39 

tries  east  and  north  of  the  Rhine  were  given  to  Louis  the  German ;  Gaul 
west  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  to  Charles  the  Bald. 

62.  Germany  dates  her  national  existence  from  the  Treaty  of  Verdun. 
Eastern  or  Teutonic  was  then  forever  separated  from  Western  or  Latin 
France,  which  in  later  times  gained  exclusive  possession  of  the  name, 
the  heart  of  the  Frankish  dominions  being  known  as  Franconia.  The 
oaths  taken  respectively  by  the  armies  of  Louis  and  Charles  show  that 
the  two  languages  were  already  distinct.  The  Frankish  conquerors  of 
Gaul  were  largely  Latinized  by  intercourse  with  the  former  subjects  of 
the  Caesars ;  and  while  the  soldiers  of  Louis  swore  allegiance  in  Old 
German,  the  oath  of  Charles'  army  bore  an  almost  equal  resemblance  to 
Latin,  Provencal,  and  modern  French.  The  Teutonic  and  Roman  ele- 
ments in  European  society  and  speech  were  from  that  moment  separate. 

The  Carlovingian  power  having  been  confirmed  by  the  victory  near  Tours,  was 
increased  by  Pepin,  and  raised  to  its  greatest  height  by  Charlemagne,  only  to  decline 
under  the  just  but  inefficient  Louis,  and  to  be  permanently  divided  by  his  sons  in  the 
Battle  of  Fontenaye  and  the  Treaty  of  Verdun. 

Simultaneous  with  its  rise  was  that  of  the  civil  power  of  the  popes.  The  war  of 
Iconoclasm  separated  Italy  from  Byzantine  rule,  and  led  to  the  revival  of  the  Western 
Empire  in  the  person  of  Charlemagne.  Both  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  made  war  in  Italy 
against  the  Lombards ;  the  latter  overthrew  their  kingdom  and  imprisoned  its  last  native 
sovereign.  The  revenues  of  the  exarchate  —  previously  absorbed  by  the  Lombards  —  went 
to  the  Pope,  and  its  sovereignty  to  the  Frankish  king.  Charlemagne  subdued  the  Saxons ; 
annexed  Bavaria,  the  March  of  Spain,  and  the  territory  of  the  Huns ;  extended  his  do- 
minion from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Baltic,  and  from  the  Atlantic  and  Ebro  on  the 
west  to  the  Elbe  and  Theiss  on  the  east.  He  civilized  his  German  territories  by  Diets, 
in  which  the  clergy  had  a  voice,  as  well  as  by  schools,  libraries,  and  collections  of  art. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Verdun,  the  Germans  east  and  north  of  the  Rhine  were  separated  from 
the  Romanized  Germans  and  the  "Latin  Race"  on  the  west  and  south. 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  THE  CARLOVINGIANS. 

63.  In  the  Saracen  empire,  the  rude  age  of  conquest  was  succeeded  by 
a  brilliant  period  of  intellectual  progress.  Libraries  and  colleges  sprang 
up  in  all  the  Moslem  cities  from  Samarcand  to  Cordova,  and  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Greek  philosophers  were  translated  into  Arabic.  Arabian 
physicians  had  no  superiors  in  the  knowledge  of  botany,  chemistry,  and 
anatomy,  and  to  their  skill  were  intrusted  the  lives  of  many  Christian 
princes.  All  sciences  in  their  infancy  are  mingled  with  superstition. 
The  Arabs  were  encouraged  in  their  study  of  astronomy  by  the  belief 
that  they  read  human  destiny  in  the  stars;  and  they  wasted  long  lives 
and  ample  fortunes  in  the  researches  of  alchemy,  hoping  to  discover  the 
elixir  of  immortal  youth,  or  the  philosopher's  stone,  which  could  trans- 
mute all  substances  into  o;old. 


40  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

64.  Almansor,  the  second  of  the  Abbassides,  built  Bagdad  on  the 
Tigris  for  his  capital.  Haroun  al  Raschid  was  the  most  magnificent 
and  powerful  monarch  of  his  race;  but  his  excessive  cruelty  to  the 
people  of  the  Eastern  empire,  whose  lands  he  ravaged,  and  his  murder 
of  the  Barmecides,  his  own  intimate  friends  and  faithful  servants,  make 
us  doubt  whether  his  surname  of  "the  Just"  was  deservedly  bestowed. 
Almamun,  his  successor  (A.  D.  813-833),  was  equally  remarkable  for 
his  liberal  patronage  of  science  and  literature.  Learned  men  of  all 
nations  were  welcome  at  his  court.  An  accurate  measurement  of  the 
earth's  orbit  evinced  a  degree  of  mathematical  knowledge  not  previously 
attained. 

It  was  during  this  reign  that  Crete  was  conquered  by  Arabian  pirates, 
to  continue  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  their  slave  market,  for  the  dis- 
posal of  captives  from  all  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  A  rebellion 
against  the  Ommiad  caliph  of  Spain  had  resulted  in  the  exile  of  15,000 
of  the  insurgents.  These  took  refuge  in  Egypt,  but  being  expelled  by 
the  lieutenants  of  Almamun,  they  sailed  to  Crete,  and  commenced  its 
subjugation  by  building  the  fortress  of  Candia,  which  ultimately  gave  its 
name  to  the  whole  island.  The  greater  part  of  Sicily  was  conquered 
about  the  same  time,  and  its  ports  became  nests  of  pirates,  who  pillaged 
the  neighboring  coasts  of  Italy,  and  even  twice  assaulted  Rome  itself. 
The  churches  were  robbed  of  their  gold  and  silver,  but  the  city  was 
rescued  and  fortified  by  the  valiant  Pope  Leo  IV.  He  rebuilt  the  sub- 
urban villages,  and  inclosed  with  walls  the  Vatican  quarter  of  Rome, 
which  is  still  called  in  his  honor  the  Leonine  City. 

65.  The  annals  of  the  Byzantine  empire  during  this  period  are  full 
of  important  events.  The  war  against  images  was  begun,  as  we  have 
seen,  by  Leo  III.  At  his  command  the  eastern  churches  abjured  their 
idols,  though  not  without  tumult  and  bloodshed ;  his  edict  in  the  west 
was  met  with  positive  refusal  by  the  popes,  and  a  declared  resolution  by 
the  people  to  "live  and  die  in  defense  of  the  holy  images."  The  son 
of  Leo,  Constantino  V.,  was  for  a  time  expelled  from  his  throne  by  the 
image-worshipers,  and  upon  his  return  he  punished  the  rebellion  by  a 
still  more  bitter  and  violent  persecution.  His  reign  was  otherwise  pros- 
perous. The  desolate  shores  of  Thrace  received  new  colonies ;  thousands 
of  captives  were  redeemed  from  foreign  slavery,  and  unusual  plenty  pre- 
vailed. 

66.  Leo  IV.  married  Irene,  an  Athenian,  whose  remarkable  talents  raised 
her  to  the  head  of  the  empire.  As  regent  for  her  son,  Constantine  VI., 
she  undertook  with  zeal  the  restoration  of  the  images.  The  monks,  their 
most  zealous  promoters,  reappeared  from  their  hiding-places,  and  a  general 
Council  at  Nice,  A.  D.  787,  reversed  the  decision  of  that  of  Constantino- 
ple, A.  D.  754,  by  declaring  image- worship  to  be  agreeable  to  Scripture  and 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF   THE  OARLOVINGIANS.  41 

reason.  As  Constantine  grew  to  manhood,  the  mother*  and  son  became 
the  heads  of  rival  parties  which  alternately  possessed  the  throne.  Irene 
at  length  prevailed,  caused  her  son  to  be  deprived  of  his  eyes,  and 
reigned  in  splendor  five  years  alone.  Her  ministers  then  conspired 
against  her,  and  Nicephorus,  the  treasurer,  obtained  the  crown.  His 
fiscal  talents  and  experience  enabled  him  greatly  to  increase  the  reve- 
nues from  taxation ;  but  excepting  this  kind  of  oppression,  and  in  spite  of 
his  very  bad  reputation  in  history,  *  few  crimes  seem  to  have  been  justly 
charged  upon  him.  He  was  tolerant  of  religious  differences,  and  humane 
even  to  conspirators  against  his  life. 

His  relations  with  Charlemagne  were  at  first  friendly,  though  their 
claims  to  universal  empire  were,  of  course,  mutually  destructive.  A 
treaty  concluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  A.  D.  803,  fixed  the  limits  of  the 
two  empires  in  Italy.  Venice,  Istria,  the  Dalmatian  coast,  and  the  Cala- 
brian  cities  remained  to  the  Byzantine  sovereign,  while  Kome  and  the 
exarchate  of  Ravenna  were  resigned  to  the  Frank.  Nicephorus  suffered 
a  humiliating  defeat  from  Haroun  al  Raschid,  A.  D.  805,  and  ultimately 
lost  his  life  in  war  with  the  Bulgarians,  A.  D.  811. 

67.  His  son  Stauracius  had  reigned  but  two  months,  when  a  new  revo- 
lution compelled  him  to  resign  the  throne  to  his  brother-in-law,  Michael 
Rhangabe.  The  mild  virtues  of  Michael  I.  disgusted  the  army,  and  rather 
than  preserve  his  crown  by  bloodshed,  he  retired  into  a  monastery. 
Leo  v.,  the  Armenian,  was  saluted  as  emperor,  and  proved  one  of  the 
best  Byzantine  sovereigns,  though  his  accommodating  policy  concerning 
image- worship  gave  him  the  name  of  "  Chameleon."    During 

°  ^  °  °        A.  D.  813-820. 

this  reign  the  Bulgarian  king,  Crumn,  repeatedly  ravaged 
the  country  to  the  very  walls  of  Constantinople,  and  carried  off  in  one 
expedition  50,000  captives.  By  the  zeal  and  fidelity  of  these  Christian 
slaves,  many  thousands  of  the  Bulgarians  were  persuaded  to  accept 
Christianity.  Nearly  fifty  years  later  their  king  Bogoris  was  baptized, 
and  the  entire  nation  soon  renounced  its  paganism. 

68.  Leo  V.  was  slain  in  a  conspiracy  by  the  adherents  of  his  old 
friend  and  comrade,  Michael  the  Amorian,  who  for  repeated  treasons  had 
been  sentenced  to  death  by  fire.  Michael  II.  was  snatched  from  his 
dungeon  to  be  placed  upon  the  throne,  with  the  iron  fetters  still  upon 
his  limbs.  Under  the  Amorian  dynasty,  the  empire,  though  in  its  de- 
cline, far  surpassed  all  other  nations  in  wealth,  owing  to  the  extent  of 
its  commerce.  In  the  Mediterranean  the  Greeks  had  a  monopoly ;  and 
the  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia  has  never  been   so  concentrated   in 


*  His  most  unpopular  act— especially  with  the  chroniclers  — was  a  tax  upon  church 
property,  monasteries,  and  charitable  institutions.  The  prevailing  fashion  of  endowing 
convents,  in  order  to  withdraw  property  from  taxation,  and  provide  a  retreat  for  a  whole 
family  in  case  of  misfortune,  had  greatly  impaired  the  public  revenues. 


42  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

any  one  city  as  in  Constantinople  before  the  rise  of  the  Italian  republics. 
Central  Asia  was  then  more  settled  and  civilized  than  now,  since  the 
ravages  and  conquests  of  the  Tartar  hordes.  Rich  cities  rewarded  the 
enterprise  of  merchants,  whose  caravans  they  entertained  on  the  route  to 
India  or  China.  Throughout  Europe  and  Asia,  golden  byzants  were  in 
circulation,  furnishing  for  several  centuries  the  only  gold  coinage  on  the 
former  continent. 

69.  Theophilus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Michael  II.,  was  an  able  and 
magnificent  sovereign,  but  he  had  many  misfortunes  in  his  wars  with 
the  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  and  his  great  revenues  Avere  used  in  adorning  his 
capital  with  gorgeous  buildings,  rather  than  in  fortifying  his  borders. 
Theophilus  Avas  an  ardent  Iconoclast,  but  his  widow,  Theodora,  as  regent 
for  her  son,  Michael  III.,  finally  restored  the  images,  and  put  an  end  to 
a  war  which  had  distracted  the  empire  more  than  a  century. 

During  the  regency  of  Theodora  and  the  reign  of  her  son,  the  Pauli- 
cians — a  heretical  sect  who  professed  themselves  the  obedient  followers 
of  St.  Paul  —  were  persecuted  throughout  the  empire,  and  ten  thousand 
persons  are  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  under  one  commission.  A 
greater  number  made  armed  resistance,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  neigh- 
boring Saracen  emirs,  established  themselves  in  an  independent  fortress 
at  Tephrike,  and  in  the  mountainous  region  surrounding  it,  in  the  modern 
province  of  Roum.  The  new  republic,  like  that  of  Holland  and  the 
American  colonies  in  later  ages,  became,  during  the  twenty-five  years  of 
its  existence,  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed  of  every  name.  With  the  reign 
of  Michael  III.,  a  drunken  and  dissolute  tyrant,  the  power  of  his  family 
ended,  and  a  greater  dynasty  arose. 

70.  The  Gothic  kingdom  founded  or  preserved  by  Pelayo,  in  the  north 
of  Spain,  was  governed  during  this  period  by  nine  kings,  most  of  whose 
annals  are  obscure.  Alfonso  the  Catholic,  A.  D.  739-757,  extended  his 
dominion  over  one-fourth  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  established  colonies 
of  his  Christian  subjects  in  many  places  depopulated  by  his  slaughter  of 
the  Arabs.  The  conquered  lands  were  frequently  lost  and  regained  by 
his  successors,  and  even  when  held  Avere  often  under  tribute  to  the 
Mohammedan  sovereigns  at  Cordova. 

71.  Among  the  many  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs  of  the  time,  the  most 
important  were  Cuthred  (A.  D.  740-754),  Avho  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
future  supremacy  of  Wessex;  OfFa,  king  of  Mercia  (A.  D.  755-779),  Avho 
reigned  over  twenty-three  of  the  modern  English  counties ;  and  Egbert 
A.  D.  827-836),  Avho  is  still  more  distinguished  as  the  first  lord-para- 
mount of  all  England.  Exiled  by  the  jealousy  of  his  kinsman,  King 
Brihtric,  of  Wessex,  Egbert  spent  his  youth  at  the  court  or  in  the 
camp  of  Charlemagne.  He  accompanied  that  great  sovereign  in  his 
rapid  expeditions  throughout  Europe,  and  drcAV  inspirations  for  his  own 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  THE  CARLO  VINOIANS.  43 

subsequent  reign  from  the  enlightened  and  liberal  policy  of  the  founder 
of  the  new  Western  empire. 

The  privations  and  hardships  of  the  prince  proved  beneficial  both  to 
himself  and  to  his  country.  By  the  superior  military  science  which  he 
learned  in  the  Avars  of  Charlemagne,  as  well  as  by  his  wisdom  and  moder- 
ation, he  either  conquered  or  rendered  tributary  all  the  other  Anglo- 
Saxon  kingdoms,  and  gained  decisive  victories  over  the  Britons.  The 
only  foes  who  could  withstand  him  were  the  Danes,  or  Northmen,  who 
were  now  infesting  the  coasts  of  Europe  as  the  Saxons  had  done  four 
centuries  before.  They  once  defeated  the  army  of  Egbert,  but  after  their 
alliance  with  the  Britons  of  Cornwall,  the  united  forces  were  routed  with 
great  slaughter. 

'72,  The  countries  on  the  Baltic,  too  sterile  to  support  so  numerous 
and  active  a  race,  sent  forth  the  hardiest  of  their  sons  to  a  life  of  ad- 
venture, in  which  they  had  every  thing  to  gain  and  nothing  to  lose;  for 
no  sovereign  of  the  south  cared  to  conquer  the  bare  cliffs  of  Norway,  the 
marshes  and  then  impenetrable  forests  of  Sweden,  or  the  islands  and 
peninsula  inclosed  in  a  tumultuous  sea,  which  constituted  Denmark.  In 
addition  to  their  usual  ferocity,  one  class  of  Northmen  cultivated  a  sort 
of  brutal  frenzy,  in  which  they  howled  like  wolves,  gnashed  their  teeth 
like  mad  dogs,  lashed  themselves  into  a  fury  of  superhuman  strength, 
and  then  rushed,  fearless  of  death,  into  scenes  of  atrocious  slaughter,  such 
as  no  sane  mind  even  of  a  savage  could  endure.  This  "  Berserker's  rage" 
was  in  early  times  regarded  with  reverence,  like  the  convulsions  of  in- 
spired priestesses  among  the  Phrygians  and  Greeks;  but  with  the  dawn 
of  civilization  it  fell  into  disrepute  and  even  abhorrence. 

73.  In  the  eighth  century,  Harald  Harfagre,  of  Norway,  united  many 
petty  sovereignties  under  his  sway,  and  tried  to  clear  his  dominions  of 
pirates.  The  nests  being  broken  up,  the  marauders  swarmed  over  Europe. 
Some,  crossing  the  Scythian  plains,  reappeared  upon  the  Hellespont,  where 
the  Byzantine  sovereigns  were  glad  to  buy  their  services  with  liberal  do- 
nations of  gold ;  and  these  "  Varangians,"  or  exiles,  became  to  the  Eastern 
empire  in  its  decline  what  the  Franks  and  Goths  had  been  to  that  of 
the  West.  A  few  years  later,  two  successive 'bands  of  North-  a  D  862 
men  put  an  end  to  the  Slavic  kingdoms  of  Novgorod  and 

Kiev,  and  thus  laid  the  obscure  foundation  of  the  greatest  empire  of  our 
own  time.  The  Scandinavian  conquerors,  comparatively  few  in  number, 
adopted  the  language  of  their  subjects;  but  Ruric,  the  chief,  imposed  the 
name  of  his  own  Russian  tribe  upon  the  united  nation. 

74.  Ragnar  Lodbrog,  king  of  the  Danish  isles,  was  expelled  his  do- 
minions with  the  aid  of  the  Franks.  He  retaliated  by  a  raid  upon 
France  itself,  sailed  up  the  Seine  to  Paris,  and  plundered  all  the  churches. 
Falling  later  into  the  hands  of  Ella,  king  of  Deira,  he  was  thrown  into 


44  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

a  dungeon  and  slain  by  the  venom  of  innumerable  serpents.  Charle- 
magne had  fortified  the  whole  western  border  of  his  empire  against  the 
northern  pirates,  but  while  his  grandchildren  were  destroying  each  other 
at  Fontenay,  these  sea-robbers  were  left  unchecked  to  ravage  the  coasts 
of  Holland,  France,  and  Spain. 

I2,E  C-A.I>ITTJXi-A.TI02Sr. 

The  Saracens  became  distinguished  for  learning  and  high  civilization.  Almansor  built 
Eagdad.  Haroun  al  Raschid  devastated  the  east,  though  he  maintained  friendly  relations 
with  the  west.  Arabian  pirates  conquered  Crete  and  Sicily.  Rome  was  only  saved  by  Pope 
Leo  IV. 

War  of  Iconoclasm  begun  by  Emperor  Leo  III. ;  continued  by  his  son,  Constantino  V. 
Images  restored  by  Irene,  who  supplanted  her  own  son,  but  was  in  turn  dethroned  by 
Nicephorus  I.  Leo  V.  had  long  wars  with  the  Bulgarians,  who  became  Christianized 
through  their  intercourse  with  the  empire.  Great  commercial  prosperity  under  the  Amo- 
rian  dynasty.  Theophilus  renewed  the  war  against  images,  but  these  were  finally  re- 
stored and  the  long  contest  ended  by  Theodora. 

Gothic  kingdom  extended  by  Alfonso  the  Catholic  over  one-fourth  of  Spain.  In  Eng- 
land, Egbert  of  Wessex  united  all  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  under  his  own  sway.  The 
ravages  of  Scandinavian  free-booters  were  increased  by  the  consolidation  of  their  states 
under  Harald  Harfagre.  Many  entered  the  imperial  service  at  Constantinople;  others, 
under  Ruric,  founded  the  Russian  empire  at  Novgorod,  while  still  greater  numbers  de- 
vastated the  western  coasts  of  Europe. 


Period  III.  Feom  the  Division  of  Charlemagne's  Dominions 
TO  the  First  Crusade,  A.  D.  843-1096. 

THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

76.  During  the  rapid  decline  of  the  Carlovingian  family,  tlie  imperial 
crown  passed  during  forty-five  years  from  one  to  another  of  its  three 
branches,  which  reigned  in  Italy  until  A.  D.  888,  in  Germany  until 
A.  D.  911,  in  France  until  A.  D.  987.  No  one  of  its  members  equaled 
their  first  imperial  ancestor  either  in  war  or  state-craft,  or  inherited  his 
personal  control  over  the  princes  and  barons,  whose  estates  covered  almost 
the  entire  empire.  Wherever  special  danger  threatened,  either  from  Mag- 
yars, Saracens,  or  Northmen,  the  burden  of  public  defense  fell  upon  local 
chieftains,  who  made  war  or  peace  on  their  own  responsibility,  and  soon 
cast  off  the  authority  of  the  royal  commissioners  appointed  by  Charle- 
magne. Thus,  on  the  west,  the  dukes  of  Aquitaine  and  Brittany,  the 
counts  of  Anjou  and  Paris ;  on  the  east,  the  dukes  of  Saxony,  Tliuringia, 
Franconia,  Bavaria,  and  Suabia;  in  Italy,  the  marquises  of  Friuli,  Ivrea, 
Spoleto,  and  Tuscany,  enjoyed  wealth  and  power  superior  in  almost  every 
instance  to  those  of  their  nominal  sovereigns;   and  there  was  scarcely  a 


THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM.  45 

city  or  castle  in  the  wliole  empire  which  had  not  some  other  master  than 
the  king. 

76.  Estates  were  held  upon  a  condition  of  military  service,  known  as  the 
"feudal  tenure."  Each  year  the  great  vassal,  kneeling,  placed  his  hands 
between  those  of  his  suzerain,  and  vowed  to  serve  him  with  life  and  limb, 
faithfully  and  loyally,  in  consideration  of  the  lands  conferred.  Beneath 
the  great  princes  who  held  provinces  directly  from  the  king,  were  "rear 
vassals,"  who  did  homage  to  the  count  or  duke  for  some  portion  of  his 
domains;  and  these  again  might  grant  estates  to  smaller  tenants,  the 
whole  territory  being  subject  to  a  condition  of  service  in  time  of  war,  or, 
as  it  was  called,  "  held  in  fief."  Even  the  absolute  owners  of  land  were 
often  glad  to  secure  the  protection  of  some  powerful  lord  by  acknowledging 
his  suzerainty;  and  thus  during  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  centuries, 
feudal  holdings  took  the  place  of  "allodial  possession"  throughout  France, 
Germany,  and  a  great  part  of  Italy.  Originally,  the  feudal  grants  were 
made  only  for  a  term  of  years  or  during  the  life-time  of  the  vassal,  but 
they  gradually  became  hereditary.  Upon  the  extinction  of  the  family,  or 
its  failure  to  fulfill  the  oath  of  homage,  the  estate  reverted  to  the  superior; 
if  of  a  great  vassal,  to  the  king. 

77.  The  serfs  who  cultivated  the  soil  were  given  away  with  it,  and 
could  claim  nothing  except  protection  for  their  families  and  cattle  in  time 
of  invasion.  So  often  was  their  humble  industry  broken  up,  not  only  by 
foreign  inroads,  but  by  the  private  wars  of  the  nobles,  that  whole  districts 
were  sometimes  depopulated  by  famine.  The  darkest  period  of  the  "  Dark 
Ages"  was  comprised  in  the  three  centuries  succeeding  Charlemagne.  The 
order  and  security  restored  by  his  great  genius  were  replaced  for  a  season 
by  the  wildest  anarchy.  "Fist-law"  prevailed,  and  western  Europe  was 
more  deeply  sunk  in  ignorance  and  misery  during  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  than  at  any  preceding  period. 

78.  Tlie  Church  was  at  this  time  the  only  protector  of  the  weak; 
bishops  and  abbots  were  important  vassals  of  the  empire,  and  a  great 
increase  of  power  and  wealth  gave  them  the  dignity  of  independent 
princes.  Abbey-lands,  being  usually  secure  from  ravages,  were  better  cul- 
tivated, and  the  serfs  attached  to  them  more  prosperous  than  those  of  sec- 
ular estates.  At  length,  in  A.  D.  1033,  the  French  clergy  were  able  to 
impose  a  check  upon  the  private  wars,  which  were  a  source  of  the  greatest 
calamity  to  Europe.  It  was  forbidden  to  engage  in  any  warlike  movement 
between  sunset  on  Wednesday  and  sunrise  on  Monday  of  each  week,  or  on 
any  holy  festival  which  might  occur  during  the  remaining  days.  This 
"truce  of  God,"  proclaimed  as  by  direct  revelation  from  Heaven,  was  ob- 
served throughout  the  countries  which  obeyed  the  Bishop  of  Eome. 

79.  From  this  glance  at  the  general  condition  of  Europe  under  the 
Feudal  System,  we  turn  to  mark  the  rise  of  the  several  dynasties  and 


46  medijEVAL  history. 

nations.  The  Middle-Kingdom  of  Lothaire  (see  §  61)  soon  fell,  under  his 
sons,  into  its  three  natural  divisions:  Italy,  Burgundy,  and  Lorraine. 
Louis  II.  at  his  father's  death  added  to  the  Italian  crown  that  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  waged  valiant  war  against  the  Saracens  in  Calabria. 
The  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  then  comprising  the  country  between  the 
Rhone  and  the  Alps,  and  known  afterward  as  the  kingdom  of  Provence 
or  of  Aries,  was  first  to  throw  off  the  Carlovingian  yoke  and  set  up  a 
native  sovereign  in  Count  Boso,  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  Louis  II., 
A.  D.  877. 

80.  Charles  the  Bald  outlived  his  brothers,  and  for  a  year  claimed  the 
whole  dominion  of  Charlemagne.  He  continued  the  policy  begun  by 
Lothaire,  of  settling  the  barbarian  invaders  upon. the  lands  they  had  de- 
vastated, by  giving  to  Robert  the  Strong,  probably  a  Saxon  chief,  all  the 
lands  between  the  Loire  and  the  Seine,  with  the  title  of  Count  of  Anjou. 
The  wisdom  of  the  grant  was  shown  in  the  able  resistance  of  Count  Robert 
to  the  bands  of  Northmen  who  had  in  this  reign  plundered  Rouen,  twice 
stormed  and  sacked  Paris,  and  massacred  so  many  thousands  of  people 
that  the  islets  of  the  Seine  were  whitened  with  their  bones.  Robert  lost 
his  life  in  battle  with  Hasting  the  Viking ;  but  his  son  Eudes  became  the 
no  less  brave  and  able  defender  of  Paris  against  a  still  more  terrible 
assault.     The  siege  lasted  eighteen  months.     Charles  III.  (the  Fat),  who 

had  once  more  united  the  dominions  of  Charlema^rne,  was 

A    D   8S^  8S6 

absent  and  neglectful  of  his  imperial  duties.  When  at  last 
he  arrived  before  the  walls  of  Paris,  it  was  only  to  ransom  the  city  with 
money,  and  suffer  the  half-conquered  enemy  to  pursue  his  ravages  as  far 
inland  as  Burgundy. 

81.  Universal  contempt  for  this  conduct  led  to  the  deposition  of  Charles 
by  a  Diet  of  the  empire  at  Tribur.  His  four  kingdoms  were  divided. 
Germany  chose  for  its  king  Arnulf,  a  grandson  of  Louis  the  German,  who 
by  defeating  the  Northmen  at  their  fortified  camp  near  Louvain,  had 
already  proved  himself  one  of  the  most  valiant  of  his  race.  The  crown 
of  Italy  was  bestowed  upon  Berengar  of  Friuli;  but  that  of  the  empire 
was  received  by  Guy  of  Spoleto,  and  upon  his  death,  three  years  later, 
by  Lambert,  his  son.  Northern  or  Transjurane  Burgundy  became  a  sep- 
arate kingdom  under  Rudolf  I.,  while  in  western  France,  Count  Eudes 
was  called  by  general  acclamation  to  the  throne.  Four  years  later,  a 
rival  party  which  adhered  to  the  Carlovingians,  crowned  Charles  the 
Simple,  the  last  surviving  descendant  of  Charles  the  Bald,  who  reigned 
north  of  the  Seine  until  the  death  of  Eudes,  A.  D.  898,  and  afterward 
nominally  over  all  the  country  from  the  ocean  to  the  Rhone  and  Moselle. 

82.  Western  Europe  still  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the  Danes.  In 
England  their  piratical  craft  swarmed  in  all  the  rivers,  while  troops  of 
corsairs  scoured  the  country,   pillaged  York,   London,  and   many  other 


THE  NORMANS.  47 

towns,  and  even  forced  Alfred,  grandson  of  Egbert,  to  spend  some  months 
a  homeless  fugitive  in  his  own  realm,  of  which  he  was  to  become  the  civ- 
ilizer  and  benefactor.  Alfred,  however,  mustered  a  force  to  defeat  them  at 
Ethandune,  and  afterward,  in  pursuance  of  his  liberal  and  peaceful  policy, 
ceded  to  Guthrun,  their  leader,  upon  his  baptism,  the  seven  eastern  coun- 
ties north  of  the  Thames  in  perpetual  possession. 

83.  In  A.  D.  912,  Charles  the  Simple,  too  poor  to  bribe  and  too  weak 
to  resist  them,  likewise  ceded  to  Hrolf,  or  EoUo,  their  Norman  leader,  in 
perpetual  fief,  a  large  region  of  north-western  France,  with  the  feudal  sov- 
ereignty of  the  duchy  of  Bretagne,  on  condition  of  his  followers  embracing 
Christianity  and  ceasing  from  their  depredations.  On  the  French  side  of 
the  Channel  this  expedient  proved  effectual,  for  the  Normans,  now  settling 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  formed  a  barrier  against  future  incursions  of 
their  countrymen ;  and  their  province,  which  took  from  them  the  name  of 
Normandy,  became  the  richest  and  most  orderly  part  of  France.  But  in 
England,  the  Danes  of  the  eastern  border  disclaimed  all  responsibility  for 
the  acts  of  their  countrymen,  who  (A.  D.  1003-1013)  expelled 

J  '  ^  ^        i  A.  D.  1017-104L 

Ethel  red  the  Unready  ten  years  from  his  realm  ;  and  at  length 

gaining  sole  possession  of  the  kingdom,  ruled  it,  under  Knut  and  his  two 

sons,  Harold  and  Hardiknut,  twenty-four  years. 

84.  In  France,  the  imbecility  of  Charles  and  the  insolence  of  his  low- 
born minister,  Haganon,  led  to  a  war  with  the  great  vassals,  by  whom  the 
king  was  defeated  and  imprisoned,  with  one  brief  exception,  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  Robert,  duke  of  France,  brother  of  Count  Eudes,  and 
Rudolph  of  Burgundy  successively  obtained  the  crown.  The  wife  of 
Charles,  with,  her  infant  son  Louis,  took  refuge  in  England  at  the  court 
of  her  brother  Athelstan.  Upon  the  death  of  King  Rudolph,  A.  D.  936, 
three  great  nobles  united  to  recall  the  young  prince,  who  on  account  of 
his  exile  is  known  to  history  as  Louis  d'Outremer.  Having  been  carefully 
educated  by  his  uncle,  Louis  displayed  more  spirit  and  ability  than  were 
common  to  his  declining  family. 

Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  France  and  Burgundy  and  Count  of  Paris, 
had  been  chiefly  influential  in  bestowing  upon  that  prince  a  crown  which 
he  might  as  easily  have  obtained  for  himself.  He  resented  the  independent 
spirit  of  Louis,  and  at  length,  throwing  ofl"  his  allegiance,  declared  himself 
a  vassal  of  Otho  the  Great,  king  of  Germany.  The  duke  of  Normandy 
and  other  great  feudatories  followed  his  example.  Otho  invaded  the 
country,  and  the  French  monarchy  covered  little  more  than  the  castle- 
rock  of  Laon,  when,  in  A.  D.  954,  King  Louis  suddenly  died. 

85.  Hugh  the  Great  had  the  crown  a  third  time  at  his  disposal,  but  he 
bestow^ed  it  upon  Lothaire,  the  son  of  Louis,  and  himself  died  two  years 
later,  having  for  thirty-three  years  exercised  more  than  royal  power, 
though  without  its  insignia.     Lothaire  was  succeeded,  A.  D.  986,  by  his 


48  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

son,  Louis  V.,  with  whom  ended  the  Carlovingian  line  in  France. 
Charles,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  only  brother  of  Lothaire,  was  rejected 
in  consequence  of  his  worthless  character,  and  a  great  council  of  nobles 
elected  Hugh,  Count  of  Paris,  and  eldest  son  of  Hugh  the  Great,  to  be 
their  king.  With  his  consecration  at  Rheims,  July  1,  987,  began  the  rule 
of  that  illustrious  dynasty  which  continued  in  unbroken  succession  to 
govern  France  more  than  eight  hundred  years.  Either  from  humility  or 
superstition,  the  new  king  habitually  wore  an  abbot's  cap  instead  of  a 
crown.  To  this  circumstance  he  probably  owes  his  surname  Capet,  which 
is  also  applied  to  his  family. 

86.  The  accession  of  the  count  of  Paris  was  a  triumph  of  French  nation- 
ality over  what  had  always  been  more  or  less  resented  as  the  foreign  rule 
of  the  Carlovingians.  The  relation  of  the  king  to  the  great  nobles  was 
merely  that  of  precedence  among  equals ;  and  even  this  slight  authority 
was  sometimes  disputed  by  the  chiefs  of  the  southern  provinces,  always 
jealous  rivals  of  those  of  the  north.  The  marriage  of  Robert  the  Pious, 
son  and  successor  of  Hugh,  with  a  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  led 
to  more  intimate  relations  between  the  two  parts  of  the  kingdom ;  and 
though  the  clergy  bitterly  denounced  the  gay  dress  and  easy  manners  of 
the  new  courtiers,  some  advantage  doubtless  resulted  from  the  infusion  of 
southern  intelligence  and  refinement  —  partly  retained  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean provinces  since  the  Augustan  age,  and  partly  derived  from  the  Sar- 
acens, who  were  then  the  most  cultivated  people  in  Europe. 

87.  The  munificence  toward  the  Church,  which  distinguished  both  Hugh 
and  Robert,  doubtless  contributed  much  to  the  establishment  of  their  dy- 
nasty, but  did  not  preserve  the  latter  from  a  cruel  persecution  on  account 
of  his  first  marriage  with  his  distant  relative,  Bertha.  The  kingdom  was 
placed  under  an  interdict,  which  was  enforced  with  extreme  severity, 
until  the  king,  after  several  years'  resistance,  was  compelled  to  yield. 

A  singular  delusion  which  prevailed  during  this  reign  still  further  in- 
creased the  power  of  the  clergy.  A  prophecy  widely  circulated  in  Europe 
foretold  the  end  of  the  world  one  thousand  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ. 
As  the  time  approached  no  seed  was  sown,  nor  any  worldly  business 
transacted.  The  terrified  multitude  thronged  the  churches,  seeking  by 
prayer  and  penance  to  avert  the  worst  features  of  their  doom.  The  rich 
and  the  great  lavished  their  estates  upon  the  monasteries;  and  many, 
assuming  the  humble  garb  of  penitents,  hastened  to  the  Holy  Land,  where 
it  was  believed  that  our  Lord  would  appear  in  person.  Famine  and  untold 
misery  resulted  from  this  extraordinary  panic;  and  though  industry  was 
slowly  resumed  after  the  fatal  year  had  passed,  yet  the  feeling  of  depend- 
ence upon  the  Church  for  the  security  of  interests  dearer  than  life,  re- 
mained unabated  in  the  minds  of  all  classes. 

88.  The  violent  deeds  which  were  characteristic  of  the  time  burdened 


EUROPE 

during  the  latter  half  of  the 
Xth.  Cciitiu-y. 

A.  A'on  Stehiwelir. 


reviatlons:/ 


Abbre 
Kdm.  =  Kingdom 
Dm.  =  Diiliedom 
Tr.    =    Principality 
M.   =     Margi-aviate 
Co.    ^     Coimtship 


[(.imb{;;^5"'''-  ^^  y 


:X 


lUh  1     t    '    '    '    •   JTl 


cu. 


C^'^-V'^'-^^i:^:^ 


THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST.  49 

many  consciences  with  remorse.  The  clergy  taught  that  sin  miglit  be 
expiated  by  gifts  to  the  Church,  and  thence  arose  the  magnificent  cathe- 
drals and  abbeys  which  constitute  the  principal  ornaments  of  Europe. 
Many  princes,  among  whom  were  eight  or  ten  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  ex- 
changed the  cares  and  tumults  of  their  regal  state  for  the  peace  and  seclu- 
sion of  a  monastery.  A  visit  to  the  scenes  of  our  Savior's  life,  teachings, 
and  death  was  considered  especially  efficacious  as  an  atonement  for  sin  ; 
and  southern  Europe  was  thronged  with  pilgrims,  among  whom  the  now 
Christianized  Northmen  were  most  numerous  and  zealous. 

89.  Duke  Kobert  the  Magnificent,  the  fifth  from  Eollo,  filled  Avith 
remorse  for  his  unscrupulous  and  wicked  life,  abandoned  his  duchy  after 
securing  the  allegiance  of  his  barons  to  his  young  son  William,  and  ful- 
filled his  presentiment  by  dying  in  Asia  Minor  during  his  return  from 
Jerusalem.  William,  becoming  of  age,  proved  one  of  the  ablest  princes 
of  his  line.  He  was  cousin  to  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  last  Saxon  king 
of  the  fiimily  of  Egbert;  and  on  the  death  of  that'  sovereign,  without 
children,  he  claimed  the  English  crown.  Harold,  son  of  the  powerful 
Earl  Godwin,  was,  however,  made  king,  and  for  nearly  a  year  defended 
himself  against  an  invasion  from  Norway  and  the  resistance  of  his  own 
brother;  but  in  September,  A.  D.  1066,  William  landed  in  the  south  of 
England  with  a  formidable  array  of  knights  and  gentlemen,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Hastings  ended  the  reign  with  the  life  of  Harold. 

90.  The  Norman  Conquest,  which  introduced  feudalism  into  England, 
was  among  the  most  decisive  events  in  European  history.  The  lands  of 
the  conquered  island  were  bestowed  in  fief  upon  the  followers  of  the 
duke;  the  abbeys  and  bishoprics,  upon  foreign  churchmen.  The  language 
of  the  Conqueror  —  French  as  somewhat  modified  by  the  Northmen  —  was 
enforced  in  legal  transactions;  and  not  only  the  sovereigns,  but  most  of 
the  nobility  of  England,  for  eight  hundred  years  have  been  of  Norman 
blood.  Some  of  the  outlawed  Saxons  repaired  to  Constantinople,  where 
they  entered  the  service  of  the  Eastern  emperor,  and  soon  enjoyed  the 
opportunity  of  fighting  their  Norman  foes  during  the  Crusades.  The 
greater  number  remained  upon  the  lands  as  tenants  or  serfs  of  the  con- 
querors, and  their  language,  with  a  certain  mixture  of  Norman  words, 
became  the  predominant  element  in  modern  English. 

91.  In  passing  through  southern  Italy  on  their  way  to  the  Holy  Land, 
the  Norman  pilgrims  had  not  failed  to  remark  the  weakness  of  a  country 
divided  between  Greeks,  Lombards,  and  Saracens,  who  wasted  their  forces 
in  petty  wars.  Joining  one  or  another  of  these  belligerent  ^  ^  ^^^^ 
parties,   they   managed   by  stratagem   or   force   of  arms   to 

possess   themselves    of   great   domains.     Twelve    Norman    counts   gained 
twelve    cities    with    their    territories   in    Apulia,   and    formed    a    military 
republic,  with   William   of  the   Iron   Arm   at  its  head.     They   lived  by 
M.  H.— 4. 


50  .  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

brigandage,  and  so  annoyed  their  neighbors  that  Pope  Leo  IX.  persuaded 

the  Eastern  and  Western  emperors  to  join  in  a  league  against  them.     In 

a  battle   near  Civitella  the  Normans  were  victorious;   the 

A.  D.  1053.  ' 

Pope  was  made  prisoner,  and  compelled  to  bestow  upon  his 

captors,  as  vassals   of  the  Church,  not  only  all  the  lands  they  had  con- 
quered, but  all  which  they  might  yet  obtain. 

92.  Robert  Guiscard  was  the  first  duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria.  He 
not  only  drove  from  the  maritime  cities  the  last  of  the  Greek  magistrates, 
but  conquered  from  the  Lombards  their  three  great  principalities  of 
Salerno,  Capua,  and  Benevento,  which  had  outlasted  by  three  centuries 
th"e  kingdom  of  their  countrymen  in  the  north  of  Italy,  His  brother 
Eoger,  meanwhile,  with  a  few  hundreds  of  Norman  volunteers,  conquered 
Sicily  from  the  Saracens,  and  held  it  as  a  dependency  of  the  duchy  of 
Apulia.  Thus  arose  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  or  the  Two  Sicilies,  which 
throughout  its  separate  existence  (until  A.  D.  1860)  continued  to  be  a 
"fief  of  St.  Peter."- 

Not  content  with  having  founded,  from  the  resources  of  a  private  ad' 
venturer,  a  kingdom  which  was  to  continue  nearly  eight  centuries,  Robert 
Guiscard  aspired  to  conquer  the  empire  of  the  East.  He  vanquished  the 
Emperor  Alexis  Comnenus  in  a  great  battle  before  Durazzo,  A.  D.  1081, 
but  was  recalled  to  Italy  by  a  rebellion  of  his  subjects,  and  undertook, 
A.  D.  1084,  the  protection  of  Pope  Gregory  VII.  against  the  Western 
emperor,  Henry  IV.  (See  ^  108.)  He  died  A.  D.  1085,  and  his  domin- 
ions, after  the  death  of  his  grandson,  passed  to  the  son  of  his  brother 
Roger,  who  first  of  the  family  received  the  title  of  king. 

93.  The  foundation  of  the  Russian  Empire  by  pagan  Northmen,  A.  D. 
862,  has  already  been  noticed.  Many  separate  principalities  were  formed 
by  successive  chieftains,  all  of  whom  owned  a  sort  of  feudal  allegiance 
to  the  family  of  Ruric.  Christianity  was  early  introduced  by  mission- 
aries from  Cherson  and  Constantinople;  and  in  A.  D.  955,  Queen  Olga, 
widow  of  the  son  of  Ruric,  and  regent  of  the  empire,  was  baptized  in 
the  latter  city. 

Vladimir  the  Great,  after  his  baptism,  established  churches  and  schools 
throughout  the  empire,  which  he  had  enlarged  by  the  con- 
quest  of  Gallicia,  Lithuania,  and  Livonia.  After  his  death 
his  dominions  were  divided  by  family  wars  similar  to  those  of  the  Car- 
lovingians;  but  they  were  reunited  under  Yaroslav  (A.  D.  1036),  who 
contributed  greatly  to  their  civilization  by  reclaiming  waste  lands,  multi- 
plying towns,  churches,  and  schools,  ordering  the  translation  of  Greek 
books  —  especially  the  Holy  Scriptures  —  into  the  Slavonian  language, 
and  compiling  the  first  Russian  code  of  laws.  First  of  the  Russian  sov- 
ereigns, he  allied  himself  with  the  western  nations  by  the  marriage  of  his 
three  daughters  with  the  kings  of  France,  Norway,  and  Hungary. 


THE  ITALIAN  REPUBLICS.  51 

During  the  decline  of  the  Carlovingian  empire,  the  power  of  the  great  vassals  exceeded 
that  of  the  sovereigns.  Feudal  System  became  prevalent.  Misery  of  the  serfs  was  only 
alleviated  by  the  protection  of  the  Church.  The  "truce  of  God"  imposed  a  check  upon 
private  wars. 

Alfred  of  England  and  Charles  III.  of  France  granted  lands  to  the  Danes,  or  North- 
men, who  in  the  latter  country  became  settled  and  highly  civilized.  The  efficient  defense 
of  France  by  the  counts  of  Paris,  and  the  incompetence  of  the  kings,  occasioned  a  revo- 
lution of  nearly  a  hundred  years,  which  at  length  overthrew  the  Carlovingian  and  estab- 
lished the  Capctian  dynasty  in  France. 

The  power  of  the  Church,  fostered  by  the  first  two  Capetians,  was  increased  by  the  ter- 
rors of  the  year  of  doom.  Pilgrimages,  monastic  vows,  and  liberal  ecclesiastical  foundations 
relieved  the  burdened  consciences  of  the  great.  The  Normans,  under  their  duke  \\'illiam, 
became  the  sovereign  race  in  England ;  under  Robert  and  Roger  Guiscard,  in  southern 
Italy  and  Sicily ;  and  under  the  descendants  of  Ruric,  in  Russia. 


RISE  OF  THE  ITALIAN  REPUBLICS. 

94.  In  the  north  of  Italy,  the  three  republics  of  Genoa,  Pisa,  and 
Venice  were  at  this  time  most  powerful.  The  latter  claimed  to  be  the 
eldest  and  only  true  daughter  of  the  Roman  Republic,  having  arisen, 
before  the  fall  of  the  empire,  from  a  population  of  Italians  unmixed 
with  the  northern  barbarians.  (See  Anc.  Hist.,  Book  V,  |  249.)  At  first 
each  island,  peopled  by  a  separate  band  of  refugees,  had  its  own  tribune; 
but  a  more  consolidated  government  was  formed  by  the  Assembly  at 
Heraclea,  A.  D.  697,  which  elected  for  life  a  duke  or  doge,  with  all  the 
powers  of  a  king.  Paul  Luke  Auafesta  was  the  first  doge  of  the  united 
republic. 

Pepin,  son  of  Charlemagne,  tried,  in  A.  D.  809,  to  conquer  Venice 
from  the  Eastern  emperor,  Nicephorus,  who  claimed  it  as  a  dependency. 
The  citizens,  concentrating  themselves  on  the  Rialto,  defeated  all  his 
attempts  to  penetrate  the  winding  and  narrow  passages  between  the 
islands;  and  as  a  monument  of  their  success,  built  the  ducal  palace 
where  it  now  stands.  Twenty  years  later,  the  remains  of  St.  Mark  were 
brought  from  Alexandria  and  enshrined  in  the  church  which  bears  his 
name.  The  saint,  or  his  emblematic  winged  lion,  became  the  guardian 
of  the  republic,  emblazoned  on  its  standards,  imprinted  on  its  money, 
identified  in  every  way  with  the  state  itself.  By  conquering  the  Dalma- 
tian and  Istrian  pirates,  the  Venetians  extended  their  dominion  east  of 
the  Adriatic,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  greatest  commercial  power 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Alone  of  all  the  Italian  republics,  Venice  never 
submitted  to  the  German  emperors,  nor  acknowledged  any  other  secular 
authority  within  her  walls. 

95.  Pisa  was  the  first  of  the  Tuscan  cities  to  grow  rich  by  commerce. 
The  wealth  of  her  merchants  redeemed  the  marshes  of  the  lower  Arno, 

\ 


/<x.    '^^'-^ 


52  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

and  made  the  whole  region  of  the  Maremma,  now  half  deserted,  a  delight- 
ful garden.  The  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  being  held  by  the  Saracens, 
and  Venice  and  Amalfi  claiming  all  the  commerce  of  that  sea,  Pisa  gained 
her  power  only  by  continual  strife.  Sardinia  was  conquered,  A.  D.  1017- 
1021,  by  the  allied  Pisans  and  Genoese,  from  the  Mohammedan  corsairs, 
and  was  ultimately  divided  in  fiefs  among  the  Pisan  nobles. 

96.  Genoa,  sometimes  the  ally,  but  always  the  rival  of  Pisa,  extended 
her  power  over  the  cities  of  the  two  Rivieras  from  Nice  to  Spezzia.  Her 
constitution,  like  those  of  most  of  the  Italian  cities,  was  modeled  upon 
that  of  the  Roman  Republic.  The  four  or  six  chief  magistrates  were 
called  consuls.  At  the  end  of  their  term  of  office  they  rendered  a  strict 
account  to  the  people. 

97.  The  fortifications  of  cities  which,  throughout  northern  Italy,  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  Lombards,  were  rebuilt  only  by  permission  of  the 
emperor,  which  included  also  the  right  to  organize  a  citizen  soldiery,  and 
to  take  all  needful  measures  for  defense  against  the  barbarians.  The 
right  of  independent  warfare  belonged  to  municipalities  as  well  as  to 
barons,  and  the  feuds  of  the  Italian  cities — especially  of  Pavia  and  Milan, 
the  two  capitals  of  Lombardy — fill  a  large  place  in  mediaeval  annals. 
Pavia,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  held  the  control  of  all  the  rivers  of 
Lombardy,  and  had  been  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Lombard  kings. 
Milan,  seat  of  the  Western  Empire  since  the  days  of  Diocletian,  and  of 
the  first  and  greatest  archbishopric  in  northern  Italy,  was  richer,  more 
warlike,  and  more  powerful  than  her  rival. 

98.  No  period,  even  of  the  Dark  Ages,  is  so  dark  as  that  which  fol- 
lowed the  dissolution  of  the  Carlovingian  power.  Italy  was  overspread 
by  the  ravages  of  Saracens  from  the  south  and  Hungarians  from  the 
north.  The  Arabian  freebooters  were  the  refuse  and  outlaws  of  their  race, 
owing  allegiance  to  neither  of  the  Caliphates;  while  the  Magyars,  like 
their  predecessors,  the  Huns,  were  regarded  rather  as  wild  beasts  than  as 
men.  The  Italian  kings,  absorbed  in  their  rivalries,  were  unable  to  resist 
the  marauders.  Berengar's  authority  was  divided  successively  with  the 
emperors  Guy  and  Lambert,  and  with  Louis  of  Aries  and  Rudolph  of 
Burgundy,  who  were  crowned  at  Monza  even  during  his  life. 

99.  After  the  death  of  Berengar  I.,  the  Italian  crown  was  bestowed 
upon  Hugh  of  Provence,  who  proved  an  intolerable  tyrant.  He  married 
Marozia  (see  I  103),  but  her  son,  Alberic,  expelled  him  from  Rome,  and 
ruled  that  city  many  years  as  consul  or  senator.  At  length  Berengar, 
marquis  of  Ivrea,  being  threatened  by  King  Hugh  with  the  loss  of  his 
eyes,  took  refuge  in  Germany.  The  crown  of  that  country,  after  the 
failure  of  the  Carlovingian  line,  had  been  conferred  first  upon  Conrad  of 
Franconia,  and  then  upon  Henry  the  Fowler,  the  first  of  the  Saxon 
dynasty.      This  great  sovereign  restored  and  confirmed  the  power  of  the 


THE  ITALIAN  REPUBLICS.  53 

German  kingdom  by  his  victories  over  the  pagans  on  its  eastern  frontier. 
He  wrested  the  mark  of  Brandenburg  from  the  Slavonians, 
and  at  Merseburg,  in  Saxony,  gained  a  great  and  decisive  '    '  ^^^' 

victory  over  the  Magyars.     His  son,  Otho,  was  now  king  of  Germany. 

100.  Berengar  returned  with  a  large  army  of  Italian  refugees,  A.  D. 
945,  and  was  welcomed  as  master  of  Italy.  Hugh  retired  into  his  own 
kingdom  of  Provence ;  his  son,  Lothaire,  died  A.  D.  950,  and  Berengar 
was  crowned  king.  But  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Lothaire,  who  had  been 
imprisoned  by  Berengar  for  refusing  to  marry  Adalbert,  his  son,  escaped 
from  her  dungeon,  found  means  of  crossing  the  Alps,  and  threw  herself 
upon  the  protection  of  Otho  I.  This  sovereign,  who  was  no  less  a  brave 
knight  than  a  generous  king,  descended  into  Italy,  wedded  the  injured 
princess,  and  compelled  her  persecutor  to  hold  his  kingdom  as  a  vassal  of 
the  eastern  Franks.  But  the  nobles  were  still  discontented,  and  after  ten 
years  of  Berengar's  turbulent  reign,  the  Pope  invited  Otho  to  restore 
peace  and  order  to  Italy  by  accepting  the  imperial  crown.  He  was 
crowned  with  Queen  Adelaide  at  Rome,  in  February,  962. 

101.  The  "Holy  Roman  Empire,"  thus  revived,  continued  to  be  in- 
separable from  the  German  kingdom.*  Its  name  indicates  the  deep  place 
it  held  in  the  belief  and  reverence  of  the  best  spirits  of  the  age.  To  a 
Roman  emperor  alone  could  men  look  for  the  reestablishment  of  peace 
and  justice  in  the  place  of  anarchy  and  tumult,  for  Rome  alone  had  ever 
yet  united  all  civilized  nations  under  her  sway,  and  guaranteed  order  to 
the  world.  The  emperor  was  by  theory  "  lord  of  the  world,"  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Divine  Ruler  in  temporal,  no  less  than  the  pope  in 
spiritual  affairs.  Of  course,  the  theory  was  little  more  than  a  dream,  but 
it  had  its  influence  in  elevating  the  views  of  the  best  of  the  emperors.  It 
came  to  its  fullest  development  in  the  Ghibelline  or  imperial  party,  here- 
after to  be  described. 

102.  The  existence  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  especially  their  su- 
premacy in  nearly  one-third  of  Italy,  was  a  continual  protest  against 
Otho's  claim  to  be  heir  of  the  Caesars.  In  a  four  years'  war  he  gained 
many  victories  over  Nicephorus  Phocas  and  John  Zimiskes,  though  he 
was  not  able  to  overthrow  their  Italian  dominion.  His  son,  Otho  II., 
married  the  Greek  princess  Theophano,  and  renewed  in  her  name  the 
wars  in  southern  Italy ;  but  he  was  totally  defeated  at  Basientello  by  a 
combined  force  of  Greeks  and  Saracens,  and  narrowly  escaped  with  his 
life.  Otho  III.  became  king  of  Germany  when  only  three  years  of  age, 
at  his  father's  death,  and  at  sixteen  received  the  imperial  crown  at 
Rome.     Instructed  equally  by  his  accomplished  Greek  mother  and  by  the 


*  Emperors  after  Conrad  II.  received  four  crowns :  the  German  at  Aix,  the  Burgundian 
at  Aries,  the  Italian  at  Monza  or  ISlilan,  and  the  imperial  at  Rome. 


54  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

wise  and  virtuous  prelate,  Gerbert  of  Aurillac,  the  young  emperor  had 
the  most  exalted  ideas  both  of  his  dignities  and  duties.  He  aspired  at 
once  to  make  Rome  the  capital  of  the  world,  and  to  set  up  an  ideal  king- 
dom of  righteousness  and  peace. 

103.  By  appointing  first  his  cousin,  Bruno,  and  then  his  venerable 
tutor,  Gerbert,  to  the  papal  chair,  he  sought  to  raise  the  character  of  the 
Eoman  bishops ;  for  wealth  and  power  had  produced  their  too  common 
effects  in  the  Church,  and  even  the  pontiffs,  who  for  centuries  had  been 
remarkable  for  the  severity  and  purity  of  their  lives,  were  now  accused  of 
every  conceivable  crime.  For  sixty  years  the  wealth  and  influence  of 
Theodora  and  Marozia,  Roman  ladies  of  high  rank  but  degraded  charac- 
ter, controlled  all  Roman  affairs,  and  even  disposed  of  the  papal  crown. 
Crescentius,  a  factious  noble,  by  appealing  to  the  miseries  and  the  pa- 
triotism of  the  populace,  managed  to  gain  supreme  power  with  the  titles 
of  consul,  senator,  and  even  emperor.  Though  ruling  in  the  sacred  names 
of  freedom  and  justice,  he  was  probably  a  mere  demagogue,  and  was  not 
undeservedly  beheaded  by  order  of  Otho  III.,  A.  D.  998.  But  the  young 
emperor  was  cut  off  in  the  dawn  of  his  manhood,  and  the  papacy  reached 
its  lowest  depth  of  degradation  in  the  sons  and  descendants  of  Theodora. 
Two  antipopes  disputed  the  title  of  Gregory  VI. ;  and  Henry  III,  the 
most  absolute  of  the  emperors,  deposing  all  three,  replaced  them  with 
Clement  II.  A  succession  of  six  German  popes  revived  the  credit,  and 
in  some  degree  the  power  of  the  Roman  see. 

104.  Henry  III.  left  his  son  and  heir  only  five  years  old.  During  the 
long  minority,  Hildebrand,  a  Tuscan  monk,  produced,  by  his  zeal,  talents, 
and  indomitable  will,  a  strong  reaction  against  the  imperial  power.  He 
had  secured  the  election  of  Victor  II.,  and  no  less  during  the  pontificates 
of  Stephen  IX.,  Nicolas  II.,  and  Alexander  II.,  he  was  the  "soul  of  the 
papal  court."  He  obtained  a  decree  against  the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  a 
custom  which,  though  more  or  less  discountenanced,  had  never  been  uni- 
versally suppressed.  The  decree  was  nowhere  cordially  received,  but  it 
exasperated  especially  the  Lombard  priests,  who  felt  justified  in  their 
domestic  relations  by  the  teachings  of  their  great  archbishop,  St.  Ambrose, 
and  the  example  of  two  of  his  successors.  Their  resistance  was  punished 
as  heresy,  and  thence  arose  the  sect  of  the  Nicolaites. 

A  still  more  severe  struggle  was  for  the  right  of  investiture,  which  had 
been  claimed  by  princes  and  nobles  in  churches  which  they  themselves 
had  founded.  In  France  and  Germany  bishops  were  either  nominated  or 
confirmed  by  the  sovereign;  in  England,  by  the  parliament.  Among 
other  flagrant  abuses  of  the  age  was  the  purchase  of  offices  in  the  Church, 
and  it  was  ostensibly  to  guard  against  this  crime  of  "simony"  that  the 
Council  at  the  Lateran  prohibited  clergymen  to  receive  benefices  from,  or 
own  allegiance  to,  laymen.     But  as  more  than  half  the  lands  in  Germanv 


THE  ITALIAN  REPUBLICS.  55 

had  been   granted  to  churchmen  on   condition  of  feudal   obedience,  this 
was  evidently  a  mortal  blow  at  the  king  and  secular  princes. 

105.  Hildebrand  became  Pope  (Gregory  VII.),  A.  D.  1073.  Henry  IV. 
was  then  twenty-three  years  of  age.  Though  possessed  of  great  talents 
and  noble  impulses,  his  passions  were  ill-regulated  by  a  defective  educa- 
tion, and  his  harsh  measures  had  already  driven  nearly  all  the  princes  of 
the  empire  into  revolt.  He  was  prejudiced  against  the  Church  by  the 
hostile  movements  of  the  clergy  during  his  minority,  and  after  a  little 
diplomatic  skirmishing  war  actually  broke  out.  Gregory  VII.  was  sol- 
emnly deposed  by  the  Diet  at  Worms;  Henry  IV.  by  the  Council  at 
Eome.  ,A  sentence  of  excommunication  absolved  all  the  subjects  of  the 
hitter  from  their  allegiance,  and  declared  it  a  crime  to  render  him  the 
slightest  service.  The  papal  authority — more  respected  in  Germany  than 
in  Italy  —  encouraged  Rudolph  of  Suabia,  with  other  nobles  and  bishops, 
to  make  fierce  and  unrelenting  war  upon  the  emperor. 

106.  A  diet  Avas  summoned  at  Augsburg,  where  the  Pope  was  to  pre- 
side, and  to  judge  between  Henry  and  his  foes.  If  his  excommunication 
was  not  then  removed,  a  new  sovereign  was  to  be  chosen.  In  this  crisis, 
the  emperor  traversed  some  of  the  wildest  passes  of  the  Alps  in  mid- 
winter, stood  three  days  barefoot  and  fasting  in  the  snow  at  the  gate  of 
the  Castle  of  Canossa,  where  the  Pope  was  then  residing, 

and  finally  obtained  a  grudging  removal  of  his  sentence 
only  by  engaging  to  appear  anew,  at  whatever  time  and  place  Hildebrand 
should  appoint,  and  submit  his  imperial  title  to  the  decision  of  a  diet. 
The  Germans  were  indignant  at  this  sacrifice  of  their  emperor's  dignity; 
and  Henry  himself  had  no  sooner  left  the  papal  presence  than  he  re- 
sumed the  war  with  fresh  fury,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Rudolph 
of  Suabia. 

107.  Gregory  VII.  owed  much  to  the  firm  friendship  and  ardent  zeal 
of  Matilda,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  who  consecrated  her  life  to  the  service 
of  the  Church,  and  at  her  death  left  all  her  inherited  estates,  then  the 
greatest  of  the  Italian  fiefs,  as  patrimony  of  St.  Peter.  Her  first  husband, 
the  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  had  fought  on  the  side  of  the  emperor;  but 
after  his  death,  A.  D.  1076,  his  wife  maintained  an  independent  court, 
reigned  like  a  queen  over  Lombardy  and  Tuscany,  and  placed  her  armies 
and  fortresses  at  the  disposal  of  the  Pope.  Another  source  of  strength  to 
the  pontiff  was  in  the  sympathy  of  the  common  people,  who  saw  in  him 
a  man  of  their  own  rank,  elevated  to  a  power  above  that  of  kings  or 
barons;  able,  and,  as  they  long  believed,  Avilling  to  deliver  them  from, 
their  oppressors.  The  monks  and  clergy  hailed  him  as  the  champion  of 
their  order  against  the  secular  power,  so  that  numbers  and  intellect— the 
latter  represented  almost  exclusively  by  the  Church — were  all  on  Hilde- 
brand's  side. 


56  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

108.  Rudolph  of  Suabia  was  chosen  emperor  by  the  German  princes, 
and,  after  a  victory  over  Henry  ut  Miihlhausen,  received  the  imperial 
crown  from  Gregory  VII.  Henry  retaliated  by  procuring  the  election  of 
Clement  III.,  who  crowned  his  patron  as  emperor  in  1084.  Gregory  was 
now  shut  up  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  by  the  German  army,  which, 
with  a  multitude  of  Roman  citizens,  had  for  three  years  been  besieging 
Rome.  He  was  relieved  by  Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman  duke  of  Apulia, 
who  was  encouraged  by  Gregory  to  expect  for  himself  the  crown  of  the 
Western  Empire.  He  burned  a  large  portion  of  the  city  and  left  it  in  a 
desolation  from  which  it  has  never  recovered. 

Gregory  VII.  died,  A.  D.  1085,  at  Salerno,  uttering  curses  against 
Henry  with  his  latest  breath.  His  successors  continued  his  policy  with 
equal  zeal  but  inferior  talents.  They  renewed  the  excommunication  of 
the  emperor,  and  persuaded  his  two  sons,  Conrad  and  Henry,  successively, 
to  rebel  against  him.  His  intention  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  the  latter  was 
anticipated  by  the  indecent  haste  of  the  Diet  of  Mentz,  which  tore  from 
him  the  crown  and  mantle,  and  loudly  hailed  his  son  as  successor  in  the 
empire.  The  emperor,  with  the  few  friends  that  remained  to  him,  gained 
one  victory,  but  was  afterward  defeated  in  battle;  and  in  the  depth  of 
poverty  even  begged  in  vain  for  the  office  of  chorister  in  a  church  which 
he  had  himself  founded  at  Spires.  He  died  of  grief,  and 
his  body  remained  five  years  unburied,  until,  in  1111,  the 
excommunication  was  at  last  removed,  and  the  long  forbidden  funeral 
was  celebrated  with  unusual  magnificence. 

109.  In  the  Byzantine  Empire  Basil  I.,  a  Slavonian  groom,  gained  the 
crown,  A.  D.  867,  by  the  murder  of  his  patron,  Michael  the  Drunkard. 
His  grandson  claimed  for  him  a  descent  from  the  Arsacidse  of  Parthia, 
and  even  from  Alexander  the  Great;   but  impartial  writers  have  refuted 

the  assertion.  His  dynasty,  which,  with  some  interruptions, 
occupied  the  throne  nearly  two  hundred  years,  bore,  how- 
ever, the  name  of  Macedonian.  The  armies  of  Basil  put  an  end  to  the 
little  republic  of  the  Paulicians,  having  slain  its  chief,  Chrysochir,  and 
demolished  its  stronghold  of  Tephrik6.  The  expelled  and  wandering  sec- 
taries carried  their  doctrines  into  Europe,  where  they  were  found  several 
centuries  later  among  the  Albigenses  of  southern  France.  Others  joined 
the  imperial  army  which  drove  the  Saracens  from  the  southern  extremity 
of  Italy  and  established  the  Lombard  theme.* 

The  municipal  republics  of  Gaeta,  Naples,  Sorrento,  and  Amalfi,  re- 
newed their  formal   allegiance   to   the   Eastern    Empire;    though   their 


*  The  tJieme  or  militaiy  district  of  Lombardy  will,  of  course,  be  distinguished  from  the 
earlier  kingdom  and  later  province  of  the  same  name  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  pen- 
insula. 


THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE.  57 

"dukes,"  who  had  replaced  the  ancient  tyrants,  often  allied  themselves 
with  the  popes,  or  even  with  the  Saracens,  to  make  war  with  the  Byzan- 
tine generals.  The  capture  of  Syracuse,  A.  D.  878,  made  the  Mussulmans 
masters  of  the  whole  of  Sicilj%  and  their  piratical  craft  swarmed  through- 
out the  Mediterranean.  Even  Thessalonica,  the  second  city  in  the  East- 
ern Empire,  was  seized  by  them,  and  the  massacre  of  its  population  was 
among  the  chief  calamities  of  the  reign  of  Leo  VI.  (A.  D.  886-911.) 
Twenty-two  thousand  of  its  youth,  reserved  from  the  slaughter,  were  sold 
into  slavery, 

110.  Constantine  VII.  (Porphyrogenitus'")  spent  the  first  thirty-three 
years  of  his  nominal  reign  in  retirement,  owing  first  to  his  minority,  and 
afterward  to  the  usurpation  by  Romanus  I.  and  his  three  sous  of  the 
greater  share  in  the  imperial  dignity.  Constantine  afterward  reigned 
fourteen  years  alone,  beloved  by  his  subjects  for  his  mild  and  equitable 
policy,  though  his  studious  and  secluded  life  had  deprived  him  of  the 
knowledge  of  men,  and  subjected  him  to  the  impositions  of  unfaithful 
servants.  His  love  of  literature  secured  the  preservation  of  many  precious 
manuscripts;  and  his  own  works  on  the  science  of  government,  and  on 
the  life  of  the  founder  of  his  dynasty,  contain  the  most  valuable  pictures 
of  the  state  of  the  empire  at  that  otherwise  obscure  period. 

Romanus  II.,  the  son  of  Constantine,  or  rather  his  great  general, 
Nicephorus  Phocas,  conquered  Crete  from  the  Saracens, 
an  enterprise  in  which  two  emperors  had  signally  failed. 
Nicephorus  was  raised  to  the  imperial  rank  upon  the  death  of  Romanus, 
and  ruled  with  great  energy  as  guardian  and  colleague  of  the  infant  sons 
of  his  predecessor.  He  was  murdered  by  his  nephew,  John  Zimiskes, 
who  likewise,  with  the  imperial  rank  and  dignity,  held  the  place  of  prime 
minister  to  the  young  emperors  Basil  II.  and  Constantine  IX. 

111.  The  great  event  of  John's  reign  was  a  war  with  the  Scandinavian  ^^^'^'^ 
rulers  of  Russia,  now  a  powerful  dynasty,  who  harassed  the  shores  of  the^^^^^^ 
Eastern  Empire  as  seriously  as  their  countrymen  at  the  same  time  were 
vexing  those  of  Western  Europe.  The  emperor  signally  defeated  them  at 
Presthlava  in  Bulgaria,  A.  D.  971,  and,  after  besieging  their  remaining 
forces  in  Dorystolon,  made  a  treaty  which  added  the  kingdom  of  Bul- 
garia, lately  conquered  by  the  Russians,  to  the  empire,  thus  extending  its 
bounds  again  to  the  Danube.  The  peace  was  first  broken,  A.  D.  988,  by 
Vladimir  the  Great  of  Russia,  who  seized  the  important  commercial  city 

of  Cherson,  more  lately  known  as  Sevastopol.  From  its  foundation  as  a 
Greek  colony,  it  had  retained  its  republican  constitution  until  the  reign 


*This  title,  "born  in  the  purple,"  belongs  to  most  of  the  sons  of  Byzantine  emperors, 
being  derived  from  a  porphyry-lined  apartment  in  the  imperial  palaee.  It  is  applied  more 
especially  to  Constantine  VII.,  to  distinguish  him  from  his  colleague,  Constantine.  son  of 
Romanus  I. 


58  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

of  Theophilus,  and  still  boasted  its  independence  in  local  affairs.  Vladi- 
mir married  a  sister  of  the  emperor,  Basil  II.,  and,  having  himself  been 
baptized,  took  vigorous  measures  to  complete  the  Christianization  of  his 
people. 

112.  Under  Basil  II.  the  empire  reached  its  highest  pitch  of  military- 
glory.  In  a  nearly  forty  years'  war  he  conquered  the  Bulgarians  and 
other  Slavonian  tribes  of  the  Hellenic  peninsula;  but  he  disgraced  his 
victory  by  a  needless  act  of  barbarity.  Fifteen  thousand  prisoners  were 
deprived  of  their  eyes  and  thus  sent  back  to  their  king,  who  died  of  grief 
and  rage  at  the  terrible  sight.  After  the  short  and  insignificant  reign  of 
Constantine  IX.,  the  fortunes  of  the  empire  Avere  for  nearly  thirty  years 
in  the  hands  of  the  more  or  less  wicked  favorites  of  his  daughters  Zoo 
and  Theodora,  whose  administrations  need  not  here  be  detailed. 

113.  A  new  dynasty  was  then  founded  by  Isaac  Comnenus,  a  general 
of  high  birth,  who  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  his  brother  officers,  A.  D. 
1057.  Upon  his  resignation  two  years  later,  his  brother  John  refused  the 
crown,  and  four  sovereigns  of  different  families  succeeded  before  Alexis 
I.,  son  of  John  Comnenus,  began  his  honorable  but  disastrous  reign.  His 
daughter,  the  princess  Anna  Comnena,  has  written  the  annals  of  her 
times,  and  has  described  the  disasters  which  afflicted  the  declining  em- 
pire. The  victorious  Turks  had  now  spread  from  Persia  to  the  Helles- 
pont. The  regions  north  of  the  Black  Sea  poured  forth  fresh  swarms  of 
barbarians;  the  Normans  were  invading  Greece;  and  suddenly  the  first  of 
a  long  series  of  events,  soon  to  be  described,  "precipitated  all  Europe 
upon  Asia,"  and  threatened  to  sweep  away  the  feeble  remnant  of  the 
empire  of  Constantine. 

Rise  of  Venice,  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  the  Lombard  cities.  Italy  devastated  by  Saracens  and 
Hungarians.  After  the  fall  of  the  Carlovingians,  the  Italian  crown  is  woni  by  Berengar  I., 
Hugh,  Lothaire,  and  Berengar  II.,  until  Otho  I.  unites  it  with  that  of  Germany,  and  adds 
to  both  the  diadem  of  the  Cccsars.  Rise  of  the  Saxon  line  with  Henry  the  Fowler.  "  Holy 
Roman  Empire "  implies  the  lordship  of  the  world.  Contest  between  the  eastern  and 
western  Qesars  for  supremacy  in  Italy.  Otho  III.  inherits  the  claims  and  ideas  of  both, 
reforms  the  papacy,  and  overthrows  Crescentius.  Contest  of  Hildebrand  (Gregory  VII.) 
with  Emperor  Henry  IV.  Humiliation  of  the  latter;  his  sons  rebel  against  him,  and  he 
dies  excommunicate.  Basil  I.  founds  a  new  dynasty  in  the  Eastern  Empire ;  conquers  the 
Paulicians;  establishes  the  Lombard  theme  in  southern  Italy.  Syracuse  and  Thessalonica 
taken  by  ISIohammedans ;  massacre  in  the  latter  city  and  captivity  of  its  inhabitants. 
Virtues  and  literary  works  of  Constantine  VII.  C;onquest  of  Crete  by  Niccphorus  Thocas. 
War  of  John  Zimiskes  with  the  Russians.  Capture  of  Cherson  by  Vladimir  the  Great,  and 
diffusion  of  Christianity  in  Russia.  Jlilitary  achievements  and  atrocious  cruelty  of  Basil 
II.    Rise  of  the  Comneni  and  disasters  of  the  reign  of  Alexis  I. 


QUESTIONS  FOB  REVIEW.  59 

QXJESTIOlSrS    FOR   REAriKT\^. 

Book  I. 

1.  Why  was  Europe  early  civilized  ?       .       .       . 32. 

2.  Describe  its  principal  features 3  ^ 

3.  Name  the  positions  of  its  various  tribes  and  races,  A.  D.  476 5_7. 

4.  Describe  the  ancient  character  and  customs  of  the  Germans 8. 

5.  Their  ancient  religion  and  the  order  of  their  conversion  to  Chris- 

tianity  9,  51,  83. 

6.  Sketch  the  history  of  the  Merovingian  monarchy 10-13. 

7.  How  many  nations  ruled  the  whole  or  part  of  Italy  during  the  Dark  Ages  ? 

8.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Goths  in  Italy 14-20. 

9.  Of  the  Lombards 21-23. 

10.  Name  the  emperors,  or  dynasties,  at  Constantinople  during  the  Dark  Ages. 

24-36,  65-69,  109-113. 

11.  Describe  fully  the  reign  of  Justinian  1 24-29. 

12.  Of  Ileraclius 30-32. 

13.  Of  the  last  of  the  Heraclian  dynasty 33. 

14.  Of  Leo  III.,  and  its  effects  in  Italy 34-36,  48,  65. 

15.  What  empresses  ruled  either  as  regents  or  sovereigns?        ....  66,  69,  112. 

16.  Describe  the  condition  of  Western   and  Central  Asia  under  the  Amorian 

dynasty 68. 

17.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Paulicians 69-109. 

18.  Of  the  Basilian  or  Macedonian  dynasty 109-112. 

19., Describe  the  career  of  Mohammed  and  the  character  of  his  teachings.  .       .       37-39. 

20.  The  progress  and  limits  of  the  Moslem  dominion.       ...        40,  41,  46. 

21.  The  Mohammedans  in  Spain  and  France 42-45,  50. 

22.  The  Golden  Age  of  the  Caliphs 63,  64. 

23.  Depredations  of  the  Saracen  pirates 64,  98,  109. 

24.  What  circumstances  led  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Church  and  the  temporal  /^^. .,  ^.„ ; 

sovereignty  of  the  popes? 10,  48,  49,  57,  78,  87,  88, 104-108.)'' A—.  -^• 

25.  Who  were  the  founders  of  the  second  Frankish  dvnasty?  .       .       .       .        13,  44,  48.  K"-^^-  •*• 

26.  What  incidents  attended  the  restoration  of  the  Western  Empire?    ...      55,  56.4'v,^  ^"   ^^.  ' 

27.  Why  was  the  empire  of  the  Franks  and  Saxons  called  "Roman?"  .       .       .56,  101.'  £^^^^^1': 

28.  Describe  the  reign  and  character  of  Charlemagne 50-58. i  .t^ai  ^7/^- 

29.  Of  his  son  and  successor ^^,  ^'.ciUt^ii,. 

30.  The  division  of  the  empire 60-62. ;  .^..  c  .u7 

31.  Changes  in  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy 5,  10,  61,  79,  81.  %,  .,  -       ; 

32.  Name  the  Carlovingian  kings  of  France 81,  83-85. 

33.  What  led  to  the  rise  of  the  Capctian  or  Angevin  dynasty?        ...        80,  81,  85. 

34.  What  kings  of  Italy  between  the  fall  of  the  Carlovingians  and  the  reunion 

of  the  peninsula  with  the  empire? 81,  99,  100. 

a5.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  England 6,  57,  71,  82.  89,  90. 

36.  Origin  and  history  of  the  Normans 72-74,  83,  88-93. 

37.  Describe  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Russian  Empire 73,  93.  111. 

38.  The  Gothic  kingdom  in  Spain 5,  42,  70. 

39.  Who  were  the  greatest  feudal  chiefs  in  the  ninth  century?       ....       75. 

40.  Describe  the  Feudal  system 76,  77 

41.  The  rise  of  the  Italian  Republics 94-97. 

42.  The  Saxon  emperors  and  their  relations  with  the  popes.  -       .       .    100-108. 


BOOK  II 


THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 

A.  ]>.  1096-1493. 


Period  I.    The  Ceusades.    A.  D.  1096-1291. 


THE  CAPTURE  OF  JERUSALEM. 

1.  The  three  Saracen  empires  on  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  now  presented  but  a  faint  shadow  of  their 
former  greatness.  Wealth  gained  by  conquest  had  destroyed  the  martial 
energy  of  the  disciples  of  the  Prophet,  and  the  armies  of  the  caliphs  were 
recruited  from  the  more  vigorous  tribes  of  Tartars  which  roamed  over  the 
great  plains  of  central  Asia.  These  northern  barbarians,  like  the  Gothic 
and  Frankish  mercenaries  of  Rome,  became  stronger  than  their  masters, 
and  aspired  to  raise  and  put  down  monarchs  at  their  pleasure.     At  length 

the  caliphs  resigned  all  military  command  to  the  Sultan  of  the  Turks, -^^af^^^Ti 
who  bore  the  title  of  "  Lieutenant  of  the  Vicar  of  the  Prophet,"  reserving 
to  themselves  only  the  spiritual  duties  and  honors  which  belonged  to  the 
successors  of  Mohammed. 

2.  The  first  of  the  Turkish  lieutenants  was  Togrol  Beg,  the  founder  of 
the  Seljukian,  and  conqueror  of  the  Ghaznevide  dynasty  of  sultans.  His 
nephew  and  successor,  Alp  Arslan,  annexed  Armenia  and  Georgia  to  his 
dominion,  and,  in  four  years'  war  with  the  Eastern  empire,  gained  at  last 
a  decisive  victory  over  Romanus  Diogenes.     His  son,  Malek 

Shah,  the  greatest  prince  of  his  time,  reigned  over  a  larger 
empire  than  that  of  Cyrus,  for  it  extended  from  Arabia  to  the  borders  of 
Cliina.     The  Seljukian  kingdom  of  Roum  included  all  Asia  Minor;  and 
Nice  in  Bithvnia,  its  capital,  was  a  continual  menace  to  Constantinople.^ 
But  a  still  greater  humiliation  was  the  conquest  of  Jerusa-  ^  ^^  ^^^^   ^       ^, 

lem  by  the  Turks,  whose  new  zeal  for  the  faith  of  Moham- 
med   made   them    treat   Christian    pilgrims   with    ferocious   barbarity. 

(61) 


62  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

3.  So  long  as  the  caliphs,  either  of  Bagdad  or  Cairo,  governed  Syria, 
their  enlightened  policy  protected  and  encouraged  European  travelers. 
A  quarter  of  Jerusalem  was  assigned  for  their  use,  and  the  keys  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher  were  in  their  hands;  while  in  return  the  country  was 
enriched  by  the  money  which  they  freely  spent  for  relics  and  memen- 
toes of  the  holy  places.  Syria,  as  the  natural  center  of  Mediterranean 
commerce,  attracted  multitudes  of  merchants,  among  whom  the  Greek 
inhabitants  of  Amalfi  were  most  numerous  and  enterprising.  Their  ships 
conveyed  western  pilgrims  to  the  ports  of  Palestine,  and  their  liberality 
endowed  the  church  and  hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  for  their 
entertainment. 

4.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  number  of 
pilgrims  was  greatly  multiplied,  in  spite  of  the  increased  peril,  or  rather, 
perhaps,  in  consequence  of  it.  Seven  thousand  devotees,  led  by  the 
primate  of  Germany  and  several  of  his  bishops,  braved  the  hostility  of  the 
Turks  and  visited  Jerusalem,  but  they  were  glad  to  return  by  means  of  a 
Genoese  fleet.  Hildebrand  himself  prepared  to  lead  fifty  thousand  volun- 
teers to  the  rescue  of  Christian  residents  in  the  east  from  the  hand  of  the 
infidel. 

But  it  was  reserved  for  Peter,  a  hermit  of  Picardy,  effectually  to  kindle 
that  flame  of  martial  and  religious  zeal  which  was  to  burn  two  centuries 
in  Europe.  He  returned  from  his  pilgrimage,  bearing  letters  from  the 
patriarch  Symeon,  of  Jerusalem,  to  Pope  Urban  II.  and  the  whole  multi- 
tude of  Latin  Christians,  beseeching  their  aid.  The  Pope  took  counsel 
with  Boemond,  prince  of  Taranto,  the  son  of  Eobert  Guiscard.  The 
Norman  had  inherited  all  his  father's  ambition ;  in  the  fanatical  scheme 
of  the  hermit  he  saw  liis  own  chance  of  recovering  the  provinces  of 
Illyria,  Macedonia,  and  Greece,  which,  in  his  father's  lifetime,  he  had 
wrested  from  the  Eastern  empire  —  as  well  as  a  victory  for  the  pontiff"  over 
his  rival,  Guibert,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Henry  IV.,  and  for  his 
comrades  and  followers,  unlimited  wealth  and  dominion  in  the  spoils  of 
the  Saracens  and  Turks. 

6.  Peter  preached  the  holy  war  throughout  Italy  and  France,  in  streets, 
highways,  and  churches;  in  the  palace  and  the  cottage;  and  was  every- 
where received  with  a  rapture  of  enthusiasm.  The  Pope  himself  set  forth 
A  -n  -inn-  ^hc  clalms  of  the  East  in  the  two  councils  of  Piacenza  and 

A.  D.  109o. 

Clermont,  where  legates  from  the  emperor,  Alexis,  also 
described  the  ravages  of  the  infidel,  and  appealed  to  the  chivalry  of 
Europe  for  the  defense  of  the  only  bulwark  of  Christianity  in  Asia.  The 
crowd  at  Clermont  responded  with  tears,  groans,  and  the  shout,  "JDieu  le 
veut"  (God  wills  it),  which  became  the  battle-cry  of  the  Crusades.  Thou- 
sands of  every  rank  and  age  placed  the  red  cross  upon  their  shoulders,  and 
declared  their  purpose  to  die,  if  need  were,  in  the  Holy  Land.     Even  the 


THE  CRUSADES.  63 

mountains  of  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Norway  heard  the  summons  and  sent 
forth  their  swarms  of  Christian  soldiery.  Europe  forgot  her  private 
feuds;  nobles  sold  or  mortgaged  their  lands  and  castles;  artisans  and 
peasants,  their  tools  and  implements  of  husbandry;  monks  exchanged 
the  cowled  robe  for  armor  of  steel ;  serfs  and  debtors  were  released  from 
bondage  by  their  assumption  of  the  cross;  even  robbers,  pirates,  and 
murderers  renounced  their  lawless  life,  and  believed  that  they  could 
wash  away  its  guilt  in  the  blood  of  the  infidels. 

G.  Unhappily,  the  first  act  of  the  Crusaders  was  a  persecution  and 
massacre  of  the  Jews  in  the  cities  on  the  Rhine.  In  that  dark  age, 
hatred  of  unbelievers  was  deemed  an  essential  feature  of  the  Christian 
disposition,  and  the  worst  barbarities  were  committed  against  the  He- 
brews during  the  two  centuries  of  the  Holy  Wars.  The  emi)eror,  tienry 
IV.,  perhaps  enlightened  by  his  own  experience  of  persecution,  took 
these  unhappy  people  under  his  protection,  and  ordered  a  strict  resti- 
tution of  their  property. 

7.  Historians  of  the  time  assert  that  six  millions  of  men,  women,  and 
children  assumed  the  cross.  The  time  of  departure  was  fixed  at  August 
15,  1096 ;  but  the  ignorant  and  unwarlike  rabble,  who  had  deserted  their 
industries  without  foresight  of  the  means  of  subsistence,  did  not  await  the 
appointed  day.  Above  60,000  peasantry  from  the  borders  of  France  and 
Lorraine  set  forward  under  the  guidance  of  Walter  the  Penniless,  a  brave 
though  needy  soldier;  Peter  followed  with  40,000  more;  and  an  irregular 
host  of  200,000  without  officers,  guides,  or  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the 
way,  pressed  upon  their  heels.  Failing  of  the  miraculous  supplies  of 
food  which  they  expected,  they  attempted  to  live  at  the  expense  of  the 
countries  through  which  they  passed,  and  multitudes  were  put  to  death 
by  the  enraged  inhabitants. 

When  the  regular  army  of  Crusaders  arrived,  a  few  months  later,  on 
the  borders  of  Hungary,  they  found  heaps  of  unburied  corpses;  —  to 
their  inquiries  the  l^ing  replied  that  the  followers  of  Walter  and  Peter 
were  certainly  not  disciples  of  Christ,  and  that  their  crimes  of  rapine  and 
murder  had  only  been  justly  avenged.  The  remnant  who  survived  were 
kindly  received  by  the  emperor  Alexis;   but  the  ruined  gar-  ^  ^  ^^^^ 

dens,  palaces,  and    even    churches  of  Constantinople   soon 
testified  the  barbarous  ingratitude  of  his  guests.     Passing  over  into  Asia, 
they  were   easily   vanquished  by  Kilidge  Arslan  on  the  plains  of  Nice, 
and  a  pyramid  of  their  bones  was    almost   the   sole  remnant  of  this   ad- 
vanced guard  of  the   crusading  hosts. 

8.  Very  different  was  the  brave  and  brilliant  array  which,  in  four 
columns,  for  the  sake  of  more  abundant  forage,  set  out  in  the  autumn 
of  1096.  The  chivalry  of  Lorraine  and  north-eastern  France  were  led 
through  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke 


64  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

of  Lower  Lorraine  and  one  of  the  noblest  knights  in  Christendom.  Ray- 
mond, Count  of  Toulouse  and  the  greatest  seigneur  of  southern  France, 
led  his  host  through  Lombardy  to  Aquileia,  and  thence  through  Dalmatia 
and  Slavonia.  Prince  Boemond  of  Taranto  had  a  sufficient  fleet  to  trans- 
port his  army  across  the  Adriatic.  The  remaining  division  was  led  by 
four  royal  princes — Hugh  of  Vermandois,  brother  of  the  King  of  France; 
Robert  of  Normandy,  eldest  son  of  the  King  of  England  ;  another  Robert, 
Count  of  Flanders,  and  Stephen  of  Chartres  and  Blois,  who  had  as  many 
castles  as  there  are  days  in  the  year.  They  traveled  the  length  of  Italy 
amid  the  applause  of  the  people,  and  were  intrusted  by  Pope  Urban  II. 
with  the  golden  standard  of  St.  Peter;  but  their  army  became  scattered 
in  the  easy  and  triumphant  march,  and  the  four  princes  crossed  the 
Adriatic  in  a  less  dignified  array  than  that  in  which  they  had  set  out. 

9.  The  emperor,  Alexis,  was  overwhelmed  by  the  numbers,  and  not  a 
little  incensed  by  the  conduct  of  his  allies.  All  his  ingenuity  was  taxed 
to  prevent  a  meeting  of  any  two  of  their  armies  before  the  walls  of  his 
capital,  and  to  expedite  their  departure  for  the  Holy  City.  Their  first 
operation  was  the  siege  of  Nice,  the  Turkish  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Roum,  which  was  taken,  June  20,  1097,  and  restored  to  the  empire.  The 
Turks  were  also  defeated  near  Dorylseum  in  a  hard-fought  battle.  Tan- 
cred,  a  kinsman  of  Boemond,  and  Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey,  were  then 
sent  forward  with  their  horsemen.  The  former  captured  Tarsus.  Bald- 
win, coming  up  after  it  was  taken,  desired  to  plunder  the  town  in  violation 
of  its  terms  of  surrender.  His  quarrel  with  the  just  and  noble  Tancred 
brought  upon  him  the  displeasure  of  all  the  crusaders,  and,  separating  his 
own  followers  from  the  main  army,  he  invaded  Mesopotamia  on  his  own 
account. 

Edessa  was  then  governed  by  a  Grecian  duke,  who  paid  a  heavy  tribute 
to  the  Turks.  Being  childless,  he  adopted  Baldwin,  who  as  prince  of 
Edessa  threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  made  conquests  among  the  hills  of 
Armenia  and  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  thus  founded  the  first  Latin 
sovereignty  in  Asia.  That  of  Antioch  was  soon  afterward  gained  by  Boe- 
mond, Prince  of  Tarento.  The  city  withstood  a  seven  months'  siege;  and 
even  when  it  was  taken  through  the  treachery  of  a  Syrian  renegade,  the 
citadel  held  out,  and  a  great  reinforcement  of  Turks  from  Mosul  reduced 
the  Christian  army,  now  exhausted  by  famine,  to  the  verge  of  destruction. 
The  timely  discovery  of  a  sacred  lance,  said  to  have  been  pointed  out  by 
a  vision  of  St.  Andrew,  animated  the  crusaders  to  new  and  indomitable 
zeal ;  a  fresh  attack  was  made  in  twelve  divisions  in  honor  of  the  twelve 
Apostles,  and  the  Turkish  host  was  annihilated  or  scattered.  The  emperor 
Alexis  rejoiced  equally  in  the  conquest  of  the  Turks  and  the  exhaustion 
of  the  Christians.  A  violent  plague,  aggravated  by  the  summer  heat,  de- 
stroyed more  than  100,000  of  the  crusading  army. 


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THE  CRUSADES.  Q^ 

10.  The  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Egypt  had  exulted  in  the  victories  of  the 
Christians  over  their  own  enemies,  the  Turks,  and  had  availed  themselves 
of  the  abasement  of  the  Seljukian  power  to  repossess  Jerusalem  and  all 
Palestine.  Friendly  letters  and  embassies  were  sent  from  Cairo  to  the 
Latin  camp ;  but  the  leaders  refused  to  make  any  distinction  between  the 
ferocious  Turk  and  the  courtly  Saracen.  They  declared  that  the  usurper 
of  Jerusalem  was  their  foe,  whoever  he  might  be;  and  early  in  the 
summer  of  1099  the  crusading  host  appeared  before  the  Holy  City.  After 
three  years'  pilgrimage  the  first  glimpse  of  Jerusalem  was  hailed  with 
weeping  and  cries  of  joy.  Their  toils  and  sufferings  were  forgotten ;  cast- 
ing themselves  on  the  ground,  the  pilgrims  gave  thanks  to  Heaven,  and 
"all  had  much  ado  to  manage  so  great  a  gladness."  The  millions  who 
had  taken  the  vows  were  now  reduced  to  40,000  men ;  more  than  850,000 
had  fallen  by  the  way;  of  their  princely  leaders,  two  had  returned  to 
Europe  and  two  were  settled  in  their  new  principalities  of  Edessa  and 
Antioch ;  but  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  Robert  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  Robert  of  Flanders  pitched  their  respective  camps  on  the 
northern  and  western  sides  of  the  city. 

11.  Wood  for  the  assaulting  engines  was  brought  thirty  miles  from  the 
forests  of  Sichem.  The  siege  lasted  forty  days,  during  which  the  crusaders 
suffered  intensely  from  want  of  water.  The  beds  of  the  Gihon  and  Kedron 
were  dry,  and  all  cisterns  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Turks.  The  Saracens 
had  now  learned  the  use  of  Greek  fire,  and  in  the  final  attack  for  a  day 
and  a  half  victory  seemed  inclining  toward  the  besieged.  At  length, 
however,  on  Friday,  July  15,  the  victorious  standard  of  Godfrey  of  Bou- 
illon was  planted  upon  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  460  years  a  t)  n 
from  its  conquest  by  the  Saracens.  In  the  moment  of  vic- 
tory the  ferocious  passions  had  sway  —  babes  were  torn  from  their  mothers' 
arms  to  be  dashed  against  the  walls,  and  ten  thousand  Mohammedans 
were  massacred  in  the  Mosque  of  Omar.  Then  the  soldiers  of  Christ 
remembered  that  they  were  pilgrims,  and  washing  themselves  of  the  blood 
they  had  so  pitilessly  shed,  they  walked  in  penitential  procession  to  Mount 
Calvary,   to  weep  and  pray  at  the  tomb  of  their  Redeemer. 

12.  Eight  days  after  this  great  event,  the  army,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
chose  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  to  be  king  of  Jerusalem  and  protector  of  Chris- 
tian interests  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  office  bore  with  it  more  of  peril 
than  of  profit,  and  the  great  duke  accepted  it  in  all  humility  and  faithfnl- 
ness.  He  refused  to  wear  a  crown  of  gold  in  the  city  where  his  Savior 
had  worn  a  crown  of  thorns,  but  he  consented  to  be  styled  Guardian  of 
Jerusalem  and  Baron  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  A  code  of  laws,  called  the 
Assise  of  Jerusalem,  was  prepared  by  the  most  competent  of  the  Latin 
pilgrims  and  deposited  in  the  Tomb  on  Mount  Calvary.    A  few  weeks 

M.  II.  5 


66  3iedijEval  history. 

after  the  capture  of  the  Holy  City,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  approached  with 
an  army  to  retake  it.  He  was  decisively  overthrown  at  Ascalon,  and  his 
sword  and  standard  were  hung  as  trophies  before  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 

13.  The  greater  number  of  the  crusaders,  considering  their  vows  ac- 
complished, then  returned  to  Europe,  leaving  Godfrey  and  Tancred  with 
300  knights  and  2000  foot-soldiers  to  defend  Palestine.  The  kingdom 
then  consisted  of  only  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa,  with  about  twenty  villages 
and  towns  lying  in  that  region,  but  separated  by  fortresses  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans. Godfrey  survived  his  consecration  but  one  year,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Baldwin.  By  successive  conquests  the  Latin 
kingdom  was  extended  east  of  the  Euphrates  and  southward  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt.  French  law,  language,  titles,  and  customs  reigned  throughout 
the  lands  once  governed  by  David  and  Solomon.  Only  four  cities  —  Ems, 
Hamath,  Damascus,  and  Aleppo  —  remained  to  the  Mohammedans  of  all 
their  Syrian  conquests.  The  lands  were  parceled  out,  according  to  feudal 
custom,  into  the  four  great  baronies  of  (1)  Tripoli,  (2)  Galilee,  (3)  Csesarea 
and  Nazareth.  (4)  Jaffa  and  Ascalon. 

14.  The  monks  of  the  order  of  St.  John  rendered  invaluable  services  to 
the  crusading  armies ;  and  in  A.  D.  1121  they  added  military  vows  to 
those  of  the  cloister,  forming  the  first  of  three  orders  of  chivalry  which 
became  the  valiant  defenders  of  the  Holy  Land.  Nobles  and  princes 
hastened  to  enroll  themselves  as  "  Knights  Hospitallers,"  and  youth  were 
sent  from  all  countries  to  be  trained  in  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  to  the 
practice  of  religion  and  knightly  virtues;  28,000  farms  and  manors  were 
bestowed  upon  them  in  various  countries  of  Christendom,  and  they  were 
able  to  support  a  large  army  of  horse  and  foot  from  their  own  revenues. 
The  Templars  had  their  origin  about  the  same  time  in  the  voluntary 
association  of  nine  French  knights,  who  added  to  the  usual  vows  of  the 
religious  orders  a  fourth,  binding  them  to  the  protection  of  pilgrims  and. 
the  defense  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  Originally  poor,  the  Templars,  like 
the  Hospitallers,  soon  became  distinguished  by  their  wealth,  numbers, 
and  pride.  Their  grand  master  had  the  dignity  of  a  sovereign  prince, 
and,  as  the  order  owned  allegiance  to  "none  but  the  Pope,  it  became  an 
object  of  jealousy  to  the  kings  in  whose  realms  it  had  possessions.  The 
Teutonic  Order  was  of  somewhat  later  date. 

15.  When  the  glorious  news  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  arrived  in 
Europe,  Hugh  of  Vermandois  and  Stephen  of  Chartres  were  filled  with 
shame  and  regret  at  having  so  soon  deserted  their  comrades.  They  hast- 
ened to  retrieve  their  reputation  by  placing  themselves  at  the  head  of  a 
fresh  swarm  of  French,  German,  and  Lombard  pilgrims  who  had  now 
assumed  the  cross;  420,000  persons  set  forth  in  A.  D.  1101,  but  nearly  all 
perished  in  Asia  Minor  from  plague,  famine,  and  the  arrows  of  the  Turks. 


THE  CRUSADES.      ^  67 

Decline  of  Saracen  and  rise  of  Turkish  power.  Turks  conquer  Jerusalem  and  oppress 
Christian  pilgrims.  Appeal  of  Peter  the  Hermit  to  Western  Europe  seconded  by  the 
ambition  of  Boemond  of  Tarento.  At  Council  of  Clermont  multitudes  of  all  classes  assume 
the  cross.  Massacre  of  the  Jews.  An  unmilitary  throng  of  crusaders,  preceding  the  regular 
armies,  perish  by  starvation  and  violence.  Departure  of  the  princes;  they  are  received 
with  scant  courtesy  by  the  emperor,  Alexis;  gain  victories  over  the  Turks.  Baldwin 
becomes  Prince  of  Edessa ;  Boemond,  of  Antioch.  Jerusalem  retaken  by  the  Saracens  of 
Egypt;  is  besieged  and  captured  by  the  Crusaders.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  chose^i  king. 
French  law,  language,  and  feudal  institutions  introduced  into  Palestine.  Rise  of  the  Hos- 
pitallers and  Templars.  Destruction  in  Asia  Minor  of  a  second  crusading  host  under  the 
French  princes. 

SECOND,   THIRD,   AND   FOURTH  CRUSADES. 

16.  Several  causes  in  Europe  and  Asia  combined  to  bring  about  a 
Second  Crusade.     The  county  of  Edessa  was  conquered  by    ,   ^ 

•^  ^  -^     A.  D.  1146-1149. 

Zenglii,  a  Turkish  chief,  and  the  eastern  frontier  of  Pales- 
tine thus  lay  open  to  invasion.  Louis  VII.  of  France,  in  war  with  his 
vassal,  the  Count  of  Champagne,  violated  his  own  conscience  and  the 
superstition  of  his  subjects  by  ordering  the  burning  of  a  church  in  which 
many  hundreds  of  the  surrendered  people  had  taken  refuge.  Warned  by 
illness,  he  resolved  to  expiate  the  crime  by  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  in 
which  he  was  joined  by  his  queen,  the  celebrated  Eleanor,  heiress  of 
Aquitaine.  The  marvelous  eloquence  of  Bernard,  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  at 
the  Council  of  Vezelay,  stirred  all  ranks  and  classes  to  redeem  the  Holy 
Land  from  falling  again  into  the  possession  of  infidels.  The  emperor, 
Conrad  III.,  yielded  to  the  persuasions  of  the  abbot,  and  his  barons  and 
people,  who  had  taken  little  part  in  the  First  Crusade,  followed  in  great 
multitudes.  Towns  were  deserted,  and  only  women  and  children  were 
left,  in  many  instances,  to  cultivate  the  land. 

17.  The  emperor,  Manuel  Comnenus,  received  his  allies  with  the  same 
plausible  but  deceitful  policy  which  had  distinguished  his  grandfather, 
Alexis.  Bread  sold  to  the  hungry  armies  was  mixed  with  chalk;  the 
guides,  either  by  secret  order  from  the  emperor  or  through  the  bribes  of 
the  Turks,  betrayed  the  crusaders  to  their  enemies,  or  led  them  into  the 
deserts  to  perish  with  hunger  and  thirst.  The  French  king,  meanwhile, 
was  kept  inactive  by  the  false  assurances  of  Manuel.  When  the  truth 
became  known,  Conrad  and  Louis  joined  their  forces  for  the  march 
through  Asia  Minor.  In  a  battle  on  the  Maeander,  the  French  were 
completely  victorious ;  but  in  a  narrow  mountain  pass  between  Phrygia 
and  Pisidia,  they  were  surprised  and  overwhelmed  by  the  Mussulmans. 
With  great  difficulty,  owing  to  the  wintry  snows,  want  of  food,  and  the 
refusal  of  the  Greeks  to  trade,  the  Franks  arrived  at  Attalia,  where  the 
King  of  France  embarked  for  Antioch,  leaving  the  Count  of  Flanders  to 


/ 
^  ^MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

convoy  the  mass  of  pilgrims  for  whom  no  ships  could  be  procured. 
Thousands  were  slaughtered  by  the  Turks,  and  the  count,  seeing  the  case 
hopeless,  escaped  by  sea,  leaving  his  defenseless  comrades  to  their  fate. 

18.  The  army  which  had  set  out  from  the  Ehine  and  Danube  exceeded 
in  numbers  that  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  but  its  leaders  arrived  at  Antioch 
with  only  a  shattered  remnant  of  their  forces.  Their  first  enterprise  was 
against  Damascus,  whose  power  and  position  threatened  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.  The  French,  the  Germans,  and  the  two  orders  of  knights 
vied  with  each  other  in  deeds  of  unexampled  bravery.  The  prize  was 
within  their  grasp;  but  in  disputes  between  the  Count  of  Flanders  and 
the  barons  of  the  Holy  Land,  the  golden  moment  slipped  away.  The 
Saracens  repaired  their  fortifications,  and  the  crusaders,  in  sorrow  and 
shame,  retreated  to  Jerusalem.  The  emperor  soon  returned  to  Europe, 
and  the  French  sovereigns,  with  all  their  knights  and  gentlemen,  followed 
in  a  year.     Thus  ended  the  Second  Crusade. 

19.  The  Fatimite  caliph  of  Cairo  was  dethroned,  A.  D.  1171,  by  a 
lieutenant  of  Noureddin,  Sultan  of  Damascus,  who  was  subject  to  the 
Abbassid  caliph  of  Bagdad.  Saladin,  the  most  formidable  foe  of  Christen- 
dom, was  about  to  throw  off  his  allegiance  to  Noureddin,  when  the  latter 
died,  and  the  aspiring  young  vizier  made  himself  Sultan  of  Syria  and 
Egypt.  The  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  had  owed  its  eighty-eight 
years'  existence  to  the  mutual  enmity  of  the  Saracens  and  Turks,  was  the 

first  to  feel  his  power.  In  a  two  days'  battle  on  the  Lake  of 
Tiberias,  the  Christians  were  routed,  and  their  king,  Guy  of 
Lusignan,  with  the  grandmaster  of  the  Templars,  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat, 
and  others,  were  prisoners.  Life  was  offered  to  the  knights  of  the  two  orders 
only  on  condition  of  renouncing  their  faith,  and  230  met  a  voluntary  mar- 
tyrdom. In  consequence  of  the  battle,  Tiberias,  Acre,  Jafia,  Csesarea,  and 
many  other  towns  fell  into  Saladin's  possession.  Tyre  held  out,  under  the 
command  of  Conrad  of  Montferrat.  Jerusalem,  after  a  long  and  desperate 
contest,  was  surrendered. 

20.  The  news  of  the  catastrophe  of  Tiberias  and  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
spread  grief  throughout  Europe.  The  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  first 
in  arms.     Philip  Augustus  of  France  and  Henry  II.  of  England  met  in 

Normandv  to  concert  measures  for  the  Third  Cru»ade.     The 

A.  D.  1189-1193.  ^  ,      .       T.     1  ^  IT 

aged  emperor,  Frederic  Barbarossa,*  summoned  a  diet  at 
Mentz,  itt  which  he  himself,  with  his  son  and  eighty-eight  spiritual  and 
temporal  lords,  assumed  the  cross.  Throughout  Europe  a  tenth  of  all 
movable  property,  known  as  the  "  Saladine  Tithe,"  was  levied  upon  Jews 


*  Frederic  Barbarossa  is  the  great  hero  of  German  romance.  Popular  tradition  says  he 
is  not  even  now  dead,  b;it  sleeping  in  a  cavern  near  f-^alzburg,  whence  he  will  reappear 
when  most  needed. 


THE  CRUSADES.  69 

and  Christians  for  the  expense  of  the  wars.  Passing  the  Hellespont  with- 
out deigning  to  visit  Constantinople,  the  Emperor  Frederic  defeated  the 
Turks  and  captured  Iconium,  their  capital ;  but  he  was  drowned  in 
the  Cydnus,  and  the  hardships  of  the  march  reduced  the  German  host 
to  one-tentli  of  its  original  numbers  long  before  it  arrived  at  Acre.  Some 
soldiers  of  Bremen  and  Lubec,  moved  by  the  sufferings  of  their  comrades 
here,  converted  their  tents  into  a  liospital:  and  the  Duke 
of  Suabia  founded  the  Order  of  Teutonic  Knights,  who, 
combining  the  charities  of  the  Hospitallers  with  the  chivalric  vow  of  the 
Templars,  bound  themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  the  defense  of 
the  holy  places. 

21.  The  Christians  of  Palestine  had  mustered  all  their  forces  for  the 
recapture  of  Acre,  which,  as  a  strongly  fortified  port,  was  an  important 
medium  of  supplies  from  Europe.  Guy  of  Lusignan,  whom  Saladin  had 
released  from  prison,  perhaps  on  purpose  to  divide  the  counsels  of  the 
Franks,  had  at  one  time  100,000  men  at  his  command ;  but  the  death  of 
his  wife  and  children,  for  whose  sake  alone  the  crown  had  been  conferred 
upon  him,  undermined  the  authority  which  his  crimes  and  weaknesses  of 
character  had  always  rendered  irksome  to  his  subjects.  His  sister-in-law, 
Isabel,  a  younger  daughter  of  Almeric,  married  Conrad  of  Montferrat, 
now  Prince  of  Tyre,  a  nobleman  of  great  and  deserved  popularity,  who 
became  the  successful  candidate  for  the  crown  of  Jerusalem. 

22.  The  siege  lagged  until  the  arrival  of  the  French  and  English 
forces,  led  by  their  respective  kings.  Richard  I.  had  just  received  the 
crown  of  England  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Henry  II.,  and  the  fame 
of  his  courage  and  strength  gave  new  spirit  to  the  besiegers.  Two  years 
from  its  investment,  the  city  fell,  July,  1191.  The  Duke  of  Austria 
planted  his  banner,  in  common  with  the  French  and  English  chiefs,  on 
part  of  the  walls,  but  Richard  tore  it  down  with  his  own  hands  and  threw 
it  into  the  ditch  —  an  insult  which  led  to  a  fierce  and  lasting  quarrel 
between  the  two  princes.  The  King  of  France,  either  disgusted  by  the 
superior  fame  of  Richard,  or  really  ill,  as  he  alleged,  soon  returned  to 
Europe,  leaving  a  large  portion  of  his  forces  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
to  serve  under  the  English  king.  He  solemnly  swore  that  he  would  not 
molest  the  dominions  of  the  latter  during  his  engagement  in  the  Holy  Wars ; 
but,  pausing  at  Rome  to  be  absolved  by  the  Pope  from  this  inconvenient 
vow,  he  had  no  sooner  set  foot  in  France  than  he  began  to  plot  with 
John — the  brother  of  Richard  and  regent  of  England  in  his  absence  — 
to  possess  himself  of  the  French  counties  and  duchies  for  which  Richard 
was  his  vassal,  John  being  encouraged  to  assume  the  English  crown  as 
the  reward  of  his  compliance.  Though  rumors  of  these  treacherous 
movements  reached  Palestine,  the  English  king  stayed  to  refortify  Jaffa, 
Ascalon,  and  Gaza,  working  with  his  own  hands  like  a  common  soldier. 


70  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

while  bishops  and  the  liighest  nobles,  urged  by  his  example,  carried  earth 
and  mortar,  and  aided  in  building  the  walls.  The  united  army  ap- 
proached within  sight  of  Jerusalem  where  Saladin  was  posted;  but  the 
prudence  or  the  treachery  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  prevented  an  attack, 
and  Richard,  covering  his  face  with  a  shield,  refused,  with  grief  and  shame, 
to  look  upon  a  city  which  he  was  unable  to  deliver  from  the  infidel. 

23.  He  consented  to  the  crowning  of  Conrad  of  Montferrat  as  king  of 
Jerusalem,  indemnifying  Guy  of  Lusignan,  the  deposed  sovereign,  by  a 
generous  gift  of  Cyprus,  which  Richard  himself  had  conquered  from  Isaac 
Comnenus  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Land.  Conrad  died  before  his  corona- 
tion, and  Count  Henry  of  Champagne  succeeded  to  the  empty  title,  which 
he  bore,  A.  D.  1192-1197.  On  the  eve  of  his  departure  for  Europe,  the 
English  king  signalized  his  valor  by  a  new  exploit,  which  terrified  the 
Saracens  and  secured  for  the  Christians  a  more  advantageous  peace. 
Saladin,  by  a  rapid  movement,  had  possessed  himself  of  Jaffa.  The  great 
tower  still  held  out,  but  the  patriarch  and  knights  had  promised  to  sur- 
render the  next  morning,  unless  succor  should  arrive.  The  English 
squadron  appeared  in  time;  Richard  was  the  first  to  leap  on  shore,  and 
so  furious  was  his  onset,  that  the  Mussulmans  broke  up  their  camp  and 
retreated  some  miles  into  the  country.  Learning  with  shame  that  they 
had  been  driven  by  only  five  hundred  men,  they  endeavored  in  a  night 
attack  to  regain  their  advantage,  but  Richard,  with  ten  knights  in  full 
armor,  issuing  suddenly  from  the  Christian  tents,  renewed  the  panic ;  and 
Saladin,  now  exhausted  by  the  long  series  of  battles,  consented  to  an 
honorable  truce  of  three  years  and  eight  months.  The  sea-coast  from 
Tyre  to  Jaffa  was  surrendered  to  the  Christians,  and  pilgrims  from  Europe 
were  guaranteed  safety  and  freedom  from  imposition  in  their  visits  to  the 
Holy  Sepulcher.  The  barons  whose  estates  had  been  conquered  by  the 
Saracens  were  indemnified  by  grants  of  towns  and  castles. 

24.  Arriving  in  the  Mediterranean,  opposite  the  French  coast,  Richard 
learned  that  the  feudal  lords  of  that  region  had  resolved  to  seize  him  if 
he  landed  on  their  territory.  Unable  to  proceed  to  England  in  his  un- 
seaworthy  vessel,  he  turned  toward  Germany,  and,  guided  by  some  pirates, 
landed  at  Zara.  He  wished  to  traverse  Germany  in  disguise,  but  he  was 
identified  and  imprisoned  by  his  old  enemy,  the  Duke  of  Austria,  who 
surrendered  him  the  next  spring  to  the  emperor,  Henry  VI.  Before  the 
Diet  at  Haguenau,  Richard  was  accused  of  several  grave  offenses,  but  he 
defended  himself  with  such  eloquence  that  all  but  the  most  prejudiced 
were  convinced  of  his  innocence.  He  received  the  investiture  of  the 
kingdom  of  Aries,  and  voted  as  a  prince  of  the  empire  in  the  next  im- 
perial election.  During  his  enforced  absence  from  England,  his  brother 
made  new  efforts  to  seize  the  crown,  while  Philip  of  France  invaded 
Normandy,  and  both  perjured  princes  offered  large  sums  of  money  to  the 


THE  CRUSADES.  71 

emperor,  to  keep  Eichard  in  perpetual  captivity  or  deliver  him  into  their 
hands.  The  disgraceful  bargain  might  have  been  sealed,  but  for  the 
indignant  protest  of  the  German  princes,  who  compelled  Henry  VI.  to 
accept  the  ransom  offered  by  the  English  Parliament  for  the  liberation  of 
the  king.  He  was  released  after  long  delays,  and  landed  at 
Sandwich  fifteen  months  from  his  capture  and  five  years 
from  his  departure  for  the  Holy  Wars.  The  share  of  the  Duke  of  Austria 
in  his  ransom-money  went  to  enrich  the  newly  founded  city  of  Vienna. 

25.  During  the  captivity  of  Richard,  his  great  enemy,  Saladin,  had  died 

in  Palestine,  A.  D.  1193.     His  three  sons  became  sultans  of  Aleppo, 

Damascus,  and  Egypt;  but  his  brother,  Saphadin,  ruled  the  greater  part 

of  Syria.     A  fresh  crusade  was  undertaken  by  the  German  princes  and 

bishops,  who   were  joined   on   their   march    by  the  widowed  Queen  of 

Hungary.     The  dukes  of  Saxony  and  Lower  Lorraine  defeated  Saphadin 

between  Tyre  and  Sidon,  thus  liberating  many  cities  and  9000  Christian 

captives.     Another  victory  was  followed  by   the  news  of  the  emperor's 

death,  and  the  sudden  departure  for  Germany  of  all  the  princes  who,  by 

vote  or  influence,  could  hope  to  affect  the  choice  of  his  suc- 

...  A.  D.  1197. 

cessor.     Saphadin,  rallying  his  forces,  recaptured  Jaffa,  and 

put  every  inhabitant  to  the   sword.     The  great  expedition,  having  thus 

failed,  is  not  commonly  numbered  among  the  Crusades. 

26.  A  Fourth  Crusade  was  proclaimed,  A.  D.  1200,  by  Innocent  III., 
who  imposed  upon  the  clergy  throughout  Europe  a  tax  for  the  expenses 
of  the  war.  Princes  and  people  joined  their  offerings.  Those  who  could 
not  go  to  Palestine  in  person  commuted  their  service  into  money,  and  the 
treasury  of  the  Vatican  overflowed.  Thibaud,  Count  of  Champagne, 
brother  of  the  late  King  of  Jerusalem,  was  among  the  first  to  assume  the 
cross,  and  a  council  of  French  barons  met  at  Soissons  to  deliberate  upon 
the  means  of  fulfilling  their  vow.  The  horrors  of  a  land  journey  into 
Asia  were  already  too  well  proven;  but  the  feudal  lords  had  not,  like 
Richard  or  Philip  Augustus,  the  resource  of  a  national  navy.  It  was, 
therefore,  resolved  to  engage  the  aid  of  Venice,  then  the  greatest  mari- 
time power  in  Europe.  A  treaty  was  made  between  the  deputies  of  the 
barons  and  the  Grand  Council  of  the  republic  for  the  transportation  of  the 
troops  in  Venetian  vessels,  Venice  herself  becoming  an  ally  in  the  war 
and  an  equal  sharer  in  the  prizes. 

27.  Soon  after  Easter,  A.  D.  1202,  the  French  crusaders  crossed  Mount 
Cenis  and  assembled  at  Venice.  Some  delay  occurring  in  the  prepayment 
of  the  transportation  money,  Doge  Dandolo  secured  their  aid  in  the  re- 
covery of  Zara,  on  the  Dalmatian  coast,  which  had  revolted  to  Hungary. 
Feeble  and  nearly  blind,  at  the  age  of  ninety-four,  the  Doge  led  the 
expedition  in  person  and  gained  a  complete  victory.  But  a  more  brilliant 
enterprise  tempted  the  French  and  Venetian  arms.     Isaac  Angelus,  Em- 


72  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

peror  of  the  East,  had  been  dethroned,  imprisoned,  and  deprived  of  his 
eyes  by  an  unnatural  brother,  whom  he  had  himself  redeemed  from 
Turkish  slavery.  His  son,  Alexis,  escaped  and  found  refuge  with  his 
brother-in-law,  the  Duke  of  Suabia.  Appearing  before  the  French  and 
Italian  leaders  in  their  camp  at  Zara,  the  envoys  of  Alexis  besought 
their  aid  in  restoring  his  father  to  the  throne,  promising  in  return  the 
cooperation  of  the  Greeks  in  the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land. 

28.  The  Pope  forbade  this  diversion  of  forces  which  were  consecrated 
to  the  deliverance  of  Palestine;  but  the  knights  resolved  to  turn  so  far 
aside  from  their  original  purpose  in  order  to  make  good  their  character 
as  champions  of  justice  and  avengers  of  wrong.  By  two  attacks  Constan- 
tinople was  taken,  and  the  blind  old  emperor  was  drawn  from  his  dungeon 
and  replaced  upon  the  throne  in  partnership  with  his  son,  Alexis.  The 
season  being  far  advanced,  the  French  and  Venetians  consented  to  winter 
at  Constantinople,  and  aid  to  establish  more  firmly  the  powder  which  they 
had  restored.  A  brawl  between  the  inhabitants  and  the  Flemish  soldiers 
ended  in  a  conflagration,  which  continued  eight  days  and  consumed  three 
miles  of  densely  populated  dwellings.  Alexis,  who  was  disliked  by  his 
own  subjects  for  his  alliance  with  the  Franks,  offended  the  latter  by 
vacillation  and  delay  in  the  payment  of  the  promised  subsidies,  and  a 
fresh  war  broke  out.  The  guards  of  the  palace  set  up  an  emperor  of  their 
own  in  the  person  of  Alexis  Mourzoufle,  a  kinsman  of  the  imperial  family 
distinguished  for  his  hatred  of  the  Latins.  Alexis  Angelus  was  impris- 
oned, and  his  blind  father  died  of  terror. 

29.  The  French  and  Venetians  now  united  for  a  second  capture  of  the 
A     -1  1^.  city.     It  was  taken,  and  houses,  churches,  even  the  tombs 

April,  1204. 

of  the  emperors,  were  despoiled  in  a  mad  riot  of  pillage. 
Sculptures  preserved  from  the  golden  age  of  Grecian  art  were  destroyed 
by  barbarians  too  ignorant  to  discern  their  value;  —  if  of  marble,  they 
were  hacked  to  pieces ;  if  of  bronze,  they  were  melted  into  coin  or  house- 
hold utensils.  The  Venetians,  somewhat  more  civilized  than  the  French, 
reserved  the  four  bronze  horses  of  Lysippus  to  adorn  their  church  of 
St.  Mark.  After  paying  their  long  deferred  debt  to  their  allies,  the 
French  had  a  sum  left  from  their  share  of  the  plunder  which  equaled 
seven  times  the  yearly  revenue  of  England^  at  that  time. 

80.  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  was  chosen  by  the  two  conquering 
nations  to  be  Emperor  of  the  East.  Only  one-fourth  of  the  dominion  of 
the  Comneni  fell  to    his  share,  the  rest  being  divided  be- 

'  ^  A.  D.  1204-12G1. 

tween  the  Venetians,    Lombards,    and    French.     The  Latin 
Empire    at    Constantinople    lasted    fifty-seven    years,  during   which    the 
Koman  ritual  superseded  that  of  the  Greeks  in  the  churches,  and  the  laws 
of  Jerusalem  were  imposed  upon  the  people  in  contempt  of  the  code  of 
Basil  and  Leo  VI.     Fragments  of  the  conquered  empire  were  erected  into 


THE  CRUSADES.  73 

rival  states  by  members  of  the  deposed  family,  who  reigned  at  Nice,  at 
Trebizond,  and  in  northern  Greece;  and  in  A.  D.  1261,  Michael  Palseo- 
logus,  the  Nicsean  emperor,  aided  by  the  mutual  rivalries  of  the  Genoese 
and  Venetians,  expelled  the  sixth  of  the  usurpers,^  and  recovered  the 
throne  of  the  Caesars.  Most  of  the  Archipelago  and  Greece  proper  re- 
mained many  years  longer  in  the  feudal  control  of  the  Latins. 

31.  Few  of  those  who  took  arms  for  the  Fourth  Crusade  ever  reached 
the  Holy  Land ;  but  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  so  alarmed  the  Mus- 
sulmans, that  Saphadin  hastened  by  liberal  concessions  to  secure  a  six 
years'  truce. 

The  continuance  of  the  fiinatical  spirit  in  Europe  was  shown  by  the 
Children's  Crusade,  A.  D.  1211.  A  superstition  gained  ground,  especially 
in  Germany,  that  the  princes  and  soldiery  were  forbidden  to  possess  the 
Holy  Land  because  of  their  sins,  and  that  the  great  honor  was  reserved 
for  the  innocent  and  the  weak.  Ninety  thousand  children  are  said  to 
have  assembled  from  the  various  towns  and  hamlets,  and,  led  only  by  a 
child,  to  have  advanced  as  far  as  Genoa.  Here  they  found  the  sea,  of 
which  they  had  never  heard,  and,  separating,  some  took  ship,  only  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  Moorish  pirates,  and  the  rest  wandered  about  until  they 
perished  of  hunger  or  fatigue.  Probably  not  one  of  the  deluded  host  ever 
reached  Palestine,  or  even  regained  his  home. 

The  King  and  Queen  of  France  and  the  German  emperor  had  part  in  the  Second  Cru- 
sade, which  failed  through  the  treachery  of  the  Greeks  and  the  rivalries  of  the  Latins. 
Saladin,  becoming  Sultan  of  Egypt,  defeated  the  Christians  in  the  battle  of  Tiberias,  and 
became  master  of  Jerusalem.  The  emperor,  Frederick  I.,  led  the  van  of  a  Third  Crusade — 
soon  followed  by  Philip  II.  of  France  and  Richard  I.  of  England,  who  combined  their 
forces  in  a  siege  of  Acre.  Guy  of  Lusignan  was  deposed  and  Conrad  of  Montferrat  ap- 
pointed King  of  Jerusalem.  Conrad  dying,  Henry  of  Champagne  became  king.  Richard, 
on  his  return,  was  imprisoned  fifteen  months  in  Germany.  In  the  Fourth  Crusade,  the 
French  and  Venetians  established  a  Latin  empire  at  Constantinople.  The  forces  thus 
diverted  never  reached  Palestine.  Ninety  thousand  children  perished  in  an  attempted 
crusade,  A.  D.  1211. 


*The  Latin  emperors  were  as  follows:  Baldwin  I.  died  A.  D.  1200,  a  prisoner  of  the 
Bulgarians.  His  brother.  Henry,  reigned,  A.  D.  1206-1216;  and  their  brother-in-law,  Peter 
de  Courtenay,  was  appointed  to  succeed,  but  he  died  in  captivity,  A.  D.  1219,  before  he 
could  reach  his  capital.  Robert  de  Courtenay  reigned  seven  years,  and  was  succeeded, 
A.  D.  1228.  by  John  de  Brienne,  guardian  and  father-in-law  of  Baldwin  de  Courtenay,  the 
sixth  and  last  of  the  line. 


74  MEBIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

THE  LAST  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 

32.  By  the  death  of  Almeric  of  Lusignan  and  his  wife,  A.  D.  1206,  the 
shadowy  crown  of  Jerusalem  rested  again  upon  a  young  girl's  head ;  and 
as  no  nobleman  in  Palestine  was  judged  worthy  to  share  that  slight  but 
perilous  honor,  John  of  Brienne,  a  favorite  of  the  King  of  France,  was 
designated  as  the  husband  of  Mary,  daughter  of  Isabella  and  Conrad  of 
Montferrat.  He  was  accompanied  from  Europe  by  three  hundred  knights, 
the  whole  contribution  of  Christendom  at  that  time  toward  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  England  was  absorbed  by  dissensions  between 
her  king  and  barons;  France,  by  a  crusade  against  her  own  people,  the 
Alblgenses  of  the  south;  and  Germany,  by  the  struggle  between  the 
emperor  and  the  Pope  for  the  dominion  of  Italy. 

33.  The  new  King  of  Jerusalem  appealed  for  aid,  and  Innocent  III. 
issued  a  stirring  exhortation  to  all  western  Christendom.  The  eloquence 
of  his  preachers  was  seconded  by  the  songs  of  poets,  who  had  not  only 
pious,  but  patriotic  motives  for  urging  the  foreign  expedition.  Their 
sovereign  and  most  munificent  patron  was  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  with 
whom,  as  a  protector  of  heretics,  the  King  of  France  was  at  war;  and 
they  naturally  desired  to  divert  the  assaults  of  bigotry  from  their  own 
.   ^  countrymen  to   the  Saracens.      The  vanguard  of  the  Fifth 

A.  D.  1217-1221.  ^  .  .  ^  "^ 

Crusade  was  led  by  the  nation  which  had  most  obstructed 
the  first.  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  incited  by  his  father's  wish  and  his 
mother's  example,  took  the  cross,  and  was  joined  by  all  the  lay  and 
spiritual  lords  of  southern  Germany.  But  he  accomplished  personally 
little  more  than  a  multitude  of  pilgrimages  and  the  collection  of  innu- 
merable relics;  and  then,  in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  allies,  he  re- 
turned to  his  impoverished  kingdom. 

34.  Egypt  was  now  the  heart  of  the  Moslem  power,  and  thither  a 
second  army  of  Germans  directed  their  efforts.  They  took  the  fortress  of 
Damietta  by  assault,  and  besieged  the  town.  Many  obstinate  battles  were 
fought;  the  places  of  the  exhausted  besiegers  were  filled  by  recruits  from 
England  and  the  free  cities  of  Italy ;  and  at  length  the  city  was  taken. 
A  hideous  spectacle  met  the  eyes  of  the  conquerors.  Hunger  and  pesti- 
lence had  reduced  the  70,000  inhabitants  to  3,000,  and  the  survivors  were 
more  like  animated  skeletons  than  like  living  beings.  In  the  attempt  to 
complete  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  invaders  were  in  turn  vanquished  by 
the  great  natural  force  which  has  served  in  all  nges  both  for  the  nourish- 
ment and  protection  of  that  country.  The  rising  Nile  was  turned  into  the 
Latin  camp,  tents  and  baggage  were  swept  away,  and  all  communication 
with  Damietta  cut  off.  In  this  perilous  position  the  papal  legate  was 
reduced  humbly  to  beg  for  far  less  favorable  terms  than  he  had  once 
haughtily   rejected.      Damietta  was  surrendered ;    the  starving   hosts    of 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  CRUSADES.  75 

Christendom  were  fed  from  the  granaries  of  the  Sultan,  and  permitted  to 
march  into  Syria. 

35.  The  emperor,  Frederic  II.,  had  been  excommunicated  for  his  delay- 
in  joining  the  crusade,  and  when  in  A.  D.  1227  he  at  length  embarked, 
he  was  excommunicated  again  for  presuming  to  go  without  permission. 
He  was  welcomed,  however,  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  and  cautiously  joined 
by  the  Hospitallers  and  Templars.  His  personal  influence  effected  more 
than  even  the  battle-ax  of^Coeur  de  Lion;  for  Jerusalem,  Jaffa,  Bethle- 
hem, and  Nazareth  were  ceded  to  the  Christians.  Accompanied  only  by 
his  courtiers  and  the  Teutonic  knights,  Frederic  crowned  himself  in  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  since  no  priest  would  perform  that  office. 
John  of  Brienne,  with  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  Violante,  had  conferred 
upon  the  emperor  his  own  right  to  the  crown  of  Jerusalem ;  but  returning 
to  Europe  he  did  not  hesitate,  in  the  service  of  the  Pope,  to  ravage  the 
Italian  territories  of  his  son-in-law. 

36.  The  emperor  being  thus  recalled  from  Palestine,  the  truce  which  he 
had  made  was  disregarded,  and  on  one  occasion  10,000  pilgrims  were 
massacred  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem.  The  Templars  sustained  a  severe 
defeat  upon  the  death  of  the  Sultan  of  Aleppo,  with  whom  they  were  at 
peace.  Every  commandery  in  Christendom  hastened  to  send  reinforce- 
ments; a  fresh  crusade  was  announced  by  the  Council  at  ^  ^  ^^^ 
Spoleto,  and  the  new  orders  of  Dominican  and  Franciscan 

monks  became  the  bearers  of  its  decrees  to  all  parts  of  Europe.  The 
purpose  was,  as  before,  to  fill  the  coffers  of  the  Church  with  commutation 
money;  and  when  Richard,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  brother  of  the  English 
king,  assumed  the  cross  in  sincerity,  the  Pope  forbade  his  embarkation  at 
Dover,  and  tried  to  intercept  him  at  Marseilles.  On  the  arrival  at  Jaffa 
of  the  English  prince  and  nobles,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  sent  to  propose 
terms  of  peace.  The  greater  part  of  Palestine  was  surrendered  to  the 
Christians;  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  were  rebuilt,  and  the  churches  recon- 
'secrated.  The  objects  of  the  expedition  having  been  secured  by  peaceful 
negotiation,  it  is  by  most  writers  not  reckoned  in  the  number  of  the 
Crusades. 

37.  But  another  foe,  equally  terrible  to  Saracens  and  Christians,  now 
appeared  from  the  north-east,  in  the  Tartar  hordes  expelled  from  Khoras- 
mia  by  Zenghis  Khan,  and  who,  sweeping  over  Palestine,  captured  Jeru- 
salem and  murdered  most  of  its  inhabitants.  The  Templars  called  in 
their  Syrian  allies,  and  the  combined  armies  fought  for  two  days  a  fierce 
battle  with  the  pagans,  only  to  be  overthrown  and  annihilated.  The  two 
grand  masters  of  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers  were  slain,  and  only 
fifty-two  knights  of  all  three  orders  remained  alive  and  free.  Barbacan, 
the  Tartar  chief,  was  slain,  however,  in  a  general  battle,  and  southern  Asia 
was  relieved  for  the  moment  from  its  panic  and  distress. 


76  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

38.  The  Seventh  Crusade  was  led  by  the  good  king,  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
accompanied  by  his  three  brothers,  the  counts  of  Artois,  Poitiers,  and 
Anjou.  Having  wintered  in  Cyprus,  Louis  sailed  to  Egypt.  Daniietta, 
though  strongly  fortified,  made  no  resistance,  and  all  its  magazines  of 
grain  were  added  to  the  stock  of  the  crusaders;  but  in  their  march  toward 
Cairo,  the  French  were  arrested  by  the  canal  of  Ashmoum.  The  Count 
of  Artois,  discovering  a  ford,  led  his  followers  through,  routed  the  Mus- 
sulmans who  were  posted  on  the  opposite  bank,  and  paused  not  until  he 
had  entered  the  half-deserted  town  of  Massourah.  Here  the  Moslems 
rallied  and  joined  battle  in  the  streets  of  the  town.  The  concealed  in- 
habitants flung  stones,  boiling  water,  and  burning  coals  from  their  roofs 
upon  the  heads  of  the  assailants.  The  arrival  of  the  French  king  pre- 
vented a  total  rout ;  but  the  death  of  his  brother,  with  the  grand  master 
of  the  Templars  and  a  multitude  of  knights,  paid  the  penalty  of  their 
rashness.  The  retreat  was  more  disastrous  than  the  battle.  All  the  sick 
in  the  French  camp  were  murdered  by  the  Mussulmans ;  the  king  him- 
self was  made  prisoner  with  his  two  remaining  brothers,  all  the  nobles, 
and  20,000  men  of  lower  rank. 

The  city  of  Damietta  was  surrendered  for  the  king's  ransom.  He  ther 
proceeded  to  Palestine,  where  he  spent  four  years  in  seeking  to  establish 
that  good  order  which  his  just  and  beneficent  reign  had  already  conferred 
upon  France.  No  military  successes  attended  his  crusade.  The  death  of 
the  queen  regent  recalled  him  to  his  own  kingdom ;  and  he  sacrificed  his 
strong  desire  to  visit  Jerusalem  to  the  feeling  that  a  king  in  arms  had  no 
right  to  behold  as  a  pilgrim  what  he  could  not  possess  as  a  conqueror. 

39.  If  the  Christians  of  Palestine  could  have  remained  at  peace  among 
themselves,  they  might  have  been  victorious  over  the  common  enemy ;  but 
the  Italian  merchants  of  the  various  cities  never  forgot  their  rivalries,  and 
the  jealousy  of  the  two  military  brotherhoods  broke  out,  soon  after  the 

Seventh  Crusade,  into  actual  war.    The  knights  of  St.  John 

A.  D.  1259. 

were  the  victors  in  a  battle  from  which  scarcely  a  Templar 
escaped  alive.  This  shameful  war  was  interrupted  by  the  invasion  of 
Palestine,  by  Mamelukes  from  Egypt  (see  |  163).  Ninety  Hospitallers 
held  Azotus,  and  died  to  the  last  man  in  its  defense.  The  Templars  at 
Saphoury  were  forced  to  capitulate;  but,  contrary  to  the  terms  of  sur- 
render, they  were  afterward  required  to  choose  between  apostasy  and 
death.  The  knights  and  garrison,  to  the  number  of  600  men,  sealed  their 
faith  with  their  blood.  Jaffa  and  Beaufort  were  taken;  Antioch  was 
surrendered  after  17,000  of  its  people  had  been  slain  and  100,000  made 
prisoners. 

40.  The  news  in  Europe  of  the  fall  of  Antioch  occasioned  an  Eighth 
Crusade.  Prince  Edward  of  England,  with  the  powerful  earls  of  Pem- 
broke and  Warwick,  assumed  the  cross.     King  Louis  of  France  heartily 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  CRUSADES.  77 

joined  in  the  alliance;  but  his  first,  and  as  it  proved  his  last,  hostilities 
were  directed  against  the  Moors  of  Tunis.  His  brother,  Charles,  Count 
of  Anjou,  and  now  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  urged  this  enterprise  for 
selfish  reasons,  for  northern  Africa  had  formerly  paid  tribute  to  the  Nea- 
politan kingdom.  Carthage  was  taken  and  plundered,  but  the  army  was 
stricken  by  the  plague,  which  carried  off  the  king  and  one  of  his  sons. 
Prince  Edward  arrived  the  next  spring  in  Palestine,  where  the  name  of 
Plantagenet  mustered   around  him   all  the   European   forces.     Nazareth 

was  taken,  the  Turks  were  defeated,  and  a  truce  for  ten 

'  '  A.  D.  1272. 

years   was   already  concluded   with   the  Sultan   of  Egypt, 

when  the  death  of  Henry  III.  in  England  required  the  return  of  the 
prince  to  assume  his  crown. 

4:1.  The  last  general  effort  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Holy  Land,  though 
enrolling  many  great  names,  was  feeble  in  its  execution  and  disastrous  in 
its  results,  and  is  not  commonly  numbered  among  the  Crusades.  Eu- 
dolph  of  Hapsburg,  the  new  sovereign  of  Germany,  Michael  Palseologus, 
the  conqueror  and  successor  of  the  last  Latin  Emperor  of  the  East,  and 
Charles,  the  French  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  were  partners  in  the  enter- 
prise. The  latter  received  from  Mary,  Princess  of  Antioch,  a  surrender 
of  her  hereditary  claim  to  the  crown  of  Jerusalem.  Hugh,  King  of 
Cyprus,  was,  however,  crowned  at  Tyre,  and  disputes  for  this  unsubstan- 
tial dignity  had  their  part  in  defeating  the  counsels  of  the  allies.  Margat 
was  captured  by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1280.  Tripoli,  the  seat  of  the  last 
remaining  barony  of  the  Christians  in  Asia,  was  taken,  and  its  people 
murdered  or  enslaved.  Acre  was  almost  the  only  refuge  of  Europeans, 
and  its  several  wards  or  districts  were  assigned  to  miserable  fugitives  from 
the  lost  cities  and  jn-ovinces,  who  could  not  forget  their  jealousies  even  in 
their  common  distress. 

42,  The  Sultan  of  Egypt  mustered  all  his  forces  to  destroy  this  last 
nucleus  of  Christianity  in  the  East,  and  200,000  Mamelukes  were  assem- 
bled for  the  siege  of  Acre.  The  defense  was  long  and  obstinate;  the 
principal  entrance  to  the  city  was  repeatedly  lost  and  won,  and  each  time 
at  great  expense  of  Moslem  and  Christian  blood ;  but  at  length  the  grand 
master  of  the  Templars,  who  had  been  intrusted  with  the  command,  was 
slain  with  most  of  his  followers,  the  town  was  in  flames,  and  the  seven 
knights  who  alone  survived  of  the  Order  of  St.  John,  embarked  for 
Europe.  The  unarmed  people  who  could  not  escape  by  sea  perished  on 
the  shore.  Tyre,  Beirut,  and  other  towns  surrendered.  All  Palestine  was 
overrun  by  the  Turks,  and,  after  a  few  more  efforts  by  the  Templars,  it 
was  abandoned  to  the  Moslem  dominion. 

43.  Though  the  hope  of  delivering  the  Holy  Land  lingered  several 
centuries  in  the  minds  of  European  princes,  and  though  some  private 
enterprises  were  undertaken  with  that  purpose,   no  general  Und   public 


78  medijEVAL  history. 

effort  was  renewed.  Fifteen  years  from  the  fall  of  Acre,  a  new  crusade 
was  proclaimed  by  Pope  Clement  V.,  but  few  of  those  who  assembled  at 
Brindisi  knew  its  object,  which  was  merely  to  conquer  the  island  of 
Khodes  from  the  Greeks  and  Saracens  for  a  permanent  residence  of  the 
knights  of  St.  John.  The  thousands  of  Europeans  who  remained  in  Pal- 
estine after  the  withdrawal  of  the  princes  and  military  orders,  became  so 
mingled  with  the  Mohammedans  that  no  distinction  of  faith  or  nationality, 
was  long  to  be  perceived.  The  Venetians  made  a  treaty  of  friendship 
with  the  Mussulmans  of  Egypt,  and  received  in  Alexandria  a  church,  a 
magazine,  and  an  exchange,  where  they  carried  on  a  disgraceful  traffic  in 
Georgian  and  Circassian  slaves.  The  Genoese  possessed  extensive  streets 
and  warehouses  in  Constantinople,  with  the  control  of  the  commerce  of 
the  Black  Sea. 

44.  Though  failing  in  their  immediate  object,  the  Crusades  had  most 
important  and  widely  reaching  results.  Europe,  divided  by  the  feudal 
system  into  a  multitude  of  petty  sovereignties,  was  then  first  united  in 
the  only  bond  that  could  equally  hold  kings,  nobles,  peasants,  and 
priests.  To  defray  the  cost  of  their  equipment,  many  princes  had  sold 
their  estates,  and  these,  though  usually  absorbed  by  the  Church,  were 
sometimes  bought  by  common  citizens,  whose  importance  as  individuals 
and  as  a  class  was  thus  greatly  increased.  On  the  crusaders  themselves, 
contact  with  unfamiliar  customs  had  something  of  its  natural  effect  in 
enlarging  the  mind  and  rendering  it  tolerant  of  new  ideas.  Constan- 
tinople, then  the  grandest  and  most  beautiful  city  in  the  world,  produced, 
even  in  its  decline,  the  same  effect  upon  the  western,  that  old  Rome  had 
upon  the  northern,  barbarians — the  impression  of  a  society,  though  ener- 
vated and  decaying,  yet  ftir  more  enlightened  and  advanced  than  their 
own. 

45.  In  the  historians  who  accompanied  the  several  expeditions  may  be 
seen  the  contrast  between  the  narrow  views  of  the  first  crusaders  and  the 
more  courteous  and  liberal  sentiments  of  their  successors.  The  earlier 
chroniclers  describe  the  "infidel  dogs"  as  monsters,  and  exult  in  the 
most  inhuman  atrocities  inflicted  upon  their  defenseless  wives  and  chil- 
dren; the  later  writers  mention  some  Mussulmans  with  admiration,  and 
hold  up  the  delicate  generosity  of  Saladin  as  a  rebuke  to  the  barbarity  of 
so-called  Christians. 

46.  Extensive  intercourse  between  the  East  and  the  West  resulted  from 
the  Crusades.  India  and  China,  long  the  abode  of  high  civilization,  had 
hitherto  contributed  nothing  of  importance  to  the  "general  stock  of  ideas 
and  comforts,  owing  to  their  isolation  at  the  extreme  circumference  of  the 
land  hemisphere  (see  Book  I.,  §  2).  The  consequences  of  increased  com- 
munication will  very  soon  be  seen  in  the  adoption  of  eastern  inventions, 
which  chaifged  the  whole  current  of  European  life  {H  142,  144).    Mongol 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  CRUSADES.  79 

embassadors  were  seen  in  the  cities  of  Europe;  and  Italians,  French,  and 
Flemings  visited  the  court  of  the  Grand  Khan  (§  155).  A  Tartar  made 
helmets  for  the  French  army  of  Philip  the  Fair.  Venetian  merchants  — 
among  them  the  father  of  Marco  Polo  — resided  for  years  in  China  and 
Tartary,  and  established  trade  with  Hindustan.  The  narrow  circle  of 
European  ideas  was  widened  to  include  the  art  and  languages  of  Asia, 
and  their  influence  may  be  traced  in  the  rise  of  the  modern  literatures  in  - 
Europe. 

47.  Of  the  three  orders  of  knights  founded  during  the  Crusades,  the- 
Templars,  having  no  longer  use  for  their  ample  revenues,  became  luxu- 
rious, haughty,  and  dangerous  to  settled  governments;  the  Hospitallers, 
being  on  garrison  duty  against  the  Turks,  successively  in  Cyprus,  Rhodes, 
and  Malta,  retained  their  chivalrous  and  active  life ;  the  Teutonic  knights 
found  a  still  more  stirring  field  of  combat  with  the  heathenism  of  northern 
Europe.  Prussia  was  still  pagan,  and  her  fierce  warriors  were  even  fanat- 
ical in  their  aversion  to  Christianity.  Herman  von  Salza,  the  illus- 
trious grand  master,  accepted  with  joy  the  invitation  of  the  northern 
bishops.  Building  themselves  a  fort  at  Marienburg,  the  knights  began 
their  arduous  task  both  by  preaching  and  by  fighting.  More  than  half 
a  century  elapsed  before  the  spirit  of  resistance  was  broken,  and  still 
another  century  before  Christianity  was  firmly  established. 

In  the  intervals  of  war  the  knights  redeemed  the  marshy  country  by 
embankments,  and  replaced  the  salt  quagmires  with  grassy  and  fertile 
meadows.  Meanwhile  the  order  became  the  rallying  point  for  all  the 
chivalry  of  Germany.  It  absorbed  into  itself  the  Sword  Brothers  and 
other  military  fraternities,  and  was  victorious  not  only  in  Prussia,  but  in 
Livonia,  Courland,  and  Lithuania.  Its  near  neighborhood  to  Pomerania 
and  the  kingdom  of  Poland  led,  however,  to  disastrous  wars,  and  eventu- 
ally to  its  decline. 

The  Fifth  Crusade  was  occasioned  by  the  appeal  of  King  John  of  Jerusalem,  seconded 
by  the  preaching  of  the  friars  and  the  songs  of  the  troubadours.  Andrew  of  Hungary  led 
the  van  rather  as  pilgrim  than  soldier.  Damietta  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Germans, 
who  were,  however,  defeated  on  their  march  toward  Cairo.  Frederic  II.  became  King  of 
Jerusalem,  and  gained  an  advantageous  peace.  Disorders  which  followed  his  recall  to 
Europe  suppressed  by  Richard  of  Cornwall,  a  nephew  of  Cceur  de  Lion.  A  Tartar  horde 
overran  Palestine,  destroying  Saracens  and  Christians  alike.  In  the  Seventh  Crusade 
Louis  IX.  of  France  captured  Damietta,  but  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  near  Mas- 
sourah.  After  his  release  he  spent  four  years  in  Palestine.  Mutual  strife  of  the  military 
orders  interrupted  by  their  common  foe,  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt.  In  the  Eighth  Crusade, 
Louis  IX.  died  at  Tunis.  Prince  Edward  of  England  defeated  the  Turks  and  made  a  ten 
years'  truce.  Two  emperors  and  a  king  were  defeated  in  a  final  effort  to  deliver  Pales- 
tine. Acre  was  lost  and  the  Holy  Land  abandoned  to  the  Turks.  The  effects  of  the 
Crusades  were  seen  in  the  increased  humanity  and  culture  of  the  Franks.  The  Templars 
became  rich  and  indolent;  the  Hospitallers  held  the  southern  outpost  of  Europe  against 
the  Turks;  the  Teutonic  knights  conquered  and  civilized  the  pagan  tribes  of  the  Baltic. 


80  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


GUELFS  AND  GHIBELLINES. 

48.  The  two  centuries  of  the  Crusades  were  marked  in  Europe  by  a 
long  and   deadly  strife  between   the   emperors  and    the   popes.     Henry 

v.,  though  he  had  been  aided  by  Pope  Paschal  II.  in 
his  shameful  and  perfidious  rebellion  against  his  own 
father,  soon  renewed  the  contest  with  the  Church.  Repairing  to  Eome  to 
assume  the  imperial  crown,  he  fought  a  battle  within  the  very  precincts 
of  St.  Peter's  with  the  papal  party ;  the  pope  and  several  cardinals  were 
imprisoned,  their  territories  ravaged,  and  they  were  released  only  upon 
the  promise  of  Paschal  to  perform  the  coronation,  and  to  resign  to  Henry 
the  investiture  of  all  bishops  and  abbots  in  the  empire.  Upon  the  death 
of  Matilda,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  in  1115,  Henry  again  entered  Italy  to 
claim  her  territories  as  fiefs  of  the  empire,  nor  were  the  popes  during 
his  lifetime  able  to  dispute  the  possession. 

The  next  pontiff,  Gelasius  II.,  was  seized  during  the  ceremony  of  his 
consecration  by  a  party  of  imperialists  led  by  Cencio  Frangipani,  the 
head  of  a  house  which  for  centuries  was  among  the  most  powerful  and 
turbulent  in  Eome.  After  being  imprisoned  and  brutally  ill  treated,  he 
at  length  escaped  into  France,  where  he  died  at  the  abbey  of  Cluny, 
A.  D.  1119.  His  successorj  Calixtus  II.,  was  a  descendant  of  the  kings 
of  Burgundy  and  a  kinsman  of  the  emperor.  By  his  wise  and  dignified 
policy,  the  dispute  concerning  investitures  was  ended  in  the  Concordat  of 
Worms,  A.  D.  1122.  Each  party  made  just  concessions.  The  election  of 
each  new  bishop  was  to  take  place  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor  or  his 
delegate,  who  should  present  the  scepter  in  token  of  the  temporal  power 
conferred  upon  the  candidate ;  but  the  ring  and  crozier,  the  symbols  of 
the  spiritual  office,  were  to  be  received  only  from  the  Pope. 

49.  The  Franconian  Line  ended,  A.  D.  1125,  with  the  death  of  Henry 
v.,  and  Lothaire  the  Saxon  was  elected  emperor.  The  "great  man  of  the 
North,"  during  this  and  the  two  following  reigns,  was  Albert  of  Anhalt, 
commonly  called  the  Bear.  He  possessed  by  inheritance  or  conquest  all 
northern  Saxony,  with  Lusatia  and  the  margravates  of  Salzwedel  and 
Brandenburg,  in  the  latter  of  which  he  founded  the  city  of  Berlin  about 
the  same  time  that  Leopold  of  Austria  laid  the  foundation  of  Vienna  (see 
I  24).  But  a  greater  power  than  that  of  either  emperor  or  barons  was 
exercised  by  St.  Bernard,  the  great  abbot  who  from  his  cloister  at  Ciair- 
vaux  ruled  all  the  courts  of  Europe  by  mere  energy  of  will.  Through 
his  influence  the  emperor,  Lothaire,  with  the  kings  of  France,  England, 
A  T^  119ft  ^"^  Spain,  acknowledged  the  papal  authority  of  Innocent 

II.,  who  had  been  elected  with  unseemly  haste  almost  be- 
fore the  death  of  his  predecessor,  Honorius  II.  The  antipope,  Anacletus, 
though  elected  by  a  more   numerous  party  of  cardinals,  was  of  Jewish 


G  UELFS  AND   GHIBELLINES.  81 

descent,  and  commanded  few  adherents  except  in  southern  Italy  and 
Aquitaine.  The  emperor  accompanied  Innocent  to  Rome,  and  received 
from  his  hands  the  imperial  crown.  But  no  sooner  had  Lothaire  retired 
than  Anacletus  returned,  and  the  acknowledged  pontiff  took  refuge  in 
Pisa.  Several  years  later  the  emperor  crossed  the  Alps  with  an  army 
and  reinstated  the  Pope.  The  antipope  died,  and  the  great 
Council  at  the  Lateran,  attended  by  a  thousand  bishops  and 
innumerable  abbots,   reaffirmed  the  dignity  of  Innocent. 

50.  Bernard  gained  an  equal  apparent,  though  less  real,  success  over 
the  philosopher,  Abelard,  the  bold  thinker  who,  in  asserting  the  su- 
premacy of  reason,  seemed  to  threaten  the  authority  of  the  Church.  He 
was  silenced  and  his  writings  burnt  by  the  Council  of 
Soissons;  but  the  excited  throng  whom  his  eloquence  had 
drawn  to  Paris  followed  him  into  the  wilderness,  and  around  his  thatched 
hut  of  osier  twigs  grew  up  a  village  of  similar  dwellings,  forming  a  school 
rather  than  a  monastery,  to  which  Abelard  gave  the  name  of  the  Para- 
clete. Still  followed  by  suspicion,  he  buried  himself  among  the  wild 
monks  of  St.  Gildas  de  Rliuys  on  the  coast  of  Brittany ;  but  his  books,  to 
adopt  the  words  of  Bernard,  were  "flying  abroad  all  over  the  world;"  and 
their  author  was  again  summoned  before  the  Council  of  Sens.  He  was 
condemned,  and  a  confirmatory  decree  of  Pope  Innocent  II.  forbade  all 
discussion  of  the  mysteries  of  belief.  Two  years  later  Abelard  died  in 
seclusion,  A.  D.  1142. 

61.  Upon  the  death  of  the  emperor,  Lothaire,  A.  D.  1138,  the  Ilohen- 
staufen  family  came  to  the  imperial  throne  in  the  person  of  Conrad  III, 
Its  great  rival  was  the  Guelfic  house,  which  possessed  not  only  the  duchies 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  but  the  vast  hereditary  domains  of  Matilda  of 
Tuscany.  In  a  battle  near  Weinsberg,  A.  D.  1140,  were  first  heard  the 
war-cries  of  "  Guelf "  and  "  Ghibelline,"  which  Avere  yet  to  ring  through 
Europe  from  Sicily  to  the  Baltic.  Though  both  names  belonged  to  Ger- 
many, the  hostility  of  several  successive  popes  toward  the  Hohenstaufen 
identified  the  name  of  Guelf  with  the  papal,  that  of  Ghibelline  with  the 
imperial  party ;  and  the  whole  controversy  between  the  spiritual  and  civil 
supremacy  was  involved  in  these  watchwords. 

52.  Frederic  I.,  the  nephew  and  successor  of  Conrad,  is  better  known 
by  his  Italian  surname,  Barbarossa.     No  one  of  the  German  ii-o-iioo 

princes  had  a  higher  sense  of  his  dignities  and  duties  as 
emperor  of  the  West.  Having  received  the  allegiance  of  the  kings  of 
Denmark,  Poland,  and  Hungary,  conferred  the  royal  title  upon  the  Duke 
of  Bohemia,  and  made  himself  King  of  Upper  Burgundy  by  marriage 
with  the  heiress,  he  proceeded  to  establish  his  authority  over  the  rebel- 
lious cities  of  Italy.  In  his  camp  at  Roncaglia  the  imperial  shield  was 
suspended  from  a  high  mast  over  his  tent,  as  an  invitation  to  all  who  had 
M.  II.— G 


82  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

suffered  wrong  to  come  and  claim  redress.     He  received  the  crown  of  the 
Lombards  at  Pavia,  and  that  of  the  empire  at  Rome.     This 

A.  D.  1155. 

city  liad  been  for  nine  years  under  a  republican  government, 
at  whose  head  was  Arnold  of  Brescia,  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  a  man  of 
pure,  lofty,  and  ardent  character,  and  a  leader  of  the  first  organized 
revolt  against  the  high  claims  of  the  papacy  as  enforced  by  Hildebrand. 
He  had  claimed  the  protection  of  the  emperor  in  his  opposition  to  the 
Pope,  but  the  two  powers  combined  to  crush  the  popular  spirit,  which 
was  equally  hostile  to  both,  and  before  the  arrival  of  Frederic  at  Rome 
Arnold  Avas  burned  and  his  ashes  thrown  into  the  Tiber. 

63.  Milan  was  the  leader  in  the  resistance  to  the  emperor.  In  A.  D. 
1158,  after  a  short  siege,  it  was  compelled  to  submit,  and  the  imperial 
eagle  was  placed  upon  the  spire  of  its  cathedral.  A  fresh  attack  upon 
Frederic's  officers  gave  occasion  for  more  severe  treatment.  The  proud 
city  was  humbled  by  a  siege  of  three  and  a  half  years,  when  the  clergy, 
nobles,  and  all  the  citizens  marched  out  to  the  emperor's  camp  with 
swords  or  halters  suspended  around  their  necks,  and,  casting  themselves 
upon  the  ground,  begged  for  mercy.  Their  lives  were  spared,  but  they 
were  exiled  to  four  villages,  while  the  walls  of  their  city  were  leveled 
to  the  ground. 

64.  In  his  fifth  visit  to  Italy,  the  emperor  was  detained  seven  months 
by  a  fruitless  siege  of  Alessandria,  and  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Legnano,  chiefly  through  the  withdrawal  from  his  army  of  Henry  the 
Lion,  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  and  head  of  the  Guelfs.  This  great 
prince  had  increased  his  territories  by  successful  wars  with  the  Vandals, 
until  they  reached  from  the  Danube  to  the  Baltic  and  North  seas,  and 
far  surpassed  the  hereditary  dominions  of  the  emperor  himself.  He 
aspired  to  be  not  only  the  conqueror,  but  the  civilizer  of  the  northern 
regions,  by  means  of  schools,  bishoprics,  and  courts  of  law.  Peasants 
dislodged  from  their  homes  in  the  Netherlands  by  an  influx  of  the  ocean 
were  conveyed  at  his  expense  into  the  new  provinces  of  Holstein  and 
Mecklenburg,  whose  marshes  and  forests  were  soon  transformed  by  their 
industry  into  fruitful  fields.  Munich,  the  still  magnificent  capital  of 
Bavaria,  was  founded  by  Henry  the  Lion,  A.  D.  1157. 

65.  After  Frederic  had  concluded  at  Venice,  A.  D.  1178,  an  advanta- 
geous peace  with  the  Pope  and  the  Lombard  cities,  he  summoned  Henry 
the  Lion  to  answer  for  himself  before  the  Germanic  Diet.  Having  dis- 
regarded four  successive  summons,  the  duke  was  declared  an  outlaw,  and 
in  a  two  years'  war  was  reduced  to  humble  himself  before  the  emperor  and 
beg  for  pardon.  Frederic  crowned  a  long  and  active  life  by  leading  his 
armies  against  the  Turks,  and  dying  in  Asia  Minor,  A.  D.  1190. 

60.  His  son,  Henry  VI.,  made  himself  master  of  Germany  and  Italy, 
and  raised  the  power  of  the  Hohenstaufen  to  its  highest  pitch,  but  at  the 


GUELFS  AND  GHIBELLINES,  83 

cost  of  a  series  of  tyrannical  and  cruel  acts  which  made  the  name  of 
Ghibelline  detested.  He  gained  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
or  the  Two  Sicilies  in  right  of  his  wife  Constantia,  the  last 
heiress  of  the  Norman  kings.  At  his  early  death,  A.  D.  1197,  his  son  Fred- 
eric was  but  two  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  in  Italy,  and  Germany 
was  for  eighteen  years  torn  by  the  contentions  of  the  Guclfs  and  Hohen- 
staufen,  the  former  of  whom  in  the  north  set  up  Otho  IV.,  a  son  of  Henry 
the  Lion,  and  the  latter  in  the  south,  Philip,  a  brother  of  the  late  emperor. 
The  Pope  Innocent  III.,  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  arbitrary  of  his 
order,  espoused  with  zeal  the  Guelfic  cause,  but  on  the  death  of  Philip  of 
Hohenstaufen  Otho  became  less  obedient,  and  Innocent  sent  Frederic  II. 
into  Germany,  choosing  as  the  champion  of  the  Church  a  prince  whose 
whole  life  and  reign  were  to  be  embittered  by  its  hostility. 

57.  The  young  Hohenstaufen  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  A.  D. 
1215,  and  was   universally  acknowledged   even   before  the 

,        ^   1  .        .       ,  .       ,  ,  ,         ,  A-  !>•  1215-1250. 

death  oi  his  rival.  As  he  grew  older,  however,  his  fond- 
ness for  Arabic  learning  and  his  employment  of  Saracen  troops,— above 
all,  his  great  possessions  in  southern  Italy  which  threatened  the  domin- 
ions of  the  popes,  drew  upon  him  the  enmity  of  Gregory  IX.,  who  pro- 
nounced against  him  the  severest  censures  of  the  Church,  both  before  and 
during  his  crusade.  (See  I  35.)  The  emperor,  returning,  expelled  the 
papal  troops  which  were  overrunning  his  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  improvement  of.  his  favorite  native  land  by  a  better  code 
of  laws,  and  by  liberal  patronage  of  art,  commerce,  and  literature.  The 
works  of  Aristotle  and  many  of  the  Greek  classics  which  had  been  pre- 
served in  Arabic  versions  by  the  Saracens,  were  by  his  order  translated 
into  Latin.  The  University  of  Naples  was  founded,  and  the  far-famed 
college  of  medicine  at  Salerno  newly  endowed  by  him.  Frederic  was  the 
most  remarkable  character  of  his  time,  uniting  with  the  knightly  energy 
and  valor  of  his  German  ancestry  the  refined  and  subtle  intellect  of  his 
native  Italy,  and  excelling  equally  as  lawgiver,  poet,  and  warrior. 

58.  As  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies  he  w^as  a  vassal  of  the  Church,  and  his 
dispute  with  the  popes  involved  all  those  questions  of  civil  and  spiritual 
authority  which  formed  the  main  strife  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Ghib- 
ellines  regarded  the  emperor  as  ordained  of  God,  and  denounced  the  Pope 
as  antichrist  for  presuming  to  oppose  him.  The  Guelfs  declared  that  as 
Leo  III.  had  taken  the  imperial  crown  from  the  Greeks  and  bestowed  it 
upon  Charlemagne,  so  every  succeeding  emperor  had  owed  his  power  to 
the  Pope,  who  conferred  it  in  the  ceremony  of  coronation.  Gregory  sup- 
ported Milan  and  the  Lombard  cities  in  their  rebellious  league  against 
the  emperor,  which  was  joined  even  by  Henry,  king  of  the  Romans,  who 
in  his  father's  absence  had  been  intrusted  with  the  government  of  Ger- 
many.    The   undutiful   prince   ended   his   days   in    prison,  but    Frederic, 


84  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

whose  affection  had  not  been  lessened  by  his  son's  ingratitude,  lamented 
his  loss  in  the  words  of  David  over  Absalom. 

59.  In  the  great  battle  of  Cortenuovn,  the   Lombard   League  was  de- 

feated  with  enormous  loss,  and  the  emperor  became  master 
of  Italy.  Pope  Gregory  launched  against  him  a  fifth  and 
if  possible  still  more  severe  sentence  of  excommunication,  depriving  him 
of  all  his  kingdoms,  and  proposing  to  bestow  the  imperial  crown  upon  a 
brother  of  the  king  of  France.  St.  Louis  replied  to  these  overtures  by  re- 
buking the  "pride  and  audacity  of  the  Pope  which  presumed  to  disinherit 
and  depose  a  sovereign  who  had  not  his  equal  among  Christians."  It  was 
at  this  crisis  (see  ^  156)  that  the  Tartar  hordes  of  Zenghis  Khan  were 
devastating  the  borders  of  Germany  and  Poland;  but  the  rival  heads  of 
Christendom  had  no  force  to  spare  against  the  common  enemy.  Gregory 
IX.  died  at  nearly  a  hundred  years  of  age,  Innocent  IV.,  the  second 
of  his  successors,  fled  from  Rome  and  took  refuge  in  Lyons,  a  city 
which,  though  belonging  to  the  empire,  owned  no  government  but 
that   of     its    archbishop.      Here    a   council    was   asembled 

A.  D.  1245.  ^ 

which  solemnly  deposed  Frederic  and  ordered  the  German 
princes  to  proceed  to  a  new  election.  In  accordance  with  its  decree, 
Henry  of  Thuringia,  and  after  his  death,  William,  Count  of  Holland, 
were  successively  raised  to  the  imperial  dignity. 

60.  The  death  of  Frederic  IL,  A.  D.  1250,  was  followed  by  great  con- 
fusion. The  Ghibellines  every-where  acknowledged  his  son  Conrad  IV.  as 
emperor;  and  after  the  early  death  of  Conrad,  Manfred,  another  son  of 
the  great  Frederic  and  of  an  Italian  mother,  became  regent  of  Naples. 
Both  brothers  were  excommunicated  by  Innocent  IV.,  who  hastened  to 
offer  the  Sicilian  kingdom  successively  to  two  English  princes,  and  to 
Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France.  During  the  interreg- 
num in  the  empire  this  prince  held  also  the  titles  of  senator  of  Rome  and 
imperial  vicar,  which  with  his  Neapolitan  kingdom  gave  him  the  control 

of  the  entire  peninsula.     Manfred  was  defeated   and  mor- 

A.  D.  12CG.  ^ 

tally  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Benevento.  His  sons  died  in 
prison,  and  young  Conradin,  the  son  of  Conrad  IV.,  was  the  last  of  the 
Hohenstaufen.  At  sixteen  years  of  age  he  went  into  Italy  to  claim  his 
inheritance,  but  he  was  defeated  and  captured  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  who, 
bent  upon  the  utter  extermination  of  the  Ghibellines,  caused  him  to  be 
beheaded  with  five  of  his  most  faithful  friends  in  the  market-jilace  at 
Naples. 

61.  The  French  king  and  nobles  treated  the  Two  Sicilies  as  a  con- 
quered country.  But  their  atrocious  tyranny  worked  its  own  punishment. 
Conradin  upon  the  scaffold  had  bequeathed  his  Italian  kingdom  to  his 
cousin  Constance,  daughter  of  Manfred  and  wife  of  King  Pedro  lU.  of  Ar- 
agon.     John  of  Procida,  a  noble  and  physician  who  had  been  deeply  in- 


GUELFS  AND  GHIBELLINES.  85 

jured  by  the  French,  traveled  in  disguise  from  the  court  of  Barcelona  to 
that  of  Constantinople,  and  among  the  Ghibellines  of  Italv, 

,       .  .  ,  :  A.  D.  1282. 

every-where  plotting  vengeance  against  the  usurper.  At 
length  in  one  eventful  night,  known  as  the  "Sicilian  Vespers,"  all  the 
French  in  Palermo  were  massacred.  Eight  thousand  of  their  nation  per- 
ished in  a  few  days,  and  the  island  of  Sicily  became  an  independent 
kingdom  under  Pedro  III.  of  Aragon.  The  Pope — Martin  IV.,  a  slave  of 
Charles  of  Anion  —  declared    Aragon  itself  to   have  been 

*'  '  °  A.  D.  1285. 

forfeited  by  Pedro,  and  bestowed  it  upon  Charles  of  Valois, 
a  nephew  of  the  king  of  Naples.    But  in  the  same  year,  died  the  four  chief 
actors    in    the    dispute:    Martin    IV.,  Charles   of  Aiijou,  Philip    III.   of 
France,  and  Pedro  III.  of  Aragon. 

62.  After  the  death  of  Conrad  IV.,  in  1254,  and  of  his  rival,  William, 
in  1256,  no  German  prince  would  accept  the  imperial  crown.  One  party, 
therefore,  offered  it  to  Alfonso  the  Wise  of  Castile,  who  never  visited  Ger- 
many for  his  coronation,  while  the  other  elected  Richard  of  Cornwall, 
brother  of  Henry  III.  of  England,  who  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
in  1257;  but  his  title,  "King  of  the  Romans,"  brought  with  it  no  real 
power,  and  the  period  from  A.  D.  1256  to  1273  is  known  as  the  Interreg- 
num. The  choice  of  the  princes  then  fell  upon  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg,  a  brave  knight  who  had  won  the  highest  esteem 
by  his  noble  and  virtuous  character,  but  who  was  so  poor  that  even  when 
emperor,  he  sometimes  mended  his  doublet  with  his  own  hands.  His  en- 
ergetic measures  soon  restored  the  honor  of  the  imperial  name.  Ottocar, 
the  powerful  and  rebellious  king  of  Bohemia,  was  defeated  and  slain  in 
battle,  and  his  provinces  of  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola  en- 
riched the  house  of  Hapsburg. 

ItE  C  J^^IPIT  UXj-A-TIOlsr. 

Continued  strife  between  emperors  and  popes,  reclamation  of  waste  or  pagan  countries 
on  tlie  Baltic  by  the  great  German  princes,  and  the  foundation  of  three  royal  capitals, 
belong  to  the  period  of  the  Crusades.  Names  of  Guelf  and  Ghibelline,  the  former  be- 
longing to  the  Bavarian  dukes,  the  latter  to  the  Hohenstaufen,  became  watchwords  of 
the  papal  and  imperial  parties.  Frederic  I.  received  feudal  homage  from  kings  of  Den- 
mark, Poland,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  and  himself  added  the  crown  of  Burgundy  to 
those  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Empire.  He  aided  to  suppress  the  Republic  at  Rome 
by  the  death  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  crushed  the  rebellion  of  the  Lombard  cities  by 
the  destruction  of  Milan.  He  died  during  his  crusade.  Henry  VI.  conquered  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  and  established  his  power  throughout  Germany  and  Italy.  During  the 
minority  of  his  son  Frederic,  Otho  of  Saxony  and  Philip  of  Hohenstaufen  were  rival 
emperors.  Frederic  II.  having  received  the  imperial  crown  from  Innocent  III.  was  ever 
after  the  object  of  papal  persecution,  which  stirred  against  him  the  rebellion  of  the  Lom- 
bard League  and  even  of  his  own  son,  and  finally  procured  the  election  of  rival  empe- 
rors, Henry  of  Thuringia  and  William  of  Holland.  Frederic  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Conrad  IV.,  who  died  A.   D.   1254.    Nearly  twenty  years  interregnum  followed,  during 


86  3IEDIuEVAL  HISTORY. 

which  Alfonso  of  Castile  and  Richard  of  Cornwall  bore  the  imperial  name  without  the 
power.  Manfred  the  brother  and  Conradin  the  son  of  Conrad  IV.  both  perished  in 
Italy,  the  one  in  the  battle  of  Benevento  and  the  other  by  order  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  to 
whom  the  Pope  had  given  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  The  tyranny  of  the  French  was 
avenged  by  the  "Sicilian  Vespers"  and  by  tlie  revolt  of  Sicily  to  the  House  of  Aragon, 
now  sole  representative  of  the  Hohenstaufen.  The  interregnum  in  Germany  was  ended 
by  the  election  of  Eudolph  of  Hapsburg. 

Great  men  of  this  period:  Bernard  of  Clairvaux;  Abelard;  the  Emperors  Frederic 
I.  and  II.;  Arnold  of  Brescia;  Innocent  III.  — next  to  Hildebrand  the  greatest  of  the 
popes ;    Albert  the  Bear  of  Anhalt ;  Henry  the  Lion  of  Bavaria ;  Ottocar  king  of  Bohemia. 


England  and  France,  A.  D.  1100-1285. 

63.  In  England  during  the  same  period,  the  two  great  contests  for 
civil  and  religious  independence  were  in  progress;  namely,  the  strife  of  the 
kings  with  the  popes  for  the  appointment  of  prelates,  and  that  of  barons 
and  kings  for  personal  and  feudal  rights.  Two  sons*  and  a  grandson  of 
the   Conqueror  completed    the    elder  Norman   line  which   had   governed 

England,  A.  D.  1066-1154.     The  Angevin  house  of  Planta- 

A.  D.  1154-1189.  °  '  ^ 

genet  then  succeeded  in  the  person  of  Henry  II.,  whose 
mother,  the  Empressf  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  and  granddaugh- 
ter of  the  Conqueror,  had  vainly  contested  with  her  cousin  Stephen  the 
possession  of  the  crown.  Beside  the  throne  of  England,  Henry  inherited 
in  France  the  great  fiefs  of  Normandy,  Maine,  Touraine,  and  Anjou,  and 
with  his  Queen,  Eleanor,  the  discarded  wife  of  Louis  VII.  of  France, 
he  received  Aquitaine  and  Poitou.  His  French  dominions  thus  exceeded 
by  far  the  immediate  possessions  of  the  French  king  himself,  who  might 
well  tremble  in  receiving  the  homage  of  his  powerful  vassal. 

64.  Crowned  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  Henry  Plantagenet  set  himself 

with  vigor  to  the  work  of  substituting  justice  and  order  for  the  lawless 

violence  of  Stephen's  disputed  reign.     Ireland  was  added  by  conquest  to 

his  dominions,  and  the  captive  king  of  Scotland  acknowledged  the  feudal 

supremacy  of  the  English  king.     The  long  conflict  between  Church  and 

State  came  to  its  height  in  the  seven  years'  quarrel  between  Henry  and 

his  former  chancellor  and  confidential  friend,  Thomas  a  Becket,  whom  he 

had  raised  to  the  primacy.     It  ended  only  with  the  murder  of  Becket  at 

»   T^  ,,,,«  the  altar  of  his  cathedral  church   at    Canterburv,  but    the 

A.  D.  1170.  ... 

victory  remained  Avith  the  prelate,  who  was  worshiped  as  a 

saint,  while  the  king  was  forced  by  the  superstition  of  the  age,  perhaps 

by  his  own,  to  make  a  penitential  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  his  victim, 

where  he  humbly  confessed  his  fault  and  submitted  to  be  scourged. 


*  William  II.  (Rufus)  A.  D.  1087-1100;  Henry  I.— 1135;   Stephen  of  Blois-1154. 
fHer  first  husband  was  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  who  died  A.  D.  1125.    She  then  mar- 
ried Geoffrey  of  Anjou. 


ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  87 

65.  Richard  I.,  the  valiant  son  and  successor  of  Henry,  spent  only  four 
months  in  England  of  the  ten  years  (A.  D.  1189-1199)  that  he  wore  its 
crown.    The  reign  of  his  wicked  and  worthless  brother  John 

°  ,  n  ^-  ^-  1199-1216. 

was  productive  of  two  great  benefits  to  the  kingdom.  The 
loss  of  most  of  his  French  dominions  turned  the  attention  of  his  suc- 
cessors to  their  duties  as  English  sovereigns,  while  it  heightened  the  feel- 
ing of  nationality  in  their  vassals,  and  the  Great  Charter,  wrested  by  the 
Norman  barons  from  the  incompetent  John,  was  the  first  guarantee 
of  constitutional  freedom,  not  only  for  themselves  but  for  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race.  The  kingdom  was  five  years  under  an  interdict,  owing  to 
the  resistance  of  John  to  the  investiture  of  Stephen  Langton  as  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury ;  and  even  this  harsh  measure  failing  to  move  his 
obstinacy,  Pope  Innocent  III.  called  upon  all  Christian  princes  to  join  in 
a  crusade  to  dethrone  him. 

66.  Philip  II.  of  France  who  had  already  seized  the  greater  part  of  the 
continental  dominions  of  John,  willingly  mustered  his  forces  for  the  con- 
quest of  England ;  but  at  this  point  the  humbled  and  terrified  king 
yielded  more  than  was  asked  of  him,  by  surrendering  his  kingdoms  of 
England  and  Ireland  to  the  Holy  See,  to  i^e  held  by  himself  only  upon 
payment  of  homage  and  tribute  as  a  vassal.  The  wrath  of  both  prel- 
ates and  barons  at  this  sacrifice  of  the  national  dignity  led  them  to  as- 
semble in  arms  and  demand  the  Great  Charter,  which  was  signed  June 
15,  1215,  at  Runnimede,  on  the  Thames.  The  faithless  king  lost  no 
time  in  breaking  his  oath  and  ravaging  his  kingdom  with  an  army  of 
Flemish  mercenaries.  The  barons  then  offered  the  crown  to  Prince 
Louis  of  France,  who  swore  to  rule  according  to  the  laws  established  at 
Runnimede;  but  his  triumphs  ceased  with  the  sudden  death  of  John 
and  the  appointment  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  the  chief  promoter  of 
the   Charter,  as   protector  of  the  kingdom. 

67.  Henry  III.  was  as  weak  and  nearly  as  wicked  as  his  father. 
Fifty-six  years  of  misrule  were  partly  compensated  by  re- 

newed  guarantees  of  the  privileges  of  the  people,  which 
they  extorted  from  the  ever  recurring  necessities  of  their  king.  In  1258 
twenty-four  barons  formed  themselves  into  a  commission  for  the  better 
government  of  the  realm.  At  their  head  was  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl 
of  Leicester,  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  his  age.  Seven  years  of  civil 
war  were  the  result.  In  the  battle  of  Lewes  the  barons  were  triumph- 
ant, and  the  king,  his  brother  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans,  Prince 
Edward,  and  his  cousin  Prince  Henry  were  made  prisoners.  In  the 
name  of  the  king,  Simon  de  Montfort  summoned  the  first  English 
parliament  properly  so-called,  for  it  included  two  knights  from  each 
county,  two  burghers  from  each  city  or  borough,  with  eleven  prelates 
and  twenty-three  peers.     In  the  battle  of  Evesham,  A.  D.  1265   Prince 


88  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

Edward,  having  escaped  from  prison,  was  victorious,  the  king  was  set 
free,  and  De  Montfort  and  his  son  Henry  were  slain. 

68.  Edward  I.  was  recalled  from  Palestine  (g  40)  to  assume  his  crown. 
His  chief  aim  was  to  unite  the  island  of  Great  Britain  under  one  scepter 
by  the  conquest  of  Wales*  and  the  marriage  of  his  son  with  the  heiress 
of  Scotland.  The  death  of  the  latter,  A.  D.  1290,  delayed  for  three 
hundred  years  the  union  of  the  kingdoms,  and  the  Scottish  crown  was 
left  to  be  disputed  by  thirteen  claimants.  Edward,  as  lord-paramount, 
decided  in  favor  of  John  Baliol,  and  five  years  later,  upon  some  act  of 
disobedience,  he  placed  the  kingdom  under  the  regency  of  one  of  his  own 
barons.  William  Wallace  organized  a  revolt,  A.  D.  1297,  defeated  the 
English  at  Stirling  Bridge,  and  became  guardian  of  Scotland  in  the 
name  of  King  John.  He  was,  however,  defeated  at  Falkirk,  and  after 
seven  years  guerrilla  warfare  was  taken  and  executed  at  London,  A.  D. 
1305. 

69.  France,  during  the  Crusades,  underwent  still  greater  changes.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  period  the  royal  domain  included  only  five 
cities  with  their  territories,  and  the  road  between  Paris  and  Orleans  was 
controlled  by  a  rebellious  noble.  The  prudence  of  the  Abbot  Suger,  the 
first  of  the  great  churchmen  who  have  governed   France,  increased  the 

power    of    the   crown   and    depressed   that   of    the  nobles. 

Louis  Vl.f  at  his  suggestion  protected  the  leagues  of  the 
common  people  against  the  barons;  and  thus  arose  the  communes  or  free 
charters  of  the  towns.  The  cities  of  southern  France,  as  of  Spain  and 
northern  Italy,  had  never  lost  the  municipal  privileges  bestowed  by 
the  Romans.  They  asserted  those  privileges  during  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury by  choosing  their  own  magistrates  and  arming  for  the  common 
defense. 

70.  Louis  VII.  multiplied  the  communal  charters,  protected  mer- 
*   T^  -.10- -,,DA    chants,   and   founded   "new  cities  "J    for  the  reception    of 

A.  D.  113/-1180.  '  ^ 

serfs  who  escaped  from  the  tyranny  of  their  masters.  On 
his  return  from  the  Holy  Land  (|§  16-18)  he  parted  from  his  Queen, 
the  Duchess  of  Aquitaine,  who  very  soon  transferred  her  vast  domains 
to  her  second  husband,  Henry  II.  of  England.  The  life-long  enmity 
thus  occasioned  between  the  two  kings,  led  Louis  to  shelter  the  ex- 
iled primate,  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  even  to  aid  and  abet  the  rebellion 
of  Queen  Eleanor  and  her  three  sons  against  Henry. 


*His  son,  afterwards  Edward  II.,  was  the  first  English  prince  of  Wales. 

t  Henry  I.  (A.  D.  1031-lOGO)  and  Philip  I.  (—1108)  were  the  third  and  fourth  of  the  house 
of  Capet. 

t  Hence  the  great  number  of   French  towns  still  bearing  the    names    Villeneuve  and 
Villefrandie. 


ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  89 

71.  Philip  Augustus  both  enlarged  and  consolidated  his  kingdom  by 
the  depression  of  the  great  nobles  and  the  conquest  of  all 

.      .  ^       ,  .  ,  .  «  A.  D.  1180-1223. 

except  Aquitaine  oi  the  continental  possessions  of  the 
English  kings.  His  war  against  his  own  vassals  in  the  Mediterranean 
provinces  was  only  too  successful.  The  Count  of  Toulouse — the  almost 
independent  sovereign  of  the  most  civilized  country  in  Europe — refused 
to  persecute  his  non-Catholic  subjects,  to  whose  opinions  he  was  indif- 
ferent, but  whose-  skillful  industry  and  orderly  habits  made  them  good 
and  valuable  members  of  the  community.  The  Pope  thereupon  pro- 
claimed a  crusade  against  Raymond  VI.  and  his  people,  promising  to 
all  who  would  join  it  the  same  indulgences  as  if  they  were  fighting  against 
the  Saracens,  beside  the  more  substantial  reward  of  a  share  in  the  lands 
to  be  conquered. 

The  most  active  and  fierce  of  the  crusaders  was  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  lord  of  great  estates  in  Normandy  and  Earl  of  Leicester  in  Eng- 
land—  the  father  of  that  earl  who  led  the  English  barons  in  their 
opposition  to  Henry  III.  He  bore  for  years,  by  the  authority  of  the 
Lateran  Council,  the  title  of  Count  of  Toulouse.  The  war  raged  from 
A.  D.  1208  to  1229.  Every-where  fertile  fields  were  laid  waste,  towns 
and  villages  depopulated,  the  refined  diversions  of  music  and  poetry  sup- 
pressed, together  with  the  heresy  which  had  sprung  from  intellectual  free- 
dom ;  and  the  very  language  of  the  Proven9als,  the  first  in  modern  Europe 
to  be  improved  by  a  native  literature,  fell  into  a  sudden  and  fatal  decline. 
On  the  part  of  the  king,  this  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  was  perhaps 
less  a  religious  than  a  political  movement.  It  was  a  struggle  of  feudal 
with  municipal  France — of  German  with  Eoman  institutions. 

72.  The  war  continued  through  the  short  reign  of  Louis  VIII.,  A.  D. 
1223-1226 ;  and  was  ended  during  the  minority  of  Louis  IX.  by  the 
submission  of  Raymond  VII.  of  Toulouse.  The  greater  part  of  his  es- 
tate was  annexed  to  the  crown,  and  by  the  Mediterranean  ports  thus 
gained  France  became  an  important  maritime  power.     The     . 

*=  ^  ^  A.  D.  1226-1270, 

reign  of  Louis  IX.  is  a  new  era  in  French  history — an  era 
in  which  the  regular  and  equal  action  of  law.  began  to  replace  the  tur- 
bulent misrule  of  the  feudal  ages.  The  baronial  courts  were  suppressed; 
uniform  coins  and  statutes  prevailed  throughout  the  realm.  To  prevent 
delays  of  justice,  the  king  held  courts  in  the  open  air  —  sitting  under 
a  tree  in  the  forest  of  Vincennes  —  whither  any  man  might  bring  his 
suit  without  ceremony. '  The  sovereign  appeared  in  his  true  character 
as  the  refuge  of  the  oppressed,  the  source  of  justice,  and  avenger  of 
wrong.  The  separation  of  France  and  England  was  made  complete  by 
a  law  of  Louis  IX.,  A.  D.  1244,  forbidding  any  vassal  of  his  to  hold 
estates  under  another  crown.  Before  this,  almost  every  English  baron 
had  fiefs  in  France,  and  might  be  punished  by  one  king  for  lawful  serv- 


90  medijEval  history. 

ices  rendered  to  another.     The  two  crusades  of  Louis  have  already  been 
described.     (||  38-40.) 

73.  His  son   Philip   III.,   by   inheritance  or   marriage,   added  to  his 
-     o  -    dominions  the  counties  of  Champagne,  Toulouse,  Valois,  and 

Alenyon,  and  the  kingdom  of  Navarre.  The  chief  events 
of  his  reign  were  connected  with  the  claims  of  his  uncle,  Charles  of 
Anjou,  upon  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  those  of  his  brother, 
Charles  of  Valois,  upon  Aragon.  (See  I  61.)  The  policy  begun  by  the 
justice  of  St.  Louis  was  continued  by  the  ambition  of  his  successors  ; 
and  the  102  years  dating  from  the  beginning  of  his  reign  have  been 
called  the  Age  of  the  Lawyers — a  century  in  which  the  legal  powers  of  the 
crown  subordinated  without  destroying  the  claims  of  the  feudal  chiefs. 

74.  During  the  crusades,  notwithstanding  the  great  waste  of  blood 
and  treasure,  many  arts  flourished,  and  architecture  especially  achieved 
some  of  its  grandest  works.  The  great  cathedrals  were  the  work  of  a 
society  of  masons  which  existed  throughout  Europe,  the  members  being 
known  to  each  other  and  distinguished  from  the  uninitiated  by  peculiar 
signs  and  customs.  Poetry  also  received  a  new  impulse  from  the  stir- 
ring incidents  of  the  times ;  and  the  troubadours  of  Aragon  and  Prov- 
ence, the  minnesingers  of  Germany,  and  the  poets  of  the  Sicilian  court 
of  Frederic  II.  ushered  in  the  dawn  of  modern  literature.  All  the  Sua- 
bian  emperors  were  themselves  poets.  The  Nibelungen  Lied  —  the  great 
German  epic  of  the  migration  of  nations — as  well  as  the  Book  of  Heroes, 
received  from  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  the  same  service  which  Plomer 
owed  to  Pisistratus.  Their  scattered  portions  were  collected,  edited,  and 
made  accessible  to  scholars. 

75.  The  Church  partook  in  great  measure  the  movements  of  the  age. 
On  one  side  we  find  warrior-bishops,  like  Christian  of  Mentz,  building 
fortifications,  leading  armies,  storming  or  besieging  towns;  on  the  other, 
kings  of  the  cloister,  like  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  who,  refusing  worldly 
rank  for  themselves,  and  blinding  their  eyes  even  to  the  splendors  of  the 
natural  world,  exercised  almost  absolute  control  over  the  turbulent  spirits 
which  governed  secular  affairs.  The  monastic  life  received  a  fresh 
impulse  from  the  multiplication  of  new  orders.  The  monastery  of 
Monte  Cassino  in  southern  Italy,  (founded  by  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia, 
A,  D.  528.)  was  the  cradle  of  the  first  great  organization  of  this  kind. 
The  Benedictines  have  benefited  the  Avorld  by  the  diligent  scholarship 
which  led  them  during  the  dark  ages  to  preserve  and  multiply  copies  of 
the  treasures  of  ancient  literature ;  and,  since  the  invention  of  printing, 
to  compile  great  historical  works  such  as  require  far  more  than  one  life- 
time for  their  achievement. 

76.  The  order  of  the  Carthusians  was  instituted  by  St.  Bruno,  A.  D. 
1084,  upon  a  desolate  rock  near  Grenoble,  with  a  discipline  as  severe  and 


ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  91 

unattractive  as  its  place  of  abode.  Four  years  later  Avas  founded 
the  monastery  of  Citeaux,  which  became  the  parent  of  3600  similar 
convents  of  its  own  Cistercian  order.  The  Carmelites,  founded  in  Pales- 
tine, migrated  to  Europe  in  1238,  and  assumed  both  the  rule  and  name 
of  St.  Augustine.  All  these  and  other  orders  grew  to  be  rich  and  pow- 
erful, both  by  the  gifts  of  the  great  and  by  the  sale  or  pledge  to  them  of 
the  estates  of  Crusaders.  Many  of  these  proprietors  never  returned; 
others  came,  broken  with  disappointment,  to  bury  themselves  in  the 
cloister  and  leave  their  property  to  the  brotherhood.  The  wealth  and! 
luxury  of  the  monks  became  a  reproach.  As  a  protest  against  their 
corruption,  two  orders  of  mendicants,  one  founded  A.  D.  1210,  by  the 
Italian,  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  the  other  in  1215,  by  Dominic  Guzman, 
a  Spaniard,  bound  themselves  to  acquire  no  property  beyond  the  walls 
of  their  monasteries,  and  to  subsist  only  by  begging.  Choosing  a  life 
of  intense  activity  instead  of  the  indolence  of  the  cloisters,  they  were 
the  first  of  all  the  brotherhoods  to  devote  themselves  to  preaching. 
Speaking  all  languages,  penetrating  all  countries,  they  constituted  the 
standing  army  of  the  popes,  to  whom  alone  tliey  rendered  obedience, 
and  whose  power  they  contributed  immeasurably  to  increase  and  prolong. 

77.  The  reign  of  Innocent  III.  was  equally  signalized  by  the  rise  of 
the  Inquisition,  a  secret  tribunal  charged  with  the  detection    .   ^ 

^  .  '  °  A.  D.  1198-1216. 

and  punishment  of  heresy,  apostasy,  and  all  crimes  against 
religion.  Among  the  first  inquisitors  was  the  founder  of  the  Dominicans; 
and  these  friars,  with  their  secular  brethren,  the  Familiars  of  the  Holy 
Office,  planted  the  terrible  institution  in  France,  Italy,  and  Spain.  The 
accused  person  was  snatched  secretly  from  his  home,  and  either  never 
appeared  again  in  the  light  of  day,  or  only  on  his  way  to  the  flames. 
No  counsel  was  allowed,  nor  any  reading  of  the  articles  of  accusation, 
which  might  be  wholly  new  to  the  prisoner.  To  be  suspected  was  almost 
certainly  to  be  condemned.  The  tribunal  first  received  its  complete 
organization  at  the  Council  of  Toulouse,  A.  D.  1229.  It  continued  in 
southern  Europe  and  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  centuiy,  when  advancing  civilization  put  an  end  to 
its  barbarities.  In  the  Spanish  countries  alone,  more  than  half  a  mill- 
ion of  persons  had  suffered  in  various  ways,  of  whom  more  than  32,000 
were  burned  at  the  stake. 

78.  No  less  characteristic  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  Vehm-gericht,  or 
secret  secular  tribunal,  which  established  itself  in  Westphalia,  but  ex- 
tended its  power  throughout  Germany.  Its  members  numbered  several 
thousands  of  all  classes,  who  could  prove  themselves  "free,  irreproacha- 
ble, and  honorable  men  ;"  they  were  bound  by  solemn  oaths  of  secrecy, 
and  recognized  each  other  by  signs  known  only  to  themselves.  If  any 
accused  person  failed  after  three  citations  to  appear  before  them,  he  was 


92  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

sentenced*  to  death,  and  each  member  of  the  court  was  bound  to  pursue 
him  until  his  punishment  \vas  accomplished.  Even  if  he  were  the 
father  or  a  brother  of  a  member,  it  was  forbidden  to  warn  him;  and 
wherever  he  was  found  —  in  his  house,  on  the  high  road,  or  in  the 
forest — he  must  be  hanged  to  the  nearest  tree  or  post.  As  a  proof  that 
he  was  not  a  victim  of  lawless  violence,  his  property  was  left  untouched, 
and  a  knife  was  planted  near  him  in  the  ground.  However  irregular 
such  a  tribunal  may  appear,  it  was  a  powerful  supporter  of  justice  in  a 
turbulent  age,  when  the  slow  and  uncertain  action  of  other  courts  was 
wholly  inadequate  to  the  suppression  of  violence.  It  was  able  either 
to  inflict  instant  and  terrible  punishment,  or  to  track  the  offender  to 
the  most  obscure  and  distant  retreat.  Its  authority,  though  for  the  last 
two  centuries  confined  to  Westphalia,  was  only  legally  repealed  in 
A.  D.  1811. 

Elder  Norman  line  of  English  kings  is  succeeded  by  the  Plantagenets  descended  from 
Count  Geoffrey  of  Anjou.  Henry  II.  has  great  dominions  on  the  continent,  for  which  he 
is  vassal  to  King  of  France ;  conquers  Ireland  and  enforces  his  suzerainty  over  Scotland ; 
quarrels  with  Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  but  alter  Becket  has  been  murdered, 
does  penance  at  his  tomb.  Richard  I.  is  chiefly  known  as  a  crusader.  John  loses  his 
French  inheritance;  is  excommunicated  for  opposing  the  investiture  of  Langton  as  pri- 
mate ;  incurs  the  wrath  of  the  barons  by  surrendering  his  kingdom  to  the  Pope,  and  is 
forced  to  sign  Magna  Charta.  Henry  III.  renews  privileges  which  his  father  has  granted; 
in  his  name  the  first  English  parliament  is  summoned.  War  with  the  barons  led  by 
Simon  de  Montfort.  The  latter  victorious  at  Lewes;  defeated  and  slain  at  Evesham. 
Edward  I.  conquers  Wales  and  controls  Scotland. 

Rise  of  free  cities  in  France  under  Louis  VI.  and  VII. ;  conquest  by  Philip  II.  of  Nor- 
mandy, Maine,  Touraine,  and  Anjou;  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  lasts  from  his 
reign  to  that  of  his  grandson.  Age  of  the  Lawyers  begins  with  Louis  IX.,  the  most 
just  of  French  kings.  Several  important  provinces  added  to  the  kingdom  by  Philip 
III.  Flourishing  period  of  medieval  art  and  literature.  Increased  power  of  the 
Church;  foundation  of  Carthusians,  Cistercians,  Carmelites,  and  the  Mendicant  Or- 
ders of  St.  Dominic  and  St.  Francis.  Rise  of  the  Inquisition.  Supremacy  of  the  Vehm- 
gericht  in  Germany. 


*The  form  of  the  sentence  is  curious  as  showing  the  ideas  of  the  time:  "As  now  N. 
has  been  cited,  prosecuted,  and  adjudged  before  me,  .  .  .  who  is  so  hardened  in  evil 
that  he  will  obey  neither  honor  nor  justice,  and  despises  the  highest  tribunal  of  the 
Holy  Empire,  I  denounce  him  here  by  all  the  royal  power  and  force,  as  is  but  just.  .  . 
I  deprive  him,  as  outcast  and  expelled,  of  all  the  peace,  justice,  and  freedom  he  has 
ever  enjoyed  since  he  was  baptized;  and  I  deprive  him  henceforward  of  the  enjoyment 
of  the  four  elements  which  God  made  and  gave  as  a  consolation  to  man,  and  denounce 
him  as  without  right,  without  law,  without  peace,  without  honor,  without  security:  I 
declare  him  condemned  and  lost,  so  that  any  man  may  act  towards  him  as  with  any 
other  banished  criminal.  .  .  .  And  I  herewith  curse  his  flesh  and  blood,  and  may  his 
body  never  receive  burial,  but  may  it  be  borne  away  by  the  wind,  and  may  the  ravens 
and  crows  and  wild  birds  of  prey  consume  and  destroy  him.  And  I  adjudge  his  neck  to 
the  rope,  and  his  body  to  be  devoured  by  the  birds  and  beasts  of  the  air,  sea,  and 
land ;  but  his  soul  I  commend  to  our  dear  Lord  God,  if  he  will  receive  it." 


FO  URTEENTH  CENTUM  Y.  93 


Period    II.      From  (he  Last   Crusade  to   the  Discovery  of  America. 
A.  D.  1291-1492. 

79.  The  two  centuries  following  the  Crusades  were  a  period  of  rapid 
development  throughout  Europe.  New  thought  revolutionized  old  opin- 
ions;  powers  which  had  only  existed  in  the  germ  sprang  to  maturity; 
the  learning  of  the  ancient  world  was  revived  at  the  fortunate  moment 
when  western  genius  was  able  to  be  stimulated  by  it,  not  depressed  into 
lifeless  imitation ;  the  art  of  printing  came  to  diffuse  among  the  middle 
and  lower  classes  the  treasures  thus  amassed;  and  the  discovery  of  a 
hitherto  unknown  continent  gave  a  new  direction  and  unlimited  scope 
to  the  quest  of  ^ealth,  knowledge,  and  dominion. 

80.  We  glance  briefly  at  the  condition  of  the  several  nations  of  Europe 
at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Emperor  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg  was  succeeded,  A.  D.  1292,  by  Adolph  of  Nassau,  who  was  in  turn 
deposed  by  the  electors,  defeated  and  slain  by  a  new  emperor,  Albert  of 
Austria,  eldest  son  of  Rudolph,  A.  D.  1298.  Albert,  unlike  his  father,  was 
a  stern  and  overbearing  tyrant.  His  cruelties  excited  revolt  in  his 
own  provinces  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Switzerland,  and  while  he  was 
marching  to  execute  vengeance  upon  the  latter,  he  was  murdered  by  his 
nephew,  John  of  Hapsburg,  whom  he  had  unjustly  deprived  of  his 
estates. 

81.  France  was  ruled  by  a  grandson  of  St.  Louis,  Philip  the  Fair, 
whose  constant  want  of  money  led  him  to  ruthless  persecutions  of  Jews, 
Churchmen,  Flemish  merchants,  and  finally  of  the  Knights  Templars. 
His  quarrel  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  will  soon  be  described.  England, 
under  the  vigorous  reign  of  Edward  I.,  was  extending  her  power  over 
Scotland,  and  protecting  the  Flemings  against  the  French  king,  their 
feudal  lord.  The  Spanish  peninsula  contained  the  five  Christian  king- 
doms of  Aragon,  Navarre,  Castile,  Leon,  and  Portugal,  beside  the  two 
Moorish  sovereignties  of  Cordova  and  Granada.  Italy  was  divided 
between  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  the  free 
cities  of  Tuscany  and  Lombardy,  which,  while  owing  a  nominal  allegiance 
to  the  emperor,  were  usually  governed  by  a  podesta  or  some  chief  citi- 
zen, resembling  the  "tyrants"  of  ancient  Greece.  The  Neapolitan  king- 
dom was  still  in  dispute  between  the  houses  of  Anjou  and  Aragon,  the 
latter  having  inherited  the  claims  of  the  Suabian  family.  Frederic  of 
Aragon,  the  bravest  prince  and  ablest  captain  of  his  time,  defended 
Sicily  many  years  against  the  entire  Gallic  and  papal  force;  and  even 
against  his  own  elder  brother,  King  James  of  Aragon,  after  the  latter  had 
made  peace  with  the  French.  By  a  treaty  in  1302,  Sicily  and  the  smaller 
islands  were  erected  into  a  separate  kingdom,  called  Trinacria,  for  Fred- 


94  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

eric  and  his  descendants,  while  the  House  of  Anjou  retained  only  the 
peninsular  dominion. 

82.  Celestin  V.,  a  pious  hermit  but  incompetent  sovereign,  was  per- 
suaded (A.  D.  1294)  to  resign  his  tiara,  by  the  Cardinal  of  Anagni,  who 
himself  became  Pope  with  the  name  of  Boniface  VIII.  Under  this 
turbulent  and  ambitious  prince,  the  papacy  reached  its  highest  preten- 
sions, only  to  fall,  at  his  violent  and  disgraceful  death,  into  a  long 
humiliation  and  depression.  Over  the  greatest  monarchs  in  Chri.stendom, 
Boniface  claimed  the  authority  of  a  Roman  Censor,  to  punish  and  even 
depose  for  private  and  pergonal  offenses.  Over  the  smaller  kingdoms' 
of  NaiDles,  Sicily,  Aragon,  Portugal,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Scotland,  and 
England,  he  asserted  the  absolute  power  of  a  feudal  chief,  having  bought 
a  recognition  of  his  supremacy  by  favoring  one  or  another  of  rival  claim- 
ants to  those  thrones,  or  extorted  it  from  a  weak  sovereign  by  terror  of 
spiritual  penalties.  (§  66.)  In  the  King  of  France,  Boniface  met  a 
nature  as  proud  and  unyielding  as  his  own.  After  a  violent  war  of 
words,  the  pontiff  was  attacked  and  seized  in  his  native  city,  Anagni, 
by  Sciarra  Colonna,  a  Roman  prince  whose  family  he  had  bitterly^ 
wronged,  and  William  of  Nogaret,  a  French  lawyer  whose  ancestors  had 
been  slain  by  the  Inquisition.  Overcome  by  rage  at  this  humiliation, 
he  died  a  few  weeks  later  at  Rome,  A.  D.  1303. 

83.  In  the  north  of  Europe  the  petty  principalities  of  the  Baltic  had 
become  consolidated  into  the  three  modern  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark.  Christianity  had  slowly  but  surely  conquered  the  ancient 
paganism,  and  with  its  milder  teachings,  letters  and  other  arts  of  civili- 
zation had  been  introduced  by  the  Benedictine  monks.  AValdemar  II. 
(A.  D.  1202-1241)  governed  not  only  Denmark  and  Sweden,  but  a  great 
part  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Prussia.  Before  his  death  his  empire 
fell  to  pieces,  and  its  southern  territories  were  soon  conquered  by  the 
Teutonic  knights. 

84.  Within  twenty  years  from  the  signing  of  Magna  Charta  in  Eng- 
land, the  Hungarian  barons  extorted  from  their  king,  Andrew  II.,  a 
similar  document  called  the  "Golden  Privilege,"  which  included  even 
the  right  of  armed  resistance  to  the  sovereign,  in  case  of  his  failure  to 
fulfill  his  obligations.  With  his  grandson  the  family  of  Arpad  became 
extinct  in  the  male  line  in  A.  D.  1301,  and  the  crown,  becoming  elect- 
ive, was  conferred  in  expectancy  upon  Charles  of  Naples,  a  descend- 
ant by  his  mother's  side  from  the  old  Hungarian  kings.  Charles  died 
before  his  accession ;  but  intercourse  with  Italy  had  meanwhile  been 
productive  of  great  advance  in  the  civilization  of  Hungary.  The  wastes  of 
Transylvania  were  converted  into  fruitful  fields  and  thriving  villages  by 
the  labor  of  multitudes  of  Flemish  and  German  colonists.  Bohemia,  though 
lately  one  of  the  most  powerful  monarchies  in  Europe,  was  at  this  time 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  95 

depressed  by  the  losses  and  death  of  King  Ottocar;  while  Poland,  not 
yet  recovered  from  the  ravages  of  the  Mongols,  and  further  weakened  by 
several  disputed  reigns,  gave  no  promise  of  the  greatness  it  was  soon  to 
attain  under  Ladislas  I.  and  Casimir  the  Great, 

85.  Upon  the  death  of  Pope  Benedict  XI.,  the  successor  of  Boniface 
VIII.,  the  King  of  France  secured  the  election  of  Bertrand  de  Goth, 
a  Gascon,  and  thus  a  subject  of  tlie  King  of  England,  but,  as  it 
proved,  the  obedient  servant  of  Philip  himself.  He  assumed  the  name 
of  Clement  V.,  and  removed  the  seat  of  the  paT)acy  from 

A.  D.  1309-1378 

Rome  to  Avignon,*  where  it  remained  nearly  seventy 
years,  in  what  was  called  by  Italian  writers  of  the  time  a  Babylonish 
captivit}\  With  this  Pope,  Philip  IV.  concerted  his  scheme  for  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Templars.  The  admiration  of  Christendom  during  two 
centuries  had  loaded  the  order  with  wealth  ;  and  instead  of  nine  poor 
knights,  15,000  of  the  most  splendid  chivalry  in  the  world  excited  at  once 
the  fear  and  envy  of  the  king.  Their  fortresses  were  among  the  strong- 
est in  Europe,  and  by  the  terms  of  their  institution  they  were  independ- 
ent equally  of  the  civil  and  the  ordinary  ecclesiastical  power,  owning 
allegiance  only  to  the  Pope.  Even  from  him  a  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation could  not  strike  the  order;  but  when  surrounding  territories 
suffered  under  an  interdict,  their  church-bells  sounded,  the  dead  were 
buried,  and  the  living  absolved  as  usual. 

86.  Three  quite  incompatible  charges  of  idolatry,  atheism,  and  Mo- 
hammedanism were  laid  against  them ;  but  their  real  crimes  were  their 
power  and  wealth.  Their  dealings  with  the  Saracens  had  doubtless  worn 
away  the  prejudices  with  which  the  Holy  Wars  began ;  and  the  Temp- 
lars— mostly  men  of  generous  breeding— had  learned  to  treat  with  liber- 
ality a  foe  whose  mental  culture  they  could  not  but  respect ;  but  in  a 
bigoted  age  tolerance  is  a  crime,  and  they  were  accused  of  yielding  equal 
reverence  to  Mohammed  and  to  Christ.  The  witnesses,  most  of  them 
renegades  from  the  order,  were  tortured,  and  the  confessions  wrung  from 
them  by  insufferable  agony  seemed  to  admit  the  justice  of  the  accusations. 
But  when  these  confessions  were  read  in  open  court,  many  of  the  sufferers 
indignantly  denied  their  truth,  and  were  sentenced  to  be  burned  as  apos- 
tates: 113  thus  suffered  in  Paris  alone,  and  the  number  in  the  provinces 
can  not  be  estimated.  Jacques  de  INIolay,  the  Grand  Master,  was  im- 
mured seven  years  in  a  dungeon,  until  his  intellect  became  disordered  by 
long  suffering  and  deprivation  of  light.  His  defense  was  then  refused, 
and  he  was  sentenced  with  two  companions  to  the  stake.     From  the  midst 


♦Avignon  with  its  territory,  the  Venaissin,  had  been  a  papal  possession  since  1273, 
being  the  share  claimed  by  Gregory  X.  of  the  spoils  of  the  Albigenses.  It  belonged  to 
the  popes  till  1789. 


96  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY, 

of  the  flames  he  summoned  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  France  to  meet 
him  ere  long  at  the  bar  of  God.     Both  died  within  the  year  1314. 

87.  England,  governed  by  the  weak  and  worthless  Edward  II.,  a  son- 
in-law  of  Philip,  followed  the  example  of  France  in  the  suppression  of 
the  Templars.  In  the  Neapolitan  kingdoms  and  the  Papal  States  similar 
confessions  were  obtained  by  torture;  but  in  northern  Italy  most  of  the 
witnesses  were  firm  in  asserting  the  innocence  of  the  Knights,  and  in 
Spain  and  Germany  they  were  triumphantly  acquitted.  Their  lands, 
however,  were  transferred  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  while  their  movable 
treasures  went  to  enrich  the  several  sovereigns,  especially  their  arch  per- 
secutor, the  king  of  France.  In  Portugal  alone  a  remnant  of  the  order 
still  exists,  under  the  name  "Chevaliers  of  Christ." 

88.  The  rise  of  the  Swiss  Republics  is  among  the  important  events  of 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  germ  of  their  confedera- 
tion may  be  found  in  the  alliance  of  the  three  Forest  Cantons,  Schwytz, 
Uri,  and  Unterwalden,  August  1,  1291;  but  it  is  usually  dated  from  the 
Conjuration  of  Eiitli,  A.  D.  1308;  in  which  three  men  from  the  same 
three  cantons,  swore  to  each  other  under  the  open  heaven  to  live  and  die 
for  the  defense  of  fatherland.  Each  chose  ten  confidants  from  his  own 
canton,  and  the  thirty-three  repeated  the  oath.  The  people  exhausted 
by  the  oppressions  of  Albert  of  Austria  seized  all  his  bailiffs  and  their 
satellites,  and  drove  them  from  the  country.  The  death  of  the  emperor 
occurred  on  his  march  into  Switzerland,  but  his  son  Leopold  exacted  a 
pitiless  and  bloody  vengeance  from  the  peasants  of  the  WaldstUtten, 
most  of  whom  had  no  part  in  the  oath  of  Riitli.  He  was  defeated  by  a 
few  hundred  men  in  the  narrow  pass  of  Morgarten,  November,  1315, 
with  the  loss  of  many  of  his  highest  nobility,  and  he  himself  only 
escaped  death  by  a  disgraceful  flight.  The  three  Forest  States  (Wald- 
stUtten) maintained  their  rights  as  distinct  members  of  the  Empire;  and 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  Federal  Republic,"^  whose  indeijendence  was 
first  acknowledged  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  1648. 

89.  Meanwhile,  Henry  VII.  of  Luxembourg  was  restoring  order  to  the 

empire,  and  securing  to  his  own  house,  by  the  marriage  of 
his  son,  the  vast  revenues  of  the  Bohemian  kingdom.  He 
visited  Italy,  whither  no  emperor  had  gone  since  Conrad  IV.,  and  where 
he  was  warmly  welcomed  by  the  oppressed  Ghibellines.  He  earnestly 
endeavored  to  heal  the  long  strife  of  parties,  compelling  all  cities  to 
recall  their  exiles,  whether  Guelf  or  Ghibelline,  and  appointing  im- 
perial vicars  for  the  maintenance  of  justice  and  order.  He  died  soon 
after  his  coronation  at  Rome,  A.  D.  1312,  not  without  suspicion  of  his 
having  been  poisoned  by  means  of  sacramental  wine  administered  by  a 
Dominican  monk. 


♦For  the  development  of  the  Swiss  Republic  sec  Appendix. 


.im.fllir.  niiflalo. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  97 

90.  The  German  princes  failed  to  unite  in  the  choice  of  his  successor ; 
and  the  division  extending  through  the  empire  occasioned  an  exhausting 
civil  war  of  thirteen  years.  The  primate,  the  towns,  and  common  people 
preferred  Louis  of  Bavaria;  most  of  the  nobility,  led  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  were  for  Duke  Frederic  of  Austria.  In  the  battle  of  Miihl- 
dorf,  A.  D.  1322,  Frederic  became  the  prisoner  of  his  victorious  rival. 
Even    then    the    enmity    of   several    princes    and    of    two 

11  .  .^    X        .      -r^r  -,     ^-  ^-  1314-1347. 

successive  popes  made  the  reign  of  Louis  IV.  a  continual 
scene  of  discord.  King  John  of  Bohemia,  a  true  knight-errant,  traversed 
Germany,  Italy,  and  France  fomenting  the  hostility  of  all  parties  to  the 
Bavarian  emperor.  At  length,  A.  D.  1346,  Charles  of  Luxembourg,  the 
son  of  King  John,  was  chosen  by  some  of  the  German  princes  as  their 
head,  and  the  death  of  his  rival,  the  next  year,  led  to  his  general  recog- 
nition as  the  Emperor  Charles  IV. 

01.  The  year  of  his  election  was  signalized  by  the  battle  of  Crecy 
between  the  English  and  the  French.  The  direct  succession  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Hugh  Capet  was  broken  for  the  first  time,  A.  D.  131G,  after 
continuing  from  father  to  son  more  than  three  centuries.  Popular 
opinion  favored  the  daughter  of  Louis  X.,  who  died  in  that  year,  but 
the  feudal  principle,  which  demanded  active  military  leadership  in  the 
suzerain,  prevailed;  and  after  the  accession  of  Philip  V.,  the  brother  of 
Louis,  the  States-general  enacted  for  the  first  time  a  law  definitely 
excluding  women  from  the  throne.  Philip  was  likewise  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Charles,  A.  D.  1322 ;  and  as  the  latter  left  no  sons,  Philip  of 
Valois,  his  cousin,  came  to  the  throne.  Edward  III.  of  England  pre- 
ferred a  nearer  chiim  through  his  mother  Isabella,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
Philip  IV.  The  Flemings,  now  ruled  by  Jacques  van  Artevelde,  the 
brewer  of  Ghent,  in  revolt  against  Philip  of  Valois,  hailed  Edward  as 
King  of  France;  and  the  Emperor  Louis  IV.  appointed  him  imperial 
vicar  in  the  Netherlands. 

92.  His  invasion  of  France  came  to  its  most  decisive  issue  at  Crecy, 
where  he  was  completely  victorious,  and  King  John  of  Bohemia,  now  old 
and  blind,  was  left  dead  upon  the  field,  together  with  a  crowd  of  French 
chivalry.  The  sea-port  and  fortress  of  Calais,  soon  after  taken  by  eleven 
months'  siege,  continued  for  two  centuries  in  the  English  possession. 
King  John  of  France,  who  succeeded  his  father,  A.  D.  1350,  attempted 
to  avenge  himself  upon  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  who  from  his  English 
territory  of  Aquitaine,  was  ravaging  the  western  provinces.  The  battle 
of    Poitiers   was   a   still    more   remarkable    victory   for   the 

English,  their  numbers  being  less  than  one-seventh  of  those 

of  their  enemies.      King  John    was  a   prisoner,  and   2500   knights   and 

nobles  were  among  the  slain. 

93.  During  the  four  years'  detention  of  King  John  in  Bordeaux  and 

M.  H.-7. 


^8  MEDIJ^VAL  HISTORY. 

London,  the  dauphin,  as  Regent,  had  to  deal  with  a  rebellion  in  Paris  and 
a  general  revolt  of  the  peasantry.  These  poor  creatures  were  not  appar- 
ently actuated  by  a  hope,  still  less  by  a  rational  scheme  for  gaining  their 
liberty,  but  rather  by  a  blind  fury  of  despair  under  oppressions  too  griev- 
ous to  be  borne.  The  castles  of  the  nobles  were  demolished  or  burnt, 
and  their  inmates  massacred.  This  ignorant  warfare  could  not  long 
maintain  itself  against  the  trained  tactics  of  the  ruling  class.  The 
peasants  v/ere  defeated  before  Meaux  with  a  loss  of  seven  thousand  of 
their  number,  and  the  scattered  fugitives  were  hunted  down  like  beasts. 
The  "Jacquerie"  was  suppressed  by  the  depopulation  of  vast  districts. 
Unhappy  France  suffered  at  the  same  time  from  a  three  years'  pestilence 
and  from  the  ravages  of  the  disbanded  soldiers,  who,  thrown  out  of  pay 
and  released  from  discipline,  roamed  over  the  country,  plundering  and 
burning  at  their  pleasure. 

94.  By  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  A.  D.  1360,  King  John  was  liberated 
upon  his  renouncing  all  his  sovereign  rights  over  Aquitaine  and  several 
adjoining  counties,  and  engaging  to  pay  a  ransom  ruinous  to  his  ex- 
hausted dominions.  To  raise  the  first  installment,  he  condescended  to 
marry  his  daughter  to  the  heir  of  the  Visconti,  the  rich  and  powerful 
lords  of  Milan.  The  celebrated  Petrarch,  who  visited  Paris  on  this 
occasion,  describes  it  as  a  desert  overgrown  by  brambles  and  grass.  The 
royal  dukes  of  Anjou  and  Berri,  who  were  hostages  for  the  fulfillment 
of  the  treaty,  violated  their  parole,  and  their  father  voluntarily  returned 
to  London,  where  he  died  a  prisoner,  A.   D.  1364. 

95.  Under  the  dauphin,  now  King  Charles  V.,  war  with  the  English 
was  indirectly  renewed  in  the  support  by  either  nation  of  the  rival 
claimants  to  the  duchy  of  Brittany,  and  to  the  throne  of  Castile.  The 
former  contest  is  sometimes  called  the  Ladies'  War,  because  the  rival 
dukes  having  been  one  imprisoned  and  the  other  slain,  their  wives 
carried  on  hostilities  with  equal  energy.  In  both  cases  the  English  party 
was  victorious,  De  Montfort  being  recognized  as  Duke  of  Bretagne,  and 
Pedro  the  Cruel  as  King  of  Castile;  but  the  last  success  was  too  dearly 
purchased  by  the  incurable  illness  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  contracted 
in  his  Spanish  campaign,  and  even  suspected  to  have  resulted  from  poison 
received  from  his  jealous  and  ungrateful  ally.  Pedro  was  defeated  by 
the  French,  A.  D.  1368,  and  killed  a  few  days  later  by  his  half-brother, 
Henry  of  Trastamare,  who  was  able  to  retain  the  crown  for  himself  and 
his  descendants.  The  death  of  the  Black  Prince,  A.  D.  1376,  was  shortly 
followed  by  that  of  his  father;  and  Charles  V.  by  prudent  and  skillful 
management  soon  recovered  from  the  English  more  than  King  John 
had  lost. 

96.  Within  three  years  the  kingdoms  of  France  and  England  were 
placed  in  curiously  similar  circumstances.    Two  minor  princes,  Richard  II. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY.  99 

in  England  (1377)  and  Charles  VI.  in  France  (1380)  came  to  the  throne, 
each  uiider  the  control  of  three*  ambitious  and  powerful  uncles,  who  used 
the  royal  resources  for  the  furtherance  of  their  own  schemes  of  home  and 
foreign  dominion.  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  having  married 
a  daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  claimed  the  crown  of  Castile  in  her  right, 
but  his  repeated  attacks  upon  the  country  resulted  only  in  failure.  To 
understand  the  Duke  of  Anjou's  attempts  upon  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
we  must  glance  at  the  previous  condition  of  Italy.  King  Robert  of 
Naples,  grandson  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  was  succeeded,  A.  D.  1343,  by 
his  granddaughter,  Joanna,  who  at  the  age  of  sixteen  was  already  married 
to  her  cousin,  Andrew  of  Hungary.  (^  84.)  The  boorish  manners  of 
the  king-consort  and  his  attendants  shocked  the  elegant  court  of  Joanna, 
while  his  assumed  claim  to  the  crown  in  his  own  right  alarmed  her 
counsellors.  Andrew  was  murdered,  A.  D.  1345,  by  the  adherents,  though, 
it  may  be  hoped,  without  the  connivance  of  his  wife.  His  brother,  Louis 
the  Great  of  Hungary,  avenged  his  death  by  invading  the  kingdom, 
while  Joanna  took  refuge  in  the  States  of  the  Church. 

97.  Rome,  deserted  by  its  bishops,  was  a  prey  to  the  lawless  vio- 
lence of  its  nobles.  Two  princely  and  hostile  families,  the  Colonna 
and  Orsini,  carried  on  their  wars  in  the  very  streets  of  the  city,  or  in 
the  surrounding  country,  where  their  strong  castles  enabled  them  to 
defy  justice.  In  this  crisis  Cola  di  Rienzi,  a  man  whose  genius  and 
patriotism  were  fired  by  recollections  of  the  glory  of  ancient  Rome,  pro- 
posed to  the  people  a  restoration  of  the  "  Good  Estate,"  i.  e.,  suppression 
of  private  wars,  enforcement  of  law  even  upon  the  proudest  patricians, 
and   the  arming  and  drilling  of  citizens  for  the  defense  of 

^  *=  A.  D.  1347. 

their    rights.      He    himself,    refusing    a    senatorship,    was 

chosen   Tribune  —  by  that  name  recalling  the  self-sacrificing  efforts    of 

the  Gracchi. 

98.  For  a  few  months  the  den  of  robbers  was  transformed  into  a  scene 
of  peace  and  prosperity.  The  envoys  of  Rienzi,  armed  only  with  the 
white  wand  of  their  oflSce,  traversed  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  sum- 
moning cities  and  monarchs  to  acknowledge  the  ancient  supremacy  of 
Rome.  The  King  of  Hungary  and  the  Queen  of  Naples  submitted  their 
cause  to  his  arbitration,  and  the  republics  of  northern  Italy  sought  his 
protection.  He  cited  the  Emperor  Louis  to  appear  and  submit  his 
election,  as  of  old,  to  the  choice  of  the  Roman  people,  and  he  summoned 
the  Pope  and  cardinals  to  return  to  their  lawful  seat.  But  the  Tribune 
was  spoiled  by  prosperity.  He  indulged  his  personal  vanity  by  kingly 
pomp,  and  burdened  the  people  with  oppressive  taxes,  while  he  debased 


*The  Dukes  of  Lancaster,  York,  and  Gloucester  in  England;    of  Anjou,  Berri,  and 
Burgundy  in  France. 


100  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

liis  acts  of  justice  by  needless  cruelty,  and  by  his  extreme  measures 
caused  even  the  Colonna  and  Orsini  to  unite  against  him.  He  was 
forced  to  abdicate  his  authority  and  to  spend  six  years  in  exile  or  in 
prison  at  Avignon,  while  Rome  was  left  to  the  fury  of  the  barons  and  the 
successive  tyrannies  of  two  self-styled  tribunes,  Cerroni  and  Baroncelli. 
Pope  Innocent  VI.  at  length  released  Rienzi  from  prison,  and  sent  him 
to  Eome  with  the  title  of  senator.  The  people  received  him  with  joy, 
but  the  enmity  of  the  nobles  was  not  appeased,  and  after  four  months 
he  was  killed  on  the  steps  of  the  Capitol. 

99.  The  earlier  years  of  Rienzi's  exile  were  marked  by  a  calamity 
which  for  a  time  surpassed  all  the  other  sufferings  of  that  disastrous 
period.  A  plague  known  as  the  "Black  Death"  was  brought  from  Asia 
into  Europe  by  Italian  merchants.  In  the  year  1348  it  spread  through 
Italy,  Savoy,  Provence,  Burgundy,  and  Catalonia.  The  next  year  it 
covered  all  Barbary,  Spain,  England,  and  France.  In  1350  it  overran 
Germany,  Hungary,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  even  Iceland.  Some  cities 
lost  three-fifths,  others  even  seven-tenths  of  their  inhabitants,  and 
throughout  France  it  was  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  people  had 
perished.  As  if  this  visitation  .were  not  enough,  several  countries  were 
harassed  by  the  brigandage  of  the  "  Free-Companies,"  and  the  common 
people,  seeking  some  object  more  wretched  than  themselves  on  which  to 
avenge  their  misery,  accused  the  Jews  of  having  produced  the  plague 
by  poisoning  the  wells.  A  ruthless  persecution  was  the  result,  and 
hundreds  of  Israelites  chose  to  burn  themselves  and  their  families 
in  their  own  houses  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enraged  and 
ignorant   mob. 

100.  Pope  Gregory  XI.  ended  the  "Babylonish  Captivity"  by  returning 
with  his  cardinals  to  Rome;  but  his  death  was  followed  by  the  great 
''Schism  of  the  West" — two,  and  at  one  time  even  three,  popes  reigning 
simultaneously  in  different  countries.  Urban  VI.  disgusted  the  conclave 
which  had  elected  him,  by  his  harsh  and  violent  measures,  especially 
by  appointing  at  once  twenty-six  new  cardinals,  thus  throwing  the  rest 
into  a  hopeless  minority.  These,  retiring  to  Fondi,  declared  the  former 
election  null,  and  chose  the  warlike  Archbishop  Robert  of  Geneva,  who, 
as  Clement  VII.,  was  acknowledged  by  France,  Naples,  and  Scotland, 
and  ultimately  by  the  Spanish  kingdoms  of  Castile,  Aragon,  and  Navarre; 
while  the  rest  of  Europe  adhered  to  Urban  VI.  Queen  Joanna  of 
Naples  had  aided  the  election  of  the  antipope.  Urban  VI.  in  revenge 
bestowed  her  kingdom  upon  Charles  of  Durazzo,  nephew  of  the  King  of 
Hungary,  and  crowned  him  at  Rome,  A.  D.  1381.  Charles  had  the 
hereditary  claim,  for  the  old  Angevin  line  was  to  expire  with  Joanna;  but 
the  childless  queen,  incensed  at  this  disposal  of  her  kingdom  before  her 
death,  adopted  Louis  of  Anjou,  uncle  of  diaries  VI.  of  France,  as  her 


FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND.  101 

heir.  Clement  VII.,  at  Avignon,  hastened  ^ot  pnl}?  to  crown. thei  Trench 
prince  as  King  of  Naples,  but  to  assign  hini  a  ia'^w^"  kingdom^  of  Adria" 
from  the  States  of  the  Church.  Charles' o/,  J)ui%ttt)^\//j^ :lAr&t 'Ar/Ahe 
field.  Joanna  was  captured,  and  murdered  ^itf  ^  hdr  Ihij5rife6nment  — a 
long  cherished  revenge  on  the  part  of  the  King  of  Hungary  for  the 
death  of  his  brother.  In  order  to  prosecute  his  claims,  the  Duke  of 
Anjou  seized  the  treasures  of  the  French  kingdom  immediately  upon  his 
brother's  death.  But  his  great  preparations  ended  only  in  disgrace.  The 
greater  part  of  his  army  fell  victims  to  the  plague,  and  he  himself  died 
near  Bari,  A.  D.  1384.  French  claims  upon  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  were 
cause  of  war  for  more  than  a  century  without  ever  resulting  in  perma- 
nent conquest. 

Increase  of  mental  activity  in  Europe  after  the  Crusades.  Rise  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg.  Extortions  of  Philip  the  Fair;  supremacy  of  England  among  the  British  Isles. 
Seven  kingdoms  in  Spain ;  rise  of  the  podestas  in  the  free  cities  of  Italy ;  separation  of 
Sicily  from  kingdom  of  Naples.  Pontifical  arrogance  of  Bonifiace  VIII.  met  by  the 
haughty  resistance  of  Philip  IV.  Civilization  of  the  northern  kingdoms  and  of  Hun- 
gary. Papal  court  at  Avignon  69  years.  Suppression  of  the  Templars,  A.  D.  1307-1322. 
The  "Conjurators"  at  Rutli  lay  the  foundation  of  the  Swiss  Republic.  Leopold  of  Aus- 
tria defeated  at  Morgarten,  1315.  Henry  VII.  restores  Imperial  power  in  Italy.  Cbntest 
between  Frederic  of  Austria  and  Louis  of  Bavaria :  the  latter  victorious,  but  superseded 
before  his  death  by  Charles  of  Luxembourg.  Accession  of  the  Valois  in  France ;  coun- 
ter-claims of  Edward  III.  of  England.  English  victories  at  Crecy  and  Poitiers.  Cap- 
tivity of  King  John  of  France,  and  war  of  the  peasantry.  Wars  of  the  French  and 
English  in  Brittany  and  Castile.  Minorities  of  Richard  II.  and  Charles  VI.  Claims  of 
John  of  Lancaster  to  Castile  and  of  Louis  of  Anjou  to  Naples.  Murder  of  Andrew  of 
Hungary.  Tribunate  of  Rienzi  at  Rome.  Ravages  of  the  Great  Plague,  depredations  of 
the  Free  Companies,  and  a  persecution  of  the  Jews  complete  the  disorders  of  Europe.  Re- 
turn of  the  popes  to  Rome,  followed  by  a  division  in  western  Christendom.  Rival  popes 
favor  rival  candidates  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Joanna  put  to  death,  the  kingdom 
remains  to  the  Hungarian  line. 

France  and  England,  A.  D.  1384-1493. 

101.  Despoiled  by  the  unscrupulous  ambition  of  Louis  of  Anjou, 
France  had  still  more  to  suffer  from  the  insanity  of  her  king,  and  the 
mutual  hatreds  of  the  remaining  princes  of  the  royal  blood.  The  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  by  marrying  the  heiress  of  Flanders,  had  become  lord  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  thus  richer  and  more  powerful  than  any  sovereign 
prince  then  reigning  in  Europe.  This  circumstance,  with  his  premiership 
among  the  peers  of  France,  gave  him  a  controlling  power  in  the  French 
court,  but  a  rival  party  was  led  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of  the 
king.  John  the  Fearless,  succeeding  to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  resorted 
to    more    unscrupulous    measures    than    his   father.     After  .    ^  ..„, 

.  .  ....  A.  D.  1407. 

swearing  reconciliation    and   friendship  with    his  cousin  of 

Orleans,  he  caused  the  latter  to  be  murdered  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  and 


102  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

extorted:  frem  the  i^nibecile  Mng  a  pardon  for  the  crime.  A  few  years 
later  John  of  Bur^ndy' was  himself  assassinated  in  open  day  in  the  pres- 
ence^of  %'^^  ;X)a5tphit^.:     f^  .?;,^  '"''  "V 

I'O"^.  Hehty  V'/ of  Engtan'd' wife,  already  in  the  country,  having  availed 
himself  of  the  miserable  dissensions  of  the  princes,  to  prosecute  the  an- 
cient claim  of  his  house  to  the  French  crown.  The  son  of  the  murdered 
duke — known  in  history  as  Philip  the  Good — joined  the  English  and 
contributed  materially  to  their  great  victory  at  Agincourt, 
where  the  French,  though  four  times  as  numerous  as  their 
enemies,  were  as  signally  defeated  as  at  Crecy  or  Poitiers.  A  general 
reason  for  these  victories  of  the  English  may  be  found  in  their  employ- 
ment of  large  companies  of  paid  archers  —  precursors  of  modern  in- 
fantry—  while  the  French  had  as  yet  only  feudal  armies,  consisting  of 
independent  nobles  and  their  retainers.  They  learned,  however,  a  lesson 
by  their  disaster,  which  made  them  before  the  end  of  the  century  a  lead- 
ing power  in  Europe.  Charles  VII.  organized  the  first  standing  army, 
except  the  Janizaries  (see  §  160),  which  Europe  had  seen ;  and  his  reg- 
ularly drilled  troops  soon  superseded  the  feudal  militia,  which  could  only 
be  called  out  for  a  limited  time,  and  quitted  the  camp,  after  a  few 
weeks'  service,  to  resume  the  ordinary  industries. 

103.  Henry   V.,    having    married    a    daughter   of    Charles   YI.,   was 

crowned  at  Paris  with  his  infant  son,  and  was  duly  recognized  as  regent 

and  heir-expectant  of  the  French  kingdom.     His  sudden  death  occurring 

the  same  year  with  that  of  his  father-in-law,  cut  short  his 
A.  D.  1422.  "^ 

plans   of  conquest;    but   the   English    interests  were   ably 

maintained  by  his  brother  and  other  great  nobles,  while  the  French  were 
still  a  prey  to  hopeless  dissensions,  and  Charles  VII.,  their  rightful  sov- 
ereign, was  driven  south  of  the  Loire  and  even  meditated  a  flight  into 
Spain.  At  this  lowest  point  in  the  humiliation  of  France,  unexpected 
relief  appeared  in  the  person  of  a  young  peasant  girl  from  Domremy  in 
Lorraine,  who  believed  herself  commissioned  and  inspired  by  Heaven. 
Her  faith,  and  the  superstition  of  both  French  and  English  soldiery, 
sustained  the  illusion,  if  such  it  was.  She  defeated  the  English  before 
Orleans,  and  forced  them  to  raise  the  siege  of  that  city.  Again  defeat- 
ing them  at  Patay,  and  taking  by  storm  the  two  towns  of  Jargeau  and 
Troyes,  she  conducted  the  Dauphin  in  triumph  to  Kheims,  where  alone 
he  could  be  anointed  with  the  holy  oil  used  in  the  consecration  of  all 
kings  since  the  days  of  Clovis. 

104.  Her  mission  thus  ended,  Joan  d'Arc  desired  to  return  to  her 
sheepfolds,  but  the  king  refused  to  dismiss  her,  though  the  bitter  jeal- 
ousy of  his  counselors  and  his  own  apathy  already  indicated  her  ap- 
proaching fate.  At  the  head  of  the  army  she  captured  one  of  the  suburbs 
of  Paris,   but  was   repulsed   and  wounded   in   an   attack   upon   the   city 


ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  103 

itself.  She  was  subsequently  captured  by  the  Burgundians  in  a  battle 
before  Compiegne  and  basely  sold  to  the  English,  who  caused  her  to  be 
tried,  not  as  a  prisoner  of  war,  but  as  a  sorceress,  and  burned  in  the  mar- 
ket-place of  Eouen.  The  King  of  France,  who  owed  her  his  crown, 
made  no  eflfort  to  save  her  life.  "Charles  the  Victorious"  has  been  more 
truly  styled  the  "  Well-served,"  for  the  great  successes  of  his  reign  were 
independent  of  his  own  efforts  or  abilities.  The  dissensions  of  the  Eng- 
lish princes  dissolved  that  dominion  in  France  which  the  brief  career  of 
Henry  V.  had  built  up ;  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  offended  in  many 
ways  by  his  foreign  allies,  made  his  peace  with  the  king,  ending  the  long 
war  with  the  Armagnac  or  Orleans  faction,  which  had  desolated  the 
whole  country  during  twenty-eight  years. 

105.  England,  meanwhile,  was  the  scene  of  important  events.  Eichard 
II.  (see  §  96  and  Appendix)  had  been  deposed  A.  D.  1399,  and  probably 
murdered  in  Pontefract  Castle,  by  order  of  his  cousin,  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster, who  assumed  the  crown.  The  energy  of  Henry  IV.  and  the 
military  fame  of  his  son  suppressed  or  silenced  the  claims  of  the  elder 
line  of  descendants  from  Edward  III.;  but  the  imbecility  of  Henry  VI. 
and  the  violent  policy  of  his  brilliant  but  unscrupulous  consort,  Mar- 
garet of  Anjou  (see  §  125)  hastened  the  ruin  of  their  house.  The  Duke 
of  York  was  recalled  from  his  regency  of  France,  and  seized 

A.  D.  1455. 

the  opportunity  to  assert  his  right  to  the  English  crown. 
The  "Wars  of  the  Eoses" — so  called  because  a  white  and  a  red  rose 
were  the  badges  respectively  of  the  parties  of  York  and  Lancaster — filled 
England  for  thirty  years  with  confusion  and  bloodshed.  The  great  Earl 
of  Warwick,  called  the  "  King-maker,"  was  at  first  a  devoted  adherent 
of  the  house  of  York,  but  having  been  deeply  injured  by  Edward  IV., 
the  first  sovereign  of  that  family,  he  embraced  the  cause  of  Henry  VI., 
whom  he  restored  for  a  few  months  to  the  throne.  He  fell,  however,  in 
the  battle  of  Barnet ;  the  young  prince,  Edward  of  Lancaster,  having 
been  defeated  at  Tewkesbury,  was  brutally  murdered  in  the  presence  of 
his  conqueror ;  Henry  VI.  met  a  secret  death  in  the  tower  of  London, 
and  the  York  party  remained  in  the  ascendant. 

106.  The  two  young  sons  of  Edward  IV.  were  murdered  after  his 
death  by  their  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  himself  assumed  the 
crown   as  Eichard   III.     He  was  defeated  after  two  years         .      ^  ,,^. 

A.  D.  14&>. 

at  Bosworth  Field;  and  Henry  Tudor,  a  descendant  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  became  the  founder  of  a  new  line  of  English  sovereigns. 
The  battle  of  Bosworth,  which  overthrew  the  feudal  system  in  England, 
was  a  no  less  important  event  than  that  of  Hastings  which  introduced  it. 
Many  great  families  were  ruined  by  the  civil  wars.  In  England,  as  in 
France,  royal  power  increased  as  that  of  the  nobles  declined;  and  the 
Tudors  were  the  most  absolute  of  English  kings. 


104  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

107.  Louis  XI.,  who  received  the  French  crown  upon  his  father's 
death,  in  1461,  had  been  an  efficient  ally  of  the  Lancastrians,  while  his 
great  vassal,  Charles  of  Burgundy,  married  the  sister  of  Edward  IV., 
and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Yorkists.  This  was  but  one  of  many 
points  of  enmity  between  the  elder  and  younger  branches  of  the  Valois.* 
As  dauphin,  Louis  had  been  banished  for  high  misdemeanors  to  his  own 
province  of  Vienne,  where  with  extraordinary  vigor  he  set  in  operation 
the  same  policy  which  afterwards  distinguished  his  reign  in  France.  He 
stopped  the  private  wars  of  the  nobles  and  cultivated  the  friendship 
of  the  people;  he  summoned  a  parliament  at  Grenoble  and  founded  a 
university  at  Valence ;  he  raised  an  army,  coined  money,  and  made 
treaties  with  foreign  states  in  his  own  name. 

Threatened  by  his  father  with  an  armed  invasion  of  the  rebellious 
province,  he  took  refuge  in  Burgundy,  and  requited  the  generous  hospi- 
tality of  Philip  the  Good  by  studying  the  weak  points  in  his  dominion 
and  sowing  dissensions  between  the  duke  and  his  son,  the  future  Charles 
the  Bold.  The  two  young  princes  became,  a  few  years  later,  the  chief 
actors  in  the  events  of  their  time.  Their  characters  present  the  strongest 
possible  contrast.  Charles  was  haughty  but  impetuous,  ready  to  risk  all 
for  glory  and  power;  Louis  was  sly,  cautious,  insinuating,  tenacious  of 
his  purpose,  but  willing  to  compass  it  by  slow  and  secret  approaches. 
His  pride  never  interfered  with  his  interests,  and  his  cruelty  was 
unchecked  by  either  pity  or  honor. 

108.  The  great  effort  of  his  reign  was  to  consolidate  the  royal  power 
at  the  expense  of  the  nobles  and  the  Church.  One  important  step  was 
the  establishment  throughout  the  kingdom  of  a  system  of  posts  by  which 
swift  and  constant  intelligence  was  received  at  the  capital.  The  king's 
hostile  measures  provoked  the  great  vassals  to  unite  in  a  "  League  of  the 
Public  Weal,"  which  had  at  one  time  100,000  men  on  foot.  It  was  joined 
even  by  the  Duke  of  Berri,  the  only  brother  of  the  king,  and  its  armies 
under  Count  Charles  of  Charolais,  the  heir  of  Burgundy,  gained  a  doubt- 
ful victory  at  Mont  I'Heri ;  but  the  wily  king  compassed  its  dissolution 
more  by  arts  than  arms.  He  excited  rebellions  in  the  Flemish  provinces 
of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  by  separate  treaties  he  induced  the 
several  members  of  the  League  to  forget  the  "  public  good  "  in  their  own 
advantage. 

The  success  of  the  League  would  probably  have  made  France  what 
Germany  has  been  until  our  day,  a  cluster  of  almost  independent 
dukedoms  and  principalities.  Its  failure  laid  the  foundation  of  a  com- 
pact and  powerful  monarchy.  The  death  of  Charles  du  Maine,  last  heir 
of  the  Angevin  claims  and  possessions,  added  to  the  crown-lands,  Anjou, 


*  I'or  a  table  of  the  royal  and  ducal  houses  of  Valois,  see  Appendix. 


ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  105 

Maine,  and  Provence,  the  latter  with  its  ports  making  France  for  the 
first  time  a  great  maritime  power,  while  the  fatal  bequest  of  his  preten- 
sions to  the  kingdom  of  Naples  proved  in  three  later  reigns  a  source 
of  almost  unmingled  disaster. 

100.  Charles,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  is  known  in  history  as  the  Terrible, 
the  Bold,  or  the  Rash ;  and  though  his  career  was  illuminated  by  great 
talents  and  generous  impulses,  his  disastrous  end  best  justifies  the  latter 
epithet.  Having  failed  to  dismember  France  by  the  war  of  the  Public 
Weal,  his  yet  greater  ambition  w^s  to  overpower  it  by  reviving  the  Mid- 
dle Kingdom  of  Lothaire,  (see  Book  I.,  §§  61,  79.)  To  this  end  he  pur- 
chased Guelders  and  the  county  of  Zutphen  from  the  aged  Duke 
Arnold;  obtained  Alsace  and  large  territories  in  Suabia  from  Sigismund 
of  the  Tyrol;  and  by  seizing  and  imprisoning  the  young  duke,  Rene 
of  Lorraine,  established  his  power  for  a  short  time  over  that  duchy.  As 
Duke  of  Burgundy  and  Count  of  Artois  and  Flanders,  Charles  was  a 
vassal  of  France.  As  Count  of  Burgundy,  (or  Franche-Comte,)  Duke  of 
Brabant,  and  lord  of  a  dozen  or  more  German  and  Netherlandish  sov- 
ereignties, he  was  a  prince  of  the  Empire.  No  king  then  living  possessed 
so  many  rich  and  flourishing  cities,  or  could  command  such  resources 
both  for  raising  and  sustaining  armies. 

But  his  hopes  of  royalty  proved  unsubstantial  shadows.  When  all  was 
ready  for  his  coronation  at  Treves,  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  suddenly 
changed  his  mind  and  left  the  city  in  the  night.  The  gold  and  persua- 
sions of  the  King  of  France  stirred  up  the  hostility  of  the  Swiss,  who 
invaded  the  territories  of  Charles,  and  defeated  him  at  Granson  and 
Morat  with  enormous  loss  of   men   and  treasure.     A   few  ^  -r.  ,.-., 

A.  D.  1477. 

months  later  he  lost  his  life  at  Nancy,  in  a  battle  with 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  As  he  left  no  son,  the  duchy  of  Burgundy 
was  seized  by  the  King  of  France;  but  the  rich  inheritance  of  the 
Low  Countries  was  transferred  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the  mar- 
riage of  the  young  Duchess  Mary  with  Maximilian,  heir  of  that  family, 
and  afterwards  emperor.  The  ambitious  schemes  of  Charles  the  Bold 
were  partly  fulfilled  by  his  great-grandson,  who  wore  the  imperial  crown, 
and  was  a  life-long  rival  of  the  King  of  France. 

110.  Louis  XI.  survived  his  great  rival  but  six  years.  The  cruelty 
and  perfidy  of  his  jjolicy  were  signally  avenged  by  the  wretched  sus- 
picions which  haunted  his  declining  years.  He  shut  himself  up  in  the 
castle  of  Plessis-les-Tours,  guarded  by  triple  fortification  of  moat,  ram- 
part, and  palisades,  and  by  crossbowmen  who  shot  at  every  living  thing 
that  approached.  Into  this  gloomy  abode  the  king  scarcely  admitted  his 
own  children,  but  confined  himself  to  the  company  of  a  hangman,  a 
barber,  an  astrologer,  and  a  physician,  who  ruled  him  through  his  super- 
stitions and  satiated  their  avarice  at  his  expense.     He  died,  A.  D.  1483. 


106  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

His  only  son,  Charles  VIII.,  was  but  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  weak 
both  in  body  and  mind.  The  government  was  therefore  entrusted  to  his 
elder  sister,  Anne  the  Lady  of  Beaujeu,  whose  mental  character  so  far 
resembled  her  father's,  that  he  had  called  her  the  "least  foolish  woman 
in  existence." 

Ill,  Her  regency  was  disturbed  by  a  fresh  league  of  the  nobles, 
aided  by  several  foreign  powers.  Its  two  most  important  members 
were  Francis  Duke  of  Bretagne,  the  last  of  the  Montforts,  and  Louis 
Duke  of  Orleans,  brother-in-law  of  the  French  king.  The  Breton  war 
was  decided  by  the  battle  of  St.  Aubin,  in  which  the  army  of  the  regent 
was  victorious,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Prince  of  Orange  being 
prisoners.  Francis  de  Montfort  soon  died,  and  his  daughter  Anne, 
scarcely  twelve  years  of  age,  inherited  his  sovereignty.  The  Duchess 
Mary  of  Burgundy  had  now  been  six  years  dead.  Maximilian  was  regent 
of  the  Netherlands  for  his  son,  and  was  already  crowned  King  of  the 
Romans.  In  1489  he  was  married  by  proxy  to  the  young  Duchess  Anne, 
while  his  daughter  Margaret  was  betrothed  to  the  French  king,  and  sent 
to  Paris  for  her  education.  Tempted,  however,  by  the  hope  of  annex- 
ing the  great  duchy  of  Bretagne  to  the  monarchy,  Charles  VIII.  nego- 
tiated for  himself  a  treaty  of  marriage  with  Anne,  and  thus  deprived  the 
future  emperor  at  one  blow  of  a  wife  and  a  son-in-law.  The  combined 
injury  and  insult  drove  Maximilian  into  a  war  in  which  though  aided 
by  Henry  VII.  of  England,  his  resources  v/ere  far  less  than  his  needs; 
but  Charles  was  too  anxious  to  depart  on  his  invasion  of  Italy,  to  push 
his  advantages  in  the  north.  By  the  Peace  of  Senlis,  the  Princess 
Margaret,  and  her  rich  Burgundian  dowry,  were  restored  to  her  father ; 
the  English  king  received  a  large  sum  in  reimbursement  of  his  expenses, 
and  the  provinces  of  Cerdagne  and  Roussillon — held  in  pledge  by  Louis 
XL — were  freely  given  back  to  Spain. 

France,  during  insanity  of  Charles  VI.,  is  distracted  by  quarrels  of  the  royal  princes. 
Duke  of  Orleans  murdered  by  his  cousin  of  Burgundy,  who  is  himself  assassinated  in 
turn  with  the  connivance  of  the  dauphin.  His  son  in  revenge  joins  the  English,  who 
gain  a  great  victory  at  Agincourt  under  Henry  V.  Paid  standing  armies  begin  to  super- 
sede feudal  forces.  Henry  V.  crowned  in  Paris  — dies  the  same  year  with  Charles  VI. 
French  interests  retrieved  by  Joan  d'Arc,  the  inspired  peasant-girl  of  Domremy.  English 
dominion  in  France  falls  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  has  risen. 

England  ruled  in  succession  by  three  Lancastrian  and  (nominally)  three  Yorkist  sov- 
ereigns. Wars  of  the  Roses  only  ended  by  the  Battle  of  BosAvorth  and  the  accession  of 
Henry  Tudor. 

Louis  XL  of  France,  as  dauphin  and  king,  exalts  royal  at  the  expense  of  feudal 
power.  League  of  the  Public  Weal  defeated  by  his  arts.  His  rivalry  with  Charles  of 
Burgundy,  who  desires  to  restore  the  Middle  Kingdom,  but  is  defeated  and  slain  at  Nancy 
and  his  dominions  dismembered.  Miserable  death  of  Louis  XL  Regency  of  his  daughter. 
War  with  Bretagne ;  that  duchy  united  with  the  French  crown  by  the  marriage  of  Charles 
VIII.  with  the  Duchess  Anne. 


FEOGRESS  OF  THE  EMFIRE.  107 


Progress  of  the  Empire. 

112.  To  resume  the  history  of  the  Empire:  The  principal  act  of 
Charles  IV.  was  the  "Golden   Bull,"^   which    defined    the 

.,  ^     ,  A.  D.  1346-1378. 

powers  and  privileges  of  the  seven  Electors,  and  the  mode 
of  imperial  election  at  Frankfort  and  of  coronation  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  choice  of  the  German  princes  was  declared  sufficient  to  constitute  a 
true  and  lawful  "Emperor  of  the  Romans;"  but  until  crowned  by  the 
Pope  he  bore  only  the  title  of  emperor-elect.  Charles  himself  was  crowned 
at  Rome,  1355,  but  by  previous  agreement  he  left  that  city  on  the  same  day, 
and  never  revisited  it.  Wenceslaus,  son  of  Charles,  became  "King  of  the 
Romans,"  and  succeeded  peaceably  upon  his  father's  death  in  1378.  His 
drunkenness  and  indifference  to  the  interests  of  the  empire  gave  free 
course  to  the  disorderly  elements  of  the  time.  The  cities  of  Suabia,  like 
the  cantons  of  Switzerland,  leagued  themselves  to  resist  the  tyranny  of  the 
nobles;  and  these,  on  the  other  hand,  united  to  maintain  by  violence  the 
interests  of  their  order. 

113.  The  most  formidable  of  these  armed  societies  consisted  of  167 
nobles  with  their  retainers,  who  followed  Duke  Leopold  of  Austria  in  his 
vengeance  against  the  Swiss.  These  confederates  mustered  1400  men  on 
the  heights  of  Sempach ;  the  army  of  the  duke  numbered  several  thou- 
sands even  before  his  infantry  arrived.  Though  magnificently  mounted, 
his  horsemen  could  not  maneuver  in  the  narrow  mountain-pass,  and  he 
therefore  ordered  knights  and  nobles  to  dismount  and  charge  the  peasantry 
on  foot.     The  latter  were  on  the  point  of  being  surrounded  .    ^  ,„„„ 

^  "  _  A.  D.  1386. 

by  an  impenetrable  wall  of  steel,  when  Arnold  of  Winkelried, 
crying  out  "  I  will  open  a  way  to  liberty,"  sprang  into  the  midst  of  the 
Austrians,  gathered  into  his  bosom  as  many  as  he  could  seize  of  the 
enemy's  spears,  and  instantly  falling,  made  a  path  for  his  comrades  over 
his  dead  body.  The  Austrians  gave  way;  Duke  Leopold  seized  his  own 
banner,  after  four  in  succession  of  its  brave  bearers  had  fallen,  and 
plunging  among  the  enemy  found  the  death  he  sought.  More  than 
650  counts,  barons,  and  knights,  with  thousands  of  their  vassals,  lay 
dead  upon  the  field.  The  battle  of  Sempach  resulted  in  an  honorable 
peace,  by  which  the  Swiss  were  secured  in  the  possession  of  all  which 
they  had   gained. 

114.  The  burghers  of  south  Germany,  who,  encouraged  by  the  victory 
of  the  Swiss,  undertook  a  similar  contest  against  the  knights  and  barons, 


*The  decrees  of  popes  and  emperors  were  called  hvJls  from  the  pendent  (bulla)  of  gold, 
silver,  or  lead,  which  was  affixed  to  the  seal.— The  seven  Electors,  noAV  first  confirmed  in 
their  office,  were,  the  three  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  and  four  lay- 
princes,  the  King  of  Bohemia,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  the 
Count-palatine  of  the  Rhine. 


108  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

were  less  fortunate.  They  were  many  times  defeated ;  their  families  and 
movable  goods  were  crowded  into  the  cities;  but  throughout  the 
country  their  houses  and  villages  were  destroyed.  Wenceslaus  resided 
chiefly  in  his  own  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  never  concerning  himself  with 
his  imperial  duties.  In  A.  D.  1400,  the  dissatisfied  electors  declared 
him  deposed,  and  chose  Eupert,  Count-palatine  of  the  Rhine,  to  be 
emperor.  The  ten  years'  administration  of  Rupert,  in  spite  of  his  energy 
and  ability,  was  too  short  to  remedy  the  disorders  of  Germany.  He  was 
succeeded,  A.  D.  1410,  by  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary,  brother  of  Wen- 
ceslaus, and  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Bohemian  princes. 

115.  Church  and  State  were  now  equally  in  want  of  wise  government. 
The  return  of  the  popes  to  Rome  had  been  followed  by  the  Great  Schism, 
and  three  nominal  heads  of  Christendom,  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain, 
were  launching  the  thunders  of  excommunication,  each  against  his  two 
rivals  and  all  their  adherents.  The  damaging  truths  uttered  during  this 
heat  of  controversy,  naturally  lessened  the  reverence  in  which  the 
hierarchy  had  been  held ;  and  the  notorious  un worthiness  of  many  high 
prelates  impressed  on  the  foremost  adherents  of  the  papacy  a  sense  of  the 
need  of  reform.  In  England,  near  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the 
preaching  of  Wicliffe,  and  above  all,  his  translation  of  the  Holy  Script- 
ures into  the  popular  tongue,  had  led  many  thousands  of  people  to 
doubt  or  deny  the  authority  of  the  Church.  In  Bohemia,  Milecz,  Von 
Zanow,  and  John  Huss  had  begun  a  similar  revolution,  even  before  the 
latter  was  reinforced  and  encouraged  by  the  writings  of  Wicliffe.  The 
marriage  of  Anne,  sister  of  King  Wenceslaus,  with  Richard  II.  of  Eng- 
land promoted  a  free  interchange  of  opinion  between  the  two  countries 
at  this  supremely  important  crisis.  Scholars  traveled  back  and  forth 
between  the  now  famous  universities  of  Oxford  and  Prague.  Wicliffe 
and  Huss,  the  ablest  doctors  in  their  respective  universities,  spoke  with 
clearness  and  force  the  language  of  the  common  people ;  and  their  cogent 
reasonings  exposed  the  terrible  abuses  springing  from  the  luxury  of  the 
clergy   and  the  pretensions  of  the  mendicant  orders. 

116.  The  first  care  of  Sigismund  was  the  convening  of  a  general  coun- 
cil for  the  union  and  reformation  of  the  Church  and  the  suppression  of 
heresy.  Eighteen  thousand  clergy,  including  patriarchs,  cardinals,  and 
bishops,  hundreds  of  learned  men  from  the  universities,  sovereign  princes 
or  their  embassadors,  and  delegates  from  the  free  cities,  met  at  Constance 
near  the  end  of  A.  D.  1414.  During  the  following  year  Pope  John 
XXIII.  from  Rome  —  "a  man  charged,  at  least,  with  every  imaginable 
crime"  —  presided,  and  the  Emperor  Sigismund  arrived  soon  after  his 
coronation.  Though  avowedly  convened  for  purposes  of  reform,  one  of 
the  first  acts  of  the  Council  was  to  condemn  and  burn  a  reformer.  John 
lluss,  having  been  cited  to  answer  for  his  teachings,  had  come  to  Con- 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  109 

stance  under  the  imperial  safe-conduct.  He  was,  nevertheless,  cast  into 
prison^  and  after  repeated  trials  was  compelled  to  choose  between  death 
and  recantation.  He  manfully  chose  the  former,  and  was  burnt  in  the 
presence  of  many  prelates  of  the  Council.  His  friend  Jerome,  a  professor 
of  theology  at  Prague,  suffered  the  same  punishment  eleven  months  later. 

117.  The  Council  having  deposed  all  three  of  the  existing  popes, 
elected  in  their  place  Otto  Colonna,  who  took  the  name  of  Martin  V. 
Though  himself  of  blameless  morality,  Martin  evaded  all  the  proposed 
measures  for  limiting  the  license  of  the  clergy,  so  that  the  Council  proved 
a  failure  so  far  as  the  highest  of  its  purposes  was  concerned.  The  papal 
states  were  now  wholly  in  the  power  of  Braccio  Montone,  one  of  those 
captains  of  free  companies  who  were  seizing  sovereignty  by  the  strong 
hand  in  many  of  the  cities  of  Italy.  To  expel  the  usurper,  the  Pope 
employed  a  still  more  famous  and  unscrupulous  adventurer,  Giacomuzzo 
Sforza,  then  in  the  service  of  Joanna  II.  of  Naples,  but  whose  immediate 
descendants  became  lords  of  Milan. 

118.  The  death  of  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  excited  an  open  revolt 
in  Bohemia,  where  the  ex-emperor,  Wenceslaus,  yet  reigned  as  king.  The 
zeal  of  the  Hussites  passed  all  bounds  of  reason ;  Prague  was  seized,  the 
surrounding  country  ravaged,  monks  and  friars  every-where  put  to  death. 
Their  fury  reached  its  height  when  by  the  death  of  Wenceslaus,  A.  D. 
1419,  his  brother  Sigismund — held  guiltiest  of  all  for  the  betrayal  of  the 
Bohemian  martyrs — became  rightful  king  of  the  country.  All  his 
attempts,  supported  by  the  whole  force  of  the  Empire,  to  regain  his 
inheritance,  were  ignominiously  defeated,  and  the  desolating  torrent  of  war 
swept  over  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Franconia,  Bavaria,  and  Austria.  At 
length  the  Council  of  Basle  by  wise  and  just  concessions, 

brought  all  the  reasonable  followers  of  Huss  into  peace  with 
the  Church.  The  two  extreme  sects  of  Taborites  and  "Orphans,"  (so 
called  in  reference  to  their  leader,  Ziska,  whom  they  had  lost,)  were 
defeated  at  Lepan,  A.  D.  1434,  with  the  loss  of  their  great  general, 
Procopius,  and  Sigismund  obtained  his  Bohemian  kingdom  only  a  few 
months  before  his  death,  in  1437. 

119.  The  Council  at  Basle  carried  forward  the  movements  toward 
reform  proposed  at  Constance,  and  especially  affirmed  the  voice  of  the 
whole  Church,  speaking  through  such  an  assembly,  to  be  superior  to  that 
of  the  Pope.  Eugenius  IV.,  the  new  pontiff*,  finding  himself  unable  to 
control  the  transalpine  Council,  summoned  a  rival  one  at  Ferrara,  under 
the  specious  pretext  of  receiving  the  eastern  Emperor  John  Palacologus, 
with  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  a  most  important  embassy  of 
Greek  clergy.  His  narrowing  empire  being  more  and  more  closely 
hemmed  in  by  the  Turks,  that  sovereign  stooped  to  buy  the  succor  of 
western    Christendom  by  acknowledging   the   supremacy  of  the  Ptoman 


110  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

bishop  and    yielding  the  doctrinal  points  which  for  centuries  had  been 
in    dispute    between    the    two    Churches.     The    mercenary 

A.  D.  1438, 1430.  ^  .  ,  ,  ,     .  _  -^ 

union  was  signed  and  sealed  at  Florence,  whither  the 
Council  had  been  adjourned ;  but  it  was  indignantly  repudiated  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  fifteen  years  from  the  emperor's  return,  that  city  was 
surrendered  to  the  Turks. 

120.  The  Council  of  Basle,  meanwhile,  unheeding  its  excommunication 
by  Pope  Eugenius,  declared  him  deposed,  and  elected  for  his  successor  the 
abdicated  Duke  Amadeus  of  Savoy,  who,  weary  of  sovereignty,  had  re- 
tired to  a  hermitage  on  Lake  Geneva.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Felix 
v.,  and  was  crowned  Avitli  great  magnificence  at  Basle,  A.  D.  1440. 
JEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  the  historian  of  the  Council,  was  the  most 
active  spirit  of  the  time.  Changing  his  allegiance  to  suit  his  interest, 
he  became  secretary  successively  to  the  anti-pope  Felix,  to  the  new  em- 
peror Frederic  III.,  to  Eugenius  IV.,  and  his  successor;  and  it  was  chiefly 
owing  to  the  diplomacy  of  the  wily  Italian  that  Germany  was  led  to 
disown  the  Council  and  return  to  the  obedience  of  Eugenius.  The  Pope 
died  a  few  days  after  this  event,  and  by  the  wisdom  of  his  successor, 
Nicholas  V.,  the  Council  was  dissolved,  and  the  anti-pope  reduced  to  a 
cardinal. 

121.  Nicholas  V.  was  perhaps  the  best  of  the  pontiffs.  Instead  of  heap- 
ing wealth  and  honors  upon  his  family,  his  ambition  was  to  make  Italy 
a  home  of  letters  and  arts.  His  agents  ransacked  Europe  and  south- 
western Asia  for  copies  of  Greek  authors  wherewith  to  enrich  the  new 
library  of  the  Vatican,  and  a  crowd  of  emigrant  scholars,  driven  from  the 
cast  by  the  progress  of  the  Turks,  were  magnificently  received  at  Rome 
and  Florence.     The  Jubilee  of  1450  drew  a  countless  throng  of  pilgrims 

^  ,^„  and  a  great  influx  of  wealth  to  the  papal  city;  but  scarcely 

A.  D.  14o3. 

had  the  joy  of  that  event  subsided  when  all  Christendom 
was  thrilled  with  fear  and  consternation  by  tidings  of  the  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople. 

122.  Already  under  Mohammed  I.  (A.  D.  1413-1421)  the  Turks  had 
become  possessed  of  the  entire  territory  of  the  Eastern  Empire  with  the 
exceptions  of  the  Morea,  a  few  insignificant  places  on  the  Propontis,  and 
the  capital  itself,  within  whose  walls  they  established  a  colony,  coined 
money,  and  carried  on  Mohammedan  worship,  under  the  very  eyes  of 
the  emperor.  In  their  attacks  upon  Hungary,  long  the  bulwark  of 
Christendom  against  Islam,  they  were  less  successful.  Tlicir  seven 
months'  siege  of  Belgrade,  A.  D.  1440,  resulted  only  in  failure  and  a  loss 
of  17,000  men.  John  Huniades,  a  Wallachian  noble,  defeated  them  on 
many  fields ;  his  most  decisive  victory  was  gained  at  Kunobitza,  where  their 
forces  were  nearly  annihilated.  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  sent  a  French  and 
German   army,  under  Cardinal  Cesarini,  which   procured   the   treaty  of 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  Ill 

Szegedin,  A.  D.  1444,  on  terms  liumiliating  to  the  Turks  and  honorable 
to  the  crusaders.  But  no  sooner  had  the  Turkish  host  departed  into  Asia, 
than  the  papal  legate,  against  the  indignant  remonstrances  of  Huniades, 
resolved  to  break  his  word  and  recommence  hostilities.     The 

Nov  1444 

result  was  the  fatal  battle  of  Varna,  in  which  King  Ladis- 
laus  of  Poland  and  Hungary,  the  Cardinal  Cesarini,  and  thousands  more, 
lost  their  lives.     Huniades  as  regent  of  the  kingdom  for  the  infant  Ladis- 
laus,  son  of  Albert  H.  of  Germany,  was  again  defeated  by  the  Turks  in 
a  three  days'  battle  on  the  plain  of  Cossova,  A.  D.  1448. 

123.  The  fall  of  Constantinople,  though  to  discerning  eyes  long  certain 
to  take  place,  sent  a  shock  of  grief  and  terror  throughout  Europe. 
Thousands  of  affrighted  fugitives  from  the  captured  city  reported  the 
watchword  which  was  wont  to  pass  between  the  sultan  and  his  janizaries : 
"Farewell,  until  we  meet  in  Eome!"  Nicholas  V.  proclaimed  a  new 
crusade.  The  "  Turk's  bell "  sounded  at  noon  in  every  parish  in  Europe, 
calling  the  faithful  to  pray  that  the  progress  of  the  infidel  might  be 
arrested,  ^neas  Sylvius  lent  his  great  talents  and  energy  to  the  arming 
of  Christendom;  and  John  of  Capistran,  a  Franciscan  friar,  traversed 
Italy  and  Germany,  every-where  by  his  wonderful  eloquence  rousing  the 
enthusiasm   of  the  crowds.     The    irregular  force  which  he 

°  A.  D.  1456. 

raised,  added  to  that  of  the  Hungarians,  was  able  to  relieve 
the  fortress  of  Belgrade,  again  besieged  by  the  terrible  artillery  of  the 
Turks;   but  the  death  of  Huniades  damped  the  rejoicings  of  Europe  at 
this   triumph. 

124.  On  the  death  of  the  young  Ladislaus,  Matthias  Corvinus,  the  son 
of  Huniades,  was  elected  king  of  Hungary,  and  during  his  i^roi^qo 
long   reign    he    was    the    ablest  champion  of  Christendom 

against  the  Turks.  In  the  year  of  his  accession,  ^neas  Sylvius  became 
Pope  Pius  II.  The  Council  of  Mantua,  A.  D.  1459,  raised  (upon  paper) 
an  army  of  88,000  men,  of  which  the  emperor  was  declared  generalissimo; 
and  the  Pope,  nothwithstanding  his  years  and  infirmities,  resolved  to 
take  the  field  in  person.  He  died  A.  D.  1464,  while  still  vainly  awaiting 
at  Ancona  the  arrival  of  the  Venetian  forces.  The  age  of  crusades  was 
past.  Although  Venice,  in  defense  of  her  commerce,  waged  a  fifteen 
years'  war  Avith  the  Turks,  (A.  D.  14G4-1479,)  little  or  no  aid  was  afforded 
by  the  other  European  states ;  and  the  Mohammedan  power  was  gradually 
confirmed  over  all  the  territories  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  In  1479,  the 
Venetians,  now  more  hostile  to  King  Ferdinand  of  Naples  than  to  the 
Turks,  even  invited  the  latter  to  invade  the  Italian  dominions  of  the 
former,  by  representing  that  Otranto,  Brindisi,  and  Taranto  were  parts 
of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  as  such  belonged  to  Mohammed.  The  invi- 
tation was  too  readily  accepted;  Otranto  was  taken  and  its  citizens 
treated  with  atrocious  cruelty.     The   sudden   death  of  the  Sultan,  how- 


112  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

ever,  cut  short  the  Italian  conquests;  and,  pressed  by  famine,  the  Turks 
abandoned  this  -westernmost  point  of  their  European  dominions,  little 
more  than  a  year  from  its  first  occupation. 

Golden  Bull  of  Charles  IV.  settles  the  constitution  of  the  Empire.  Leopold  of  Austria, 
with  his  league  of  nobles,  is  defeated  at  Sempach  by  the  Swiss;  but  the  knights  and  barons 
are  victorious  over  the  Suabian  peasantry  and  burghers.  AVenceslaus  deposed  and  Rupert 
made  emperor,  A.  D.  1400. 

Religious  reformation  in  England  and  Bohemia.  The  Emperor  Sigismund  calls  the 
Council  of  Constance,  to  end  the  schism  and  suppress  heresy.  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague  burned  ;  three  popes  deposed  and  Martin  V.  elected  by  the  Council.  Twenty  years' 
war  of  religion  in  Bolfemia.  Council  of  Basle  declares  against  Eugenius  IV.,  and  elects 
Felix  V.  as  anti-pope.  A  rival  Council  at  Ferrara  and  Florence  receives  the  Emperor  and 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  attempts  the  reunion  of  the  eastern  and  western  Churches. 
"Western  Christendom  again  united  under  Nicholas  V.,  a  munificent  patron  of  letters  and 
all  the  arts.  The  Turks,  long  withstood  almost  single-handed  by  John  Huniades,  at 
length  capture  Constantinople  and  overturn  the  Eastern  Empire.  A  crusade  led  by  John 
of  Capistran  relieves  Belgrade.  Matthias  Corvinus  becomes  king  of  Hungary.  The  west- 
ward progress  of  the  Turks  is  arrested  at  Otranto,  A.  D.  1481. 

Italy  and  Spain. 

125.  Of  the  many  powers  which  divided  Italy,  only  six  now  retained 
any  importance:  the  three  sovereignties  of  Naples,  the  States  of  the 
Church,  and  Milan ;  and  the  three  Republics  of  Venice,  Florence,  and 
Genoa. 

Queen  Joanna  II.  of  Naples,  daughter  of  Charles  of  Durazzo,  called  to 
her  aid  Alfonso  V.  of  AragOn  and  Sicily,  who  received  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Calabria  as  heir^xpectant  of  the  Italian  crown.  The  queen,  however, 
changed  her  mind,  and  adopted  Louis  III.  of  Anjou  as  her  heir.  The 
French  prince  died  in  1434,  and  Joanna  herself  the  following  year.  Count 
Rene  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis,  had  been  named  in  her  will,  but  he 
was  captured  and  detained  in  the  north  by  a  rival  claimant  to  the  duchy 
of  Lorraine ;  and  the  Neapolitan  nobles  called  in  Alfonso  again.  The 
forces  of  Genoa  and  Milan  fought  for  Anjou,  and  gained  a  most  bloody 
victory  over  the  Catalan  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  Alfonso,  his  brother, 
and  many  of  their  attendant  nobles  being  prisoners.  The  personal 
qualities  of  the  King  of  Aragon  gave  him,  however,  the  final  victory 
over  the  accomplished  and  amiable,  but  inefficient  Rene,  who  retired  from 
public  contests  to  devote  himself  to  the  more  congenial  pursuits  of  poetry 
and  painting.  Two  of  Rene's  children  were  strongly  contrasted  with  him 
in  energy  of  character :  Margaret,  who  in  England  so  long  and  valiantly 
maintained  the  Lanca.strian  cause  against  the  house  of  York,  and  John, 
Duke  of  Calabria,  who  displayed  no  less  genius  and  determination  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  lost  inheritance. 

126.  The  death  of  the  last  of  the  Visconti,  A.  D.  1447,  was  followed 


ITALY  AND  SPAIN.  113 

by  an  attempt  to  restore  a  republic  in  Milan.  If  Venice  and  Florence 
had  taken  the  generous  part,  this  effort  might  have  been  successful,  and 
northern  Italy,  united  and  free,  might  have  become  invincible  to  the  for- 
eign foes,  who  too  soon  found  out  her  weakness  and  her  wealth.  But  of 
the  two  neighboring  republics,  one  was  jealous  of  Milanese  power,  and  the 
other  was  becoming  indifferent  to  her  own  freedom  and  hostile  to  that  of 
others.  Francesco  Sforza,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  who  had  married  a  daughter 
of  the  deceased  duke,  succeeded  in  making  himself  master  of  the  city  and  its 
territory.  The  disposal  of  the  duchy,  according  to  feudal  law,  could  rest 
only  with  the  emperor;  but  it  was  also  claimed  by  Charles,  Duke  of 
Orleans,  in  the  right  of  his  mother,  Valentina  Visconti;  and  by  King 
Alfonso  of  Naples,  who  had  been  designated  by  the  will  of  the  late  duke. 
The  four  opposing  claims  gave  rise  to  long  and  important  wars,  to  be 
described   in   the  next  period. 

127.  Placed  midway  between  the  east  and  the  west,  Venice  enjoyed 
almost  a  monopoly  of  the  commerce  of  the  Levant  with  western  and 
northern  Europe.  Beside  its  extensive  territories  on  the  Italian  mainland, 
it  held,  before  the  end  of  the  century,  the  sovereignty  of  Crete,  Cyprus, 
and  the  Morea,  with  many  towns  and  fortresses  on  the  Grecian  islands. 
A  curiously  complex  constitution  made  Venice  the  strongest  oligarchy  on 
record.  The  Doge  or  Duke,  though  nominally  supreme,  was  really  only  a 
puppet  of  the  Council  of  Ten.  Every  year  as  the  representative  of  the 
state,  he  cast  a  consecrated  ring  into  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic,  saying: 
"  We  betroth  thee,  O  Sea,  in  sign  .of  our  lawful  and  perpetual  dominion ! " 

128.  Genoa,  having  a  far  less  strong  and  settled  government  than  Ven- 
ice, was  at  various  times  compelled  to  place  herself  under  the  protection 
of  the  Empire,  of  Naples,  of  Milan,  or  of  France.  The  enterprise  and 
energy  of  her  merchants,  made  them,  however,  formidable  rivals  of  the 
Venetians,  whom  they  nearly  excluded  from  the  ports  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  thus  gained  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  the  interior  of  eastern 
Europe.  The  naval  w'ars  between  Genoa  and  Venice  can  not  here  be 
detailed.     They  ended  usually  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

129.  The  inland  republic  of  Florence  has  left  a  deeper  impress  upon  the 
character  of  Italy  and  the  literature  and  art  of  the  world  than  either  of 
her  maritime  sisters.  Far  more  popular  than  that  of  Venice,  her  govern- 
ment rested  upon  the  industries  of  her  citizens.  Chief  magistrates  could 
only  be  chosen  from  members  of  the  "Arts"  or  trades'  unions,  which  were 
the  same  as  the  "Guilds"  of  England  and  the  Netherlands.  These  officers 
were  chosen  every  two  months  and  the  grand  Council  of  State  every  four 
months,  so  that  the  whole  mass  of  citizens  possessing  the  qualifications 
for  ofiice,  was  elevated  in  turn  to  public  trust.  No  magistrate  received 
any  reward  for  his  services.  During  the  supremacy  of  the  Guelfs,  Flor- 
ence conquered  the  ports  of  Pisa  and  Leghorn  and  half  of  Tuscany,  while 

M.  H.  8. 


114  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

the  wealth  of  her  great  bankers,  merchants,  and  woolen  manufacturers 
established  her  commercial  fame  in  Europe. 

130.  From  1434  to  1464,  Cosmo  de  Medici  held  the  supreme  power  in 
Florence,  and  his  family  continued  for  more  than  three  hundred  years, 
first  as  chief  citizens,  and  then  as  grand-dukes,  to  control  the  destinies  of 
the  state.  The  power  of  Cosmo  and  of  his  grandson,  Lorenzo  the  Magnifi- 
cent, resembles  that  of  Pisistratus  and  his  family  at  Athens ;  it  was  simply 
that  of  citizens,  first  among  equals;  and  though  supported,  especially  in 
the  case  of  Cosmo,  by  the  control  of  a  rich  money-lender  over  needy 
borrowers,  it  seemed  to  rest  on  the  esteem  and  affection  of  the  people. 
The  public  entertainments  which  they  gave  rendered  life  in  Florence  a 
perpetual  scene  of  gay  and  brilliant  festivity.  In  judging  their  claims,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  their  patronage  of  literature  gave  the  Medici 
the  advantage  of  being  favorably  reported  to  posterity.  Their  policy 
exalted  the  intellectual  fame  of  Florence  at  the  expense  of  her  freedom, 
and  their  influence  among  the  states  of  Italy  was  often,  as  in  the  case  of 
Milan,  thrown  on  the  side  of  despotism.  Still,  to  their  liberal  and  enlight- 
ened tastes,  Florence,  in  great  measure,  owes  her  title  of  Mother  of  Mod- 
ern Art. 

131.  Castile  and  Leon,  during  the  long  minority  and  reign  of  John  II., 
(A.  D.  1406-1454,)  became  subject  to  the  sway  of  Alvaro  de  Luna,  constable 
of  the  united  kingdoms,  and  one  of  the  most  powerful  vassals  that  Europe 
has  known.  His  own  retainers  made  an  army  of  20,000  men,  and  he  held 
his  court  with  all  the  pomp  of  sovereignty.  The  king  at  length  joined 
with  the  other  nobles  against  him,  and  caused  him  to  be  executed  at  Valla- 
dolid.  Henry  IV.,  son  of  John  II.,  was  succeeded,  A.  D.  1474,  by  his 
sister  Isabella,  whose  marriage  with  Ferdinand,  heir  of  Aragon,  Catalonia, 
and  Valencia,  led  to  the  union  of  all  the  Spanish  kingdoms  under  one 
sovereign. 

132.  Aragon,  by  the  acquisition  of  Catalonia  in  1137,  had  become  the 
third  naval  power  in  Europe,  being  excelled  only  by  Venice  and  Genoa. 
The  Catalans,  a  hardy  and  adventurous  race,  were  the  best  of  sailors,  and 
their  bravery  contributed  much  to  the  extension  of  the  Aragonese  do- 
minions. The  power  of  the  king  was  even  more  limited  than  in  Castile. 
The  law-making  power  in  both  kingdoms  resided  in  the  Coiies  or  national 
assembly,  which  consisted  of  clergy,  nobles,  and  deputies  of  the  towns ; 
but  so  far  from  cherishing  this  guarantee  of  their  freedom,  the  citizens 
seem  to  have  grudged  the  expense  of  maintaining  their  representatives, 
and  the  number  of  towns  summoned  had  dwindled  in  1480  to  seventeen. 

133.  Alfonso  V.  (A.  D.  1416-1458)  resided  chiefly  in  his  Italian  king- 
dom, (see  §  125,)  while  his  brother,  John  II.  of  Aragon.  acted  as  his  viceroy 
in  Spain,  and  ultimately  inherited  the  crown.  John  II.  acquired  Navarre 
by  marrying  its  heiress,  but  this  increase  of  dominion  was  the  occasion 


ITALY  AND  SPAIN.  115 

of  many  crimes.  Upon  the  death  of  Queen  Blanche,  her  son  Charles  was 
the  rightful  ruler  of  Navarre,  but  his  father,  jealous  of  his  popularity, 
refused  him  the  crown.  Charles  took  refuge  with  his  uncle  in  Naples, 
and  after  Alfonso's  death  went  into  a  humble  and  studious  retirement  in 
Sicily.  He  was  called  into  Spain  by  false  but  flattering  promises,  and 
died,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  from  poison  administered  by  the  new 
queen,  Joanna.  The  kingdom  of  Navarre  now  rightly  belonged  to  his 
sister  Blanche,  but  it  had  been  promised  by  treaty  to  the  Count  of  Foix, 
who  had  married  the  next  younger  sister,  Eleanor.  The  unhappy  Blanche 
was  betrayed  into  the  keeping  of  her  sister,  who  caused  her  to  be 
poisoned.  A,  D.  1464.  The  brave  and  free-spirited  Catalans,  attributing 
some,  at  least,  of  these  crimes  to  Joanna,  the  second  wife  of  John  XL, 
refused  to  take  oath  of  allegiance  to  her  son  Ferdinand,  and  a  civil  war 
of  eleven  years  was  the  result.  The  Catalans  submitted  at  last,  and  John 
dying,  A.  D.  1479,  Ferdinand  became  king. 

134.  The  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  was  signalized  in  both  king- 
doms by  the  reestablishment  of  order  and  justice  in  place  of  the  lawless 
violence  of  the  nobles.  According  to  the  good  old  custom  of  their 
respective  realms,  the  sovereigns  presided  in  person  once  a  week  in  courts 
of  law,  for  the  especial  benefit  of  their  poorer  subjects  who  could  not 
afford  the  expense  of  ordinary  litigation.  A  heavy  blot,  however,  rests 
upon  their  reign,  in  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  erected,  A.  D.  1480, 
as  a  royal  court  for  the  punishment  of  heresy  and  kindred  offenses.  The 
Dominican  Inquisition  had  been  merely  an  ecclesiastical  court,  and 
both  Jews  and  heretics  had  been  more  mildly  treated  in  Spain  than 
in  any  other  country.  Many  of  the  former  had  been  raised  to  the 
highest  offices  in  the  state,  even  intrusted  with  the  tutorship  of  royal 
princes,  and  their  wealth  as  bankers  made  them  indispensable  to  many  a 
needy  king.  The  just  and  merciful  Isabella  long  resisted  the  arbitrary 
policy  of  her  husband  and  the  bigotry  of  her  confessor,  but  at  length  she 
yielded,  and  obtained  from  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  a  bull  for  the  establishment 
of  the  terrible  tribunal  in  her  own  kingdom  of  Castile.  In  the  year  1481, 
two  thousand  persons  were  burned  alive  in  Spain,  while  no  fewer  than 
17,000  were,  in  the  phrase  of  the  court,  "reconciled,"  i.  e.,  subjected  only 
to  fine,  imprisonment,  or  other  lighter  penalties. 

135.  A  nobler  enterprise  awaited  the  Spanish  sovereigns  in  their  wars 
with  the  Moors  of  Granada.  In  arts  and  learning  this  Arab  race  was  far 
in  advance  of  its  Christian  neighbors ;  the  greatest  European  scholars  had 
studied  at  Cordova,  and  Arab  physicians  were  in  demand  at  many  courts. 
Architecture  was  earlier  developed  in  the  Moorish  cities  than  in  central 
Europe,  and  travelers  still  wonder  at  the  airy  grace  of  the  ruined  arches 
of  the  Alhambra.  Dissensions  among  the  Moors  themselves  hastened  the 
fall  of  their  kingdom.     Boabdil  (Abu  Abdallah)  rebelled  against  his  aged 


116  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

father  the  Caliph ;  but  having  made  a  treaty  with  the  Spaniards,  was  iu 
turn  opposed  by  his  uncle,  Abdallah  the  Valiant.  While  the  Moorish 
kingdom  was  thus  weakened  by  civil  strife,  the  combined  armies  of  Cas- 
tile and  Aragon  steadily  advanced.  Malaga  was  taken  by  a  three 
months'  siege  in  1487.  In  1491,  Granada,  the  capital,  after  a  still  more 
obstinate  defense,  surrendered,  and  all  Spain  was  reunited  under  Chris- 
tian rule. 

136.  All  Christendom  received  the  news  with  joy,  regarding  the  over- 
throw of  the  Moslem  dominion,  after  nearly  eight  centuries  duration  in 
the  south-west  of  Europe,  almost  as  an  oifset  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Turkish  empire  in  the  south-east.  The  triumph  of  the  sovereigns  was 
sullied  by  a  cruel  act  of  persecution.  In  spite  of  the  terrible  warnings 
of  the  Inquisition,  the  great  mass  of  Jews  in  the  kingdom  were  still  firm 
in  their  faith.  An  order  was  now  extorted  by  the  clergy  from  the  covet- 
ousness  of  Ferdinand  and  the  mistaken  piety  of  Isabella,  for  the  expul- 
sion of  the  whole  Hebrew  race  from  the  country  in  which  they  and 
their  fathers  had  lived  for  centuries.  The  best  authorities  tell  us  that 
300,000  —  some  say  even  800,000  —  refused  to  barter  their  religion  for  the 
privilege  of  remaining.  The  harrowing  incidents  of  this  sudden  and 
enforced  emigration  must  be  read  elsewhere.  Uncounted  thousands  died 
from  shipwreck,  starvation,  or  diseases  arising  from  the  fatigues  and 
exposures  of  the  voyage.  A  mother  was  seen  to  kill  her  little  child 
rather  than  endure  the  sight  of  its  misery.  Some  of  the  more  hardy 
and  enterprising  found  new  homes,  where  they  speedily  acquired  wealth 
by  their  industry  or  fame  by  their  learning.  The  Turkish  Sultan,  Bajazet 
II.,  said  derisively  of  Ferdinand,  "  You  call  this  a  wise  sovereign,  who 
impoverishes  his  own  kingdom  to  enrich  mine ! "  The  example  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  was  followed  by  their  son-in-law,  the  King  of  Portugal, 
who  to  his  edict  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  added  a  still  more  barba- 
rous order,  that  all  Hebrew  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  should 
be  torn  from  their  parents  and  dispersed  throughout  his  kingdom. 

An  account  of  the  discovery  of  America  —  the  greatest  glory  of  the 
Castilian  Queen  —  is  reserved  for  the   modern  period. 

House  of  Aragon  becomes  supreme  in  Naples,  the  Sforzas  in  Milan,  and  the  Medici 
in  Florence.  C:ommercial  rivalry  of  Venice  and  Genoa.  Florence  conquers  the  Tuscan 
ports,  becomes  celebrated  for  -wealth,  freedom,  and  progress  in  art. 

Castile  subject  nearly  half  a  century  to  the  great  Constable,  Alvaro  dc  Luna.  Catalan 
sailors  make  Aragon  a  great  naval  power.  By  the  untimely  death  of  Prince  Charles  its 
crown  descends  to  his  brother  Ferdinand ;  and  the  marriage  of  this  prince  -with  Isabella 
of  Castile  and  Leon  unites  all  the  Spanish  kingdoms.  Their  reign  signalized  by  estab- 
lishment of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  conquest  of  the  Moors  of  Granada,  expulsion  of  the 
Jews,  and  discovery  of  America, 


CONDITION  OF  EUROPE.  117 

CONDITION  OF  EUROPE. 

137.  In  a  review  of  the  thousand  years  now  traversed,  great  social 
changes  will  readily  be  perceived.  During  the  Dark  Ages,  scarcely  more 
than  two  secular  classes,  those  of  warriors  and  serfs,  could  be  said  to 
exist.  Early  in  the  twelfth  century  cities  began  to  multiply,  and  a  middle 
class,  including  artisans  and  traders,  became  important  by  its  wealth. 
The  increasing  power  of  this  class  may  be  seen  in  the  rise  of  municipal 
constitutions  in  Italy,  of  the  cortes  in  Spain  (A.  D.  1188),  the  parliament 
in  England  (1265),  the  states-general  in  France  (1302),  and  the  first  rep- 
resentation of  the  free  cities  of  Germany  in  the  Diet  (1309).  The 
wealth  of  the  Flemish  merchants  enabled  them  especially  to  purchase 
many  popular  privileges  from  sovereigns  always  in  need  of  money. 

138.  A  great  increase  of  commerce  followed  the  Crusades.  The  Italian 
ships  which  transported  armies  of  pilgrims,  brought  back  gems,  spices, 
perfumes,  and  costly  armor  from  the  Asiatic  countries.  Sugar  was  first 
introduced  into  Europe  by  crusaders.  The  fertile  plain  of  Lombardy  was 
found  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  cane.  Its  culture  spread  to 
Sicily,  Spain,  the  Canary  and  Madeira  Isles,  and  thence,  after  the  great 
discoveries  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  to  the  West  Indies  and 
to  America. 

130.  The  importance  of  their  commercial  interests  led  the  cities  of 
northern  Germany  to  join  in  what  was  called  the  Hanseatic  League  for 
common  defense.  Most  of  the  German  knights  and  many  of  the  highest 
nobles  lived  by  plunder,  issuing  from  their  strong  castles  to  rob  unoffend- 
ing travelers,  and  finding  refuge  within  their  walls  from  the  pursuit  of 
justice.  The  League,  at  its  greatest  extent,  included  all  the  trading 
towns  between  Livonia  and  Holland;  its  power  was  feared  and  its 
alliance  courted  by  sovereign  princes.  Its  fleets  and  armies  controlled 
the  Baltic ;  it  conquered  successively  two  kings  of  Norway,  deposed  a  king 
of  Sweden,  and  gave  his  crown  to  a  duke  of  Mecklenburg. 

140,  The  four  foreign  factories  of  the  League  were  at  London,  Bruges, 
Bergen,  and  Novgorod.  The  voyage  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Baltic  was  too  long  to  be  accomplished  in  one  summer,  by  the  imperfect 
navigation  of  those  times.  Italian  vessels  were  therefore  unladen 
at  Bruges,  where  German  ships  were  waiting  to  receive  the  products  of 
Asia  and  the  south  in  exchange  for  the  timber,  hemp,  fish,  and  other 
naval  stores  of  the  northern  countries.  Richly  laden  merchant-trains 
passed  overland  from  the  northern  cities  to  Novgorod  in  Russia,  then  the 
abode  of  300,000  people,  and  an  important  center  of  the  art,  learning, 
and  industry  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Italian  merchants  had  a  monopoly  of 
commerce  in  the  southern  half  of  Europe,  and  from  handling  the  money 
of  all  nations,  naturally  became  the  universal  bankers.     They  were  com- 


118  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

monly  called  Lombards;    and  the  chief  banking  street  in   London   still 
bears  their  name. 

141.  With  the  increase  of  intelligence  and  enterprise  in  western 
Europe,  manufactures  were  improved  and  extended.  Italy  became  noted 
for  her  silks,  glass,  fine  woolens,  and  jewelry.  Spain,  beside  making 
steel  armor,  paper,  sugar,  cotton,  and  silk,  produced  and  manufactured  the 
finest  wool.  The  Avoolen  fabrics  of  the  Netherlands  were  celebrated  as 
early  as  the  twelfth  century ;  they  were  woven  from  English  fleeces,  and 
were  usually  coarser  and  heavier  than  those  of  the  southern  countries. 
Edward  III.  invited  many  Flemish  weavers  into  England;  by  their 
industry  the  cloth  manufacture  of  that  country  was  founded,  which  now 
supplies  markets  never  dreamed  of  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  peculiar 
industry  of  Holland  was  the  packing  and  exportation  of  herrings — a 
trade  of  immense  importance  at  a  time  when  all  the  world  abstained  from 
eating  flesh  during  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  year. 

142.  Among  the  new  mechanical  arts  which  contributed  most  to  bring 
in  the  modern  era,  were  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  of  linen  paper, 
and  of  movable  types  for  printing.  The  first  undoubtedly  originated  in 
the  East.  Roger  Bacon,  an  English,  and  Berthold  Schwarz,  a  German 
monk,  were  the  first  Europeans  who  understood  the  nature  of  gunpowder; 
but  they  had  learned  chemistry  from  the  Arabs,  who  collected  their 
information  from  the  widest  extent  of  the  Mohammedan  dominions. 
The  Chinese  used  detonating  mixtures  in  fire-works,  ages  before  we  have 
any  definite  account  of  their  employment  in  war;  but  very  ancient  tradi- 
tions in  the  East  describe  the  discomfiture  of  enemies  by  artificial  thunders 
and  lightnings  launched  from  the  walls  of  cities.  Missiles  of  stone  or 
iron  projected  by  gunpowder  quickly  superseded  the  use  of  Greek  fire, 
(see  Book  I.,  §  41,)  as  they  could  be  made  effective  at  longer  range.  The 
first  cannon  in  Europe  were  employed  by  the  Moors  in  their  Spanish  wars. 

They  were  used  by  the  English  in  the  battle  of  Crecy,  but 
so  clumsy  was  their  contrivance,  that  they  served  for  little 
more  than  to  frighten  the  horses  of  the  French  chivalry.  Within 
that  and  the  following  century,  however,  the  use  of  fire-arms  had 
wrought  a  social  and  political  revolution  no  less  marked  and  moment- 
ous than  that  in  military  tactics.  Hitherto  the  knight  on  his  war-horse, 
both  encased  in  steel,  had  been  more  than  a  match  for  a  hundred 
unarmed  peasants ;  and  his  stone  castle  on  the  hill  had  defied  all  assaults 
save  those  of  hunger  and  thirst.  The  term  of  his  service  in  war  could 
not  exceed  forty  days,  except  at  his  own  option.  Kings,  accordingly,  were 
debarred  from  long  and  distant  wars,  for  a  feudal  army  was  always  on  the 
point  of  crumbling  to  pieces,  even  at  the  most  decisive  moment. 

143.  We  have  seen  the  rise  of  standing  armies  even  before  the  inven- 
tion  of    fire-arms;    and   under   Louis   XI.   in  France   they  had  already 


CONDITION  OF  EUROPE.  119 

contributed  greatly  to  the  consolidation  of  royal  power.  The  use  of  gun- 
iwwder  took  away  still  more  power  from  the  nobles,  to  add  it  to  the  kings. 
Except  to  officers  in  high  command,  war  became  a  game  of  chance  rather 
than  of  skill,  attended  with  more  danger  and  less  glory  than  when  its 
success  depended  on  the  personal  prowess  of  the  warrior.  Above  all,  the 
robber-castles  yielded  to  the  storm  of  cannon-balls  directed  by  the  armies 
of  the  Hanse-towns  and  of  the  cities  on  the  Rhine.  Trade  became  more 
secure;  and  burghers  and  nobles  met  in  battle  on  equal  terms.  On  the 
bther  hand,  standing  armies  soon  became  what  they  have  ever  since  been, 
the  instruments  of  despotism,  enabling  kings  to  gratify  their  ambition  at 
the  expense  of  the  blood  and  treasure  of  their  subjects. 

144.  The  manufacture  of  paper  from  linen  rags  was  a  humble  but 
essential  antecedent  to  the  art  of  printing,  for  the  costliness  of  parchment 
or  vellum  was  as  effectual  a  barrier  to  the  multiplication  of  books  as  the 
labor  of  transcribing.  The  first  Saracen  conquerors  learned  the  art  of 
paper-making  at  Samarcand ;  but  it  was  many  centuries  before  some 
European  genius  discovered  that  linen  would  serve  for  the  purpose  as 
well  as  cotton,  which  was  then  far  more  expensive.  Printing  from  solid 
wooden  blocks,  long  common  in  China,  w^as  first  introduced  into  Europe 
for  the  manufacture  of  playing  cards.  The  invention  of  movable  types, 
each  representing  a  letter,  was  the  great  event  which  led  to  the  universal 
diffusion  of  literature.  It  is  variously  ascribed  to  one  Dutch  and  two 
German  mechanics  near  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century;  but  the 
merit  may  be  pretty  accurately  divided  between  them.  Laurence  Koster 
of  Haarlem  invented  wooden  types,  and  printed  from  them  the  Speculum 
Humance  Salvationis,  A.  D.  1438 ;  John  Gutenberg  of  Mentz  cut  types  from 
metal,  and  began  to  print  the  first  edition  of  the  Bible,  in  1444 ;  Peter 
Schceffer  of  Gernsheim  cast  metallic  types  in  1452.  John  Fust  made 
some  improvements  in  Koster's  invention,  and  aided  both  Gutenberg  and 
Schoeffer  by  his  wealth.  Within  a  very  few  years  printing  presses  were 
found  in  England,  France,  Italy,  and  Spain.  Aldus  Minutius  of  Venice 
became  especially  famous  by  the  elegance  of  his  editions  of  the  Latin 
classics. 

145.  During  the  darkest  periods  of  the  mediaeval  centuries,  votaries  of 
learning  had  not  been  wanting.  The  schools  of  divinity  attached  to  the 
cathedrals  and  monasteries  nurtured  some  of  the  greatest  intellects  of  any 
age;    but    unhappily  the    prodigious    acquirements   of  the    Schoolmen"^ 


*The  greatest  of  the  Schoolmen  were  Albert  the  Great,  called  the  "  Universal  Doctor;" 
Thomas  Aquinas,  the  "Angelic  Doctor;"  Bonavcntnra,  the  "Seraphic  Doctor;"  Duns 
Scotus,  the  "  Subtle  Doctor ;"  and  William  of  Ockham,  the  "  Invincible  Doctor."  Dean 
Milman  says,  "  The  tomes  of  scholastic  divinity  may  be  compared  with  the  pyramids  of 
Egypt  .  .  .  commanding,  from  the  display  of  immense  human  power,  yet  oppressive, 
from  the  sense  of  the  waste  of  that  power  for  no  discoverable  use.    Whoever  penetrates 


120  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

were  wasted  in  subtle  disquisitions  on  subjects  which  had  no  possible 
bearing  on  human  life.  A  few  philosophers,  like  Albert  the  Great 
and  Roger  Bacon,  studied  physical  as  well  as  mental  science,  but  the 
bigotry  of  their  age  denounced  them  as  sorcerers.  Their  geometric 
circles  and  triangles  were  believed  to  be  charms  to  compel  the  attendance 
of  evil  spirits :  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic  which  they  had  mastered, 
were  easily  imagined  by  the  ignorant  to  be  the  languages  of  those 
spirits.  Bacon  spent  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  his  life  in  the 
dungeon  of  his  monastery. 

146.  Long  before  the  close  of  the  Crusades,  the  Universities  of  Oxford, 
Paris,  and  Bologna  were  at  the  height  of  their  fame.  The  lectures  of 
Abelard  are  said  to  have  drawn  30,000  students  to  Paris ;  those  of  Roger 
Bacon  and  later  of  Duns  Scotus,  attracted  an  equal  number  to  Oxford ; 
and  Bologna  counted  10,000  law-students  during  the  twelfth  century. 
The  possession  of  a  long-lost  MS.  of  Justinian's  Pandects,  which  was  discov- 
ered at  Amalfi,  A.  D.  1137  —  together  with  the  lectures  of  Irnerius  or 
Werner  —  made  the  fame  of  Bologna  as  a  school  of  jurisprudence.  Most 
of  the  great  German  universities  were  founded  during  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  The  exclusive  prevalence  of  Latin  as  the  language  of 
the  learned,  enabled  scholars  to  avail  themselves  of  the  schools  of  various 
countries,  and  in  these  pilgrimages  for  knowledge,  they  were  under  the 
especial  safe-conduct  of  the  emperor.  The  gown  of  a  scholar  was  as 
effectual  a  security  against  violence  as  that  of  priest  or  monk  ;  and  the 
license,  very  commonly  received,  to  support  themselves  by  begging,  shows 
poverty  to  have  been  the  ordinary  condition  of  a  life  devoted  to  study. 

147.  All  the  languages  now  spoken  in  Europe  had  reached  something 
nearly  approaching  their  present  form,  before  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  Saxon  of  England  was  among  the  first  of  the  Teutonic  dia- 
lects to  be  enriched  by  a  literature,  and  it  was  much  improved  by  the 
efforts  of  the  great  Alfred  (A.  D.  871-901)  both  as  scholar  and  as  king. 
He  himself  made  many  translations  from  the  Latin,  both  of  portions  of  the 
Scriptures  and  of  other  books,  and  he  provided  for  the  education  of  his 
people  by  establishing  schools  in  all  the  principal  towns,  to  which  every 
Englishman  owning  a  certain  portion  of  land  was  required  to  send  his 
sons.  The  Norman  conquest  brought  a  new  language  into  polite  society, 
but  the  mass  of  the  people  held  fast  their  mother-tongue ;  and  it  was 
only  after  three  centuries  that  the  two  elements  of  speech  became  blended 
into  modern  English,  as  found  in  the  curious  travels  of  Sir  John  Mande- 
ville,  the  sermons  of  AVicliffe,  and  the  poems  of  Chaucer. 


within,  finds  himself  bewildered  and  lost  in  a  labyrinth  of  small,  dark,  intricate  passages, 
devoid  of  grandeur,  devoid  of  solemnity  ;  he  may  wander  without  end,  and  find  nothing." 

—Latin  Christianity,  IX.:  118. 


CONDITION  OF  EUROPE.  121 

148.  The  Provencal  language,  formed  from  Latin  as  learned  and  spoken 
by  the  Burgundian  conquerors,  possessed  the  first  of  the  modern  litera- 
tures of  Europe.     Its  improvement  dates  from  the  accession 

A.  D.  1092. 

of  a  count  of  Barcelona  as  king  of  Aries,  and  the  conse- 
quent introduction  of  a  refinement  of  taste  learned  from  the  Arabs  of 
Spain.  The  songs  of  the  troubadours  derived  a  new  inspiration  from  the 
Crusades;  the  heroes  of  the  holy  wars — among  whom  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion  is  preeminent — were  scarcely  less  proud  of  their  fame  as  poets  than 
as  knights.  A  hundred  years  later  than  the  troubadours,  the  trouvlres  of 
northern  France  originated  those  tales  of  chivalry  which  afforded  almost 
all  the  secular  reading  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Their  language  differed  from 
the  Provenyal  as  much,  probably,  as  the  Burgundian  dialect  differed  from 
that  of  the  Franks.  Both  were  called  Romance — a  name  which  passed 
in  time  from  the  language  itself  to  the  class  of  compositions  most  charac- 
teristic of  the  first  French  writers; — but  the  Romance  Wallon  spoken 
north  of  the  Loire,  was  also  known  as  the  Langue  de  Oui,  while  the 
Romance  Frovengal  was  the  Langue  d'Oc;  just  as  the  Italian  of  that 
day  was  called  the  Langue  de  Si,  and  the  German  the  Langue  de  Ja,  the 
affirmative  particle  being  taken  as  the  point  of  comparison.  The  student 
must  pursue  elsewhere  the  attractive  study  of  the  romances  of  chivalry — 
works  in  which  the  adventurous  spirit  of  the  Normans  is  not  less  clearly 
displayed  than  in   their  conquests  in  Russia,   Italy,  and  England. 

149.  Modern  Italian  received  its  first  literary  form  at  the  Sicilian  court 
of  Frederic  II.,  whose  chancellor,  Peter  de  Vinea,  wrote  the  earliest 
sonnets;  but  its  perfection  is  due  to  the  three  great  Florentines,  Dante, 
Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio,  A.  D.  1290-1365.  The  last  two  seem  neither  to 
have  known  nor  heeded  the  influence  which  they  were  exerting  upon 
their  native  speech,  for  the  works  upon  which  their  fame  now  rests  were 
those  which  they  themselves  esteemed  the  least ;  and  their  chief  enthusi- 
asm was  given  to  the  revival  of  the  ancient  languages.  To  this  end 
Petrarch  ransacked  the  dusty  libraries  of  the  convents  for  lost  manu- 
scripts of  the  Roman  authors,  and  spent  many  laborious  days  in  bringing 
together  scattered  fragments  and  transcribing  with  his  own  hand  the 
treasures  thus  secured.  The  first  professorship  of  Greek  at  Florence 
was  founded  A.  D.  1360,  at  the  instance  of  Boccaccio.  The  ardent 
pursuit  of  ancient  learning,  stimulated  by  the  example  of  these  great 
men,  delayed  the  progress  of  their  own  Italian  language  more  than  a 
century,  until  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  himself  a  poet  and  not  ^  ^  1409-1492 
less  celebrated  for  his  genius  than  for  his  political  power 

and  influence,  gave  a  fresh  impulse  both  to  the  literature  and  art 
of  Florence.  He,  too,  was  a  zealous  collector  of  ancient  Mss.,  gems,  and 
statuary,  which  he  placed  liberally  at  the  service  of  all  students,  and 
thus  became  the  founder  of  the  new  school  of  Italian  sculpture,  wherein 


122  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

Michael  Angelo  holds  the  highest  place.  Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of 
Hungary  (1458-1490)  kept  for  years  a  secretary  in  the  library  of  Lorenzo, 
copying  rare  manuscripts,  and  all  Europe  was  benefited  sooner  or  later 
by  the  wealth,  zeal,  and  liberality  of  the  Florentine  citizen. 

150.  The  revival  of  ancient  learning  in  the  west,  of  which  some  scat- 
tered traces  may  be  perceived  during  the  Latin  occupation  of  Constanti- 
nople, but  which  was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  fall  of  that  city  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks  and  the  escape  of  scholars  with  their  literary 
treasures,  was  one  of  the  most  efficient  causes  which  brought  in  the 
modern  era.  European  intellect,  long  trammeled  by  the  philosophy  of 
the  schools,  learned  to  take  a  wider  range.  The  "New  Academy" 
founded  by  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  substituted  (at  least  so  far  as  its  influence 
went)  the  philosophy  of  Plato  for  that  of  Aristotle,  which  had  hitherto 
reigned  supreme.  The  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture 
shared  the  general  impulse.  Four  great  artists  who  are  considered  as  the 
revivers  of  modern  art,  were  at  work  in  Florence  near  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  Each  w^as  almost  equally  skillful  as  architect, 
painter,  sculptor,  and  worker  in  bronze.  They  were  Ghiberti,  Brunel- 
leschi,  Masaccio,  and  Donatello.  The  first  labored  forty-nine  years  upon 
the  bronze  doors  of  the  baptistery  of  St.  John ;  the  second,  by  studying 
the  Roman  Pantheon,  learned  to  construct  the  wonderful  dome  of  the 
Florentine  cathedral,  and  became  the  first  great  master  of  the  architecture 
which  in  Italy  superseded  the  Gothic.  Then  followed  the  triumvirate 
of  modern  art,  the  three  whose  works  taken  together  have  never  been 
surpassed :  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael.  Their 
chief  productions  belong,  however,  to  the  next  century ;  and  in  any  case 
our  limits  barely  admit  a  mention  of  their  names.  The  subject  may  be 
pursued  in  the  biographies  of  the  several  artists,  and  in  many  books 
concerning  the  history  and  criticism  of  art. 

Increased  importance  of  the  middle  class  through  multiplication  of  cities  and  extension 
of  commerce,  distinguish  the  last  four  centuries  of  the  mediseval  period.  Products  of  the 
East  enrich  western  Europe  after  the  Crusades.  Power  and  extent  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  Bruges  its  chief  center  of  trade  with  the  south;  Novgorod  with  the  east.  Italians 
the  merchants  and  bankers  for  a  great  part  of  Europe.  Importance  of  the  woolen  manu- 
facture in  Spain,  Italy,  England,  and  Flanders.  Use  of  gunpowder  brought  from  China 
by  the  Saracens,  leads  to  the  decline  of  the  feudal  system  in  Europe.  ISIanufacture  of 
linen  paper  and  invention  of  printing  effect  a  revolution  in  the  literary  world. 

Learning  of  the  Schoolmen  contrasted  with  the  ignorance  of  the  masses.  Rise  of  the 
great  universities:  Paris  noted  for  theology;  Oxford  for  philosophy;  Bologna  for  law. 
Privileges  and  poverty  of  students.  Anglo-Saxon  language  improved  by  Alfred ;  Anglo- 
Norman  by  Wicliffe,  Mandeville,  and  Chaucer;  Provencal  by  the  trovbadovra;  French  by 
the  trniiv^res;  Italian  by  poets  of  the  Sicilian  court,  and  later,  by  Dante,  Petrarch,  and 
Boccaccio.  Revival  of  ancient  learning  and  art  in  Italy  during  loth  century;  influence  of 
the  Medici ;  Florence  the  scene  of  the  Renaissance. 


I 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  EMPIRES.  123 

The  Mohammedan  Empires. 

151.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  insert  here  a  connected  view  of  the 
principal  Mohammedan  empires  in  Asia,  though  they  embrace  a  period 
both  earlier  and  later  than  that  which  we  have  reached.  1.  The  Gazne- 
vides,  Gaurides,  Afghans,  and  Moguls  in  India;  2.  The  remaining  Mon- 
gol or  Mogul  dominions  of  Zenghis  Khan  and  Timour;  3.  The  Seljuk- 
ian  dynasties;  4.  The  Ottoman  or  present  Turkish  power. 

152.  The  Gaznevides  took  their  name  from  Gazna,  a  town  on  one  of 
the  branches  of  the  Indus,  where  their  founder,  a  rebellious  governor  of 
Khorassan,  took  refuge  with  his  followers,  A.  D.  961.  Mahmoud,  the 
third  of  the  line,  not  only  extended  his  power  westward  to  the  Tigris  and 
the  Caspian,  and  received  the  title  of  Sultan  from  the  Caliph  at  Bagdad; 
but  by  twelve  expeditions  into  Hindustan,  established  the  first  Moham- 
medan empire  in  that  great  peninsula.  He  destroyed  the  pagoda  at 
Sumnaut,  whose  pillars  were  covered  with  gold  and  resplendent  with 
jewels.  The  huge  idol  of  this  temple  was  formed  of  a  single  stone  fifty 
cubits  in  height,  and  the  traditions  of  the  Brahmins  declared  that  it  had 
been  worshiped  on  that  spot  between  four  and  five  thousand  years.  Fifty 
thousand  devotees  sacrificed  their  lives  in  its  defense,  but  the  image  was 
at  length  broken  in  pieces  and  found  to  contain  untold  wealth  in  diamonds 
and  rubies.  The  demolition  of  hundreds  of  pagodas  and  thousands  of 
idols  between  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  bore  witness  to  the  stern  icono- 
clasm  of  Mahmoud. 

153.  Within  two  hundred  years  from  its  foundation,  the   Gaznevide 
Empire  was  dismembered,  and  a  great  part  of  its  Indian  ^ 
territories  conquered  by  Mohammed  of  Gaur,  who  plundered 

Benares,  the  most  holy  place  of  Hindu  superstition,  and  fixed  the  seat 
,of  Moslem  dominion  at  Lahore.  Upon  his  death  a  new  Afghan  dynasty 
gained  the  greater  part  of  India,  and  removed  the  capital  to  the  more 
central  city  of  Delhi.  The  second  of  the  Afghan  emperors  conquered 
Bengal,  but  lost  his  Persian  and  Tartar  dominions  to  the  successors  of 
Zenghis  Khan.  For  two  centuries  the  wealth  of  the  emperors  at  Delhi 
drew  upon  them  continual  attacks  from  the  Mongols;  but  the  most 
destructive  inroad  of  these  invaders  was  led  by  Timour^  in  A.  D.  1399. 
Crossing  the  Hindu  Kush,  with  90,000  horsemen,  this  Tartar  chief  pene- 
trated to  the  plain  of  Delhi ;  conquered  the  city  in  a  great  battle  and 
gave  it  over  to  his  followers,  who  loaded  themselves  with  its  enormous 
wealth ;  100,000  captives,  who  had  impeded  his  march,  had  already  been 
massacred  in  cold  blood ;  and  multitudes  of  unarmed  pilgrims  to  the 
Ganges  fell  victims  to  the  wanton  cruelty  of  his  followers. 


*  Often  called  Tamerlane  =  Timour  Lenk,  or  the  Lame. 


124  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

154."Timour  founded  no  permanent  empire  in  India.  The  Afghan 
dynasty  ended  fourteen  years  after  his  invasion,  with  the  death  of  Mah- 
moud.  The  several  governors  of  provinces  set  up  independent  sovereign- 
ty i  -o^  ties,  and  it  was  reserved  for  Baber,  a  descendant  of  Timour, 
to  unite  them'  all  in  the  great  Mogul  Empire.  His  grand- 
son Akbar,  by  his  wise,  liberal,  and  beneficent  policy,  gained  and  de- 
served the  title,  "  Guardian  of  Mankind."  By  Shah  Jehan,  one  of  his 
descendants,  Delhi  was  restored  to  its  former  magnificence;  but  it  was 
under  Aurungzebe  (A.  D.  1658-1707)  that  the  Mogul  Empire  reached 
its  greatest  power  and  extent.  Its  rapid  decline  began  with  his  death. 
Nadir  Shah,  the  usurper  of  the  Persian  throne,  was  invited  into  Hin- 
dustan by  conspirators  against  the  house  of  Timour,  and  subjected  Delhi 
to  a  massacre  which  surpassed  the  most  horrid  scenes  in  the  career  of 
his  predecessors.  Like  Timour  he  founded  no  dynasty,  but  left  the 
Mogul  Empire  to  perish  by  its  own  weakness. 

155.  Zenghis  Khan  (A.  D.  1154-1227)  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  \ 
the  Scythian  adventurers,  founded  an  empire,  which,  under  his  descend- 
ants, extended  over  nearly  all  Asia,  and  a  great  part  of  eastern  Europe, 
forming  the  most  extensive  dominion  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The 
A  D  i'>79  conquest  of  China  was  completed  by  his  fourth  descend- 
ant,  Kublai  Khan,  who  also  conquered    Burmah,   Cochin 

China,  and  Tonquin.  At  his  court  the  Venetian,  Marco  Polo,  was  liber- 
ally entertained;  he  received  also  an  embassy  from  the  Pope,  and  per- 
mitted Christian  missionaries  to  establish  themselves  in  China.  The 
Mongol  dynasty  was  overthrown,  A.  D.  1368,  by  a  revolution  following  a 
famine  in  which  13,000,000  of  people  are  said  to  have  perished.  A 
Buddhist  monk  managed  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement, 
and  founded  the  Ming  dynasty,  which  reigned  276  years,  until  it  was 
overthrown  by  the  Mantchoo  Tartars,  1644.  The  present  dynasty,  which 
is  still  considered  foreign  by  the  mass  of  the  people,  is  of  the  Mantchoo 
race. 

156.  In  the  west,  the  descendants  of  Zenghis  had  meanwhile  over- 
thrown the  Abbassides  of  Bagdad  and  extended  their  forays  to  the 
Adriatic,  the  borders  of  Germany,  and  the  frozen  shores  of  the  Arctic 
A  D  1241  Ocean.     Kiev,  Moscow,  Cracow,  and  Lublin  were  burned; 

and  in  the  great  battle  of  Liegnitz,  the  Duke  of  Silesia, 
the  Polish  Palatine,  and  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
were  defeated.  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Hungary  were  laid  waste,  and 
Russia  became  tributary  to  the  "Golden  Horde."  Towards  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  the  Mongol  Empire  in  the  west  was  broken  up  into 
many  distinct  sovereignties.  It  was  reunited  for  a  season  by  Timour, 
whose  career  of  conquest  was  only  second  to  that  of  Zenghis  himself. 
He  subdued  the  various  Tartar  tribes  of  central  Asia,  reduced    Persia 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  EMPIRES.  125 

to  submission,  and  came  in  collision  with  the  Ottoman  Empire  near 
the  Euphrates. 

157.  But  Bajazet  for  a  time  found  a  nearer  interest  in  the  siege  of 
Constantinople — Timour  in  the  conquest  of  Syria ;  and  it  was  not  until 
July,  1402,  that  the  two  Moslem  powers  encountered  each  other  upon  the 
plains  of  Angora.  Bajazet  was  defeated  and  a  prisoner,  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  he  passed  the  few  months  which  intervened 
between  his  capture  and  his  death  in  an  iron  cage.  No  proof  of 
Timour's  cruelty  could  appear  incredible  to  those  who  saw  the  pyramids 
of  human  heads  which  marked  the  scene  of  his  victories.  A  rebellion 
in  Bagdad  was  avenged  by  the  slaughter  of  90,000  human  beings.  Yet 
this  savage  delighted  in  the  conversation  of  learned  men,  and  in  the 
elegancies  of  art  with  which  he  adorned  his  capital,  Samarcand.  At 
this  magnificent  city  in  the  wilderness,  embassadors  from  Europe  and 
Asia  were  constantly  in  attendance  on  the  great  sovereign,  whom  they 
propitiated   by   costly  gifts. 

15S.  The  Seljukian  dominion  was  short-lived,  its  flourishing  period 
covering  little  more  than  half  the  eleventh   century;  but 

'^  -^  '  A.  D.  1038-1092. 

during  that  time  twelve  hundred  subject  kings  or  princes 
surrounded  the  throne  of  the  Sultan,  and  prayers  were  offered  for  him  in 
the  mosques  of  Jerusalem  and  Mecca,  as  well  as  at  Ispahan,  Samarcand, 
Bokhara,  and  Kashgar.  Seljuk,  a  Turkish  chief,  about  A.  D.  980,  drew 
to  his  standard  the  disaffected  members  of  many  tribes  north  and  east  of 
the  Caspian,  and  set  up  an  independent  court  at  Samarcand.  His  grand- 
son, Togrol  Beg,  (see  §  2,)  gained  a  great  victory  at  Zendecan,  A.  D.  1038, 
over  the  Gaznevide  sultan,  Massoud,  and  conquered  Persia  and  Korasmia. 
By  defending  the  caliph  at  Bagdad  against  the  Fatimite  sovereign  of 
Egypt  and  the  rebellious  emirs  of  Syria,  Togrol  gained  the  high-sounding 
title  of  '•'  Lieutenant  of  the  Vicar  of  the  Prophet,"  a  title  which  bore 
with  it  all  temporal  sovereignty  in  the  Abbassid  dominions.  The  Tartar 
chief  was  indeed  better  able  to  wield  the  sword  for  the  common  defense 
than  his  reverend  but  feeble  superior.  He  made  plundering  forays  into 
Georgia  and  Armenia,  and  invaded  the  Greek  Empire,  but  the  conquest 
of  these  provinces  was  reserved  for  his  nephew  and  successor.  Alp  Arslan. 
159.  In  three  campaigns  the  emirs  of  this  sultan  were  beaten  by  the 
Emperor  Eomanus,  but  when  Alp  Arslan  took  the  field  in  person,  the 
emperor  was  in  turn  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner.  He  was  treated  with 
the  respect  and  sympathy  due  to  his  character  and  misfortunes,  and  was 
released  with  great  generosity  ;  but  his  subjects  refused  either  to  pay  his 
ransom  or  to  acknowledge  a  captive  for  their  sovereign  ;  and  the  king  of 
Armenia,  in  whose  cause  Eomanus  had  engaged  in  the  war,  imprisoned 
him  in  a  monastery  for  the  rest  of  his  days.  The  victorious  career  of  Alp 
Arslan  was  ended  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin,  and  his  son,  Malek  Shah, 


126  MEDIJEVAL  HISTORY. 

received'  the  titles  of  Sultan  and  Commander  of  the  Faithful.  This 
descendant  of  Scythian  nomads  was  the  greatest  prince  of  his  age.  Not 
only  mosques,  but  roads,  bridges,  colleges,  hospitals,  and  asylums  for  every 
sort  of  misfortune,  were  among  the  results  of  his  enlightened  and  benefi- 
cent reign.  He  reformed  the  Moslem  calendar  which  had  fallen  into 
confusion  ;  and  twelve  times  made  the  entire  tour  of  his  dominions  to 
administer  justice  and  redress  wrongs.  In  his  wars  with  the  Byzantine 
emperors,  Malek  was  once  a  prisoner,  and  once  had  his  opponent  in  his 
own  hands ;  but  he  freely  dismissed  him  and  sent  him  with  an  honorable 
escort  within  the  Greek  lines.  The  conquest  of  Asia  Minor  was  effected 
by  Solyman,  an  officer  and  kinsman  of  Malek,  who  permitted  him  to 
govern  it  as  "  King  of  Roum."  His  capital  was  first  at  Nice,  afterwards 
at  Iconium.  (See  §§  9,  20.)  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  the  lieutenants 
of  Malek,  but  it  soon  fell  under  the  independent  sovereignty  of  the  emir 
Ortok,  then  was  retaken  fcy  the  Fatimite  caliphs,  and  lastly  by  the 
crusaders.  The  Seljukian  empire  rapidly  declined  after  the  death  of 
Malek,  and  its  fragments  were  ultimately  absorbed  into  the  dominion  of 
Zenghis  Khan. 

160.  The  Khorasmian  or  Ottoman  Turks  are  the  latest  arrived  among 
the  ruling  races  of  Europe ;  yet  the  empire  which  they  erected  on  the 
three  continents  which  surround  the  Mediterranean  has  been  more  lasting 
than  that  of  any  of  the  more  splendid  Moslem  dynasties.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century  they  entered  Asia  Minor,  and  enlisted  in  the 
service  of  the  sultan  of  Iconium.  Othman,  the  son  of  Orthugrul,  was  the 
real  founder  of  the  empire  which  bears  his  name.  Having  conquered 
the  cities  of  Nicomedia,  Nice,  and  Brusa,  he  made  the  latter  his  capital, 
and  adorned  it  with  a  mosque,  a  college,  and  a  hospital.  Professors  of 
Persian  and  Arabic  learning,  drawn  thither  by  his  patronage,  showed  that 
civilization  had  already  made  progress  among  the  barbarians  from  the 
Tartar  plains.  Orclian,  son  of  Othman,  captured  Gallipoli  on  the  opposite 
shore  of  the  Hellespont,  and  Amurath  L,  his  successor,  con- 

A.  D.  1360-1389.  ^         '  '  ' 

quered  Thrace  and   fixed  the  capital  of  his  European  do- 
minions at  Adrianople. 

The  city  of  Constantine,  thus  surrounded,  seemed  an  easy  prey,  but  Amu- 
rath first  subdued  the  Slavonian  nations  of  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Bosnia,  and 
Albania ;  and  by  the  institution  of  the  Janizaries,  laid  a  firm  foundation 
for  the  future  extension  of  his  empire.  From  his  multitudes  of  Christian 
captives  he  selected  the  strongest  and  most  beautiful  youth  to  be  trained 
for  his  armies.  Thus  arose  the  first  regular  infantry  in  Europe ;  and 
their  constant  and  rigorous  discipline  made  them  long  the  most  eficctive 
soldiery  on  any  field.  Trained  from  childhood  or  early  youth  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  and  treated  with  marked  favor  by  the  sultans,  the 
Janizaries  were  usually  unswerving  in  their  new  allegiance ;  but  in  some 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  EMPIRES,  127 

instances  tliey  turned  against  their  captors  the  weapons  which  they  had 
gained  in  their  service.^ 

IGl.  Bajazet  I.  (1389-1403)  bore  the  surname  llderim,  or  the  Lightning. 
His  fame  filled  Europe  with  terror,  especially  when  in  the 
battle  of  Nicopolis  he  had  defeated  and  slain  the  bravest 
chivalry  of  Christendom.  An  army  of  100,000  men,  led  by  Sigismund, 
then  king  of  Hungary,  afterwards  emperor,  was  hopelessly  overthrown ; 
but  the  precarious  existence  of  the  Eastern  Empire  was  prolonged  by  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Bajazet  himself  in  his  war  with  Timour.  (See  §  157.) 
Mohammed  L,  the  youngest  son  of  Bajazet,  retrieved  the  fortunes  of  his 
family ;  Amurath  II.  again  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  Christendom 
at  Varna  and    Cossova ;    and   under  Mohammed    II.,   the  .  ■      ,,.„ 

'  A.  D.  14o3. 

empire  of  the  eastern  Csesars  was  finally  overthrown.     Not 

only  Constantinople,  but  the  Greek  islands  and  peninsula  became  the 

prey  of  the  Asiatic  hosts. 

1C2.  For  more  than  a  century,  from  Mohammed  II.  to  Solyman  the 
Magnificent,  the  Turks  were  ruled  by  a  rare  succession  of  able  princes, 
whose  power  was  a  perpetual  menace  to  the  peace  of  Europe,  while  they 
maintained  within  their  own  borders  a  vigorous  and  orderly  discipline. 
The  most  intolerable  of  their  impositions  upon  their  Christian  subjects 
was  the  child-tribute,  which  recruited  the  ranks  of  the  Janizaries,  after 
the  supply  of  captives  taken  in  war  became  insufiicient.  With  Selim, 
the  successor  of  Solyman,  the  Ottoman  dynasty  began  to  decline,  and 
the  Janizaries  were  commonly  the  real  rulers  of  the  empire,  until,  within 
our  own  century,  their  power  was  broken  by  a  terrible  slaughter.  The 
main  events  of  modern  Turkish  history  will  be  indicated  in  their  proper 
places, 

1C3.  In  Egypt,  the  line  of  Fatimite  caliphs  ended,  A.  D.  1171,  with 
the  rise  of  Saladin.  (See  §  19.)  A  later  sultan,  Malek  Sala,  bought  a 
large  number  of  captives  from  Zenghis  Khan,  and  trained  them,  under 
the  name  of  Mamelukes  for  his  own  body-guard.  But  the  Mamelukes 
dethroned  his  successor,  and  set  up  their  own  leader,  Ibeg,  in  his  place. 


*The  most  noted  example  was  George  Castriot,  the  son  of  an  Albanian  prince,  who  with 
his  brothers  became  in  childhood  a  captive  to  tlie  Turks,  and  was  educated  as  a  Mussul- 
man. His  Turkish  name,  Scanderbeg,  (Iskender  Beg,  meaning  Lord  Alexander,)  indicates 
the  military  fame  which  gained  him  the  favor  of  Amurath  II.  (A.  T>.  1421-1451.)  At 
the  age  of  44,  however,  he  suddenly  abjured  Mohammedanism  and  the  service  of  the 
sultan,  resumed  his  Christian  name,  and  declared  himself  the  avenger  of  his  family  and 
people.  With  his  hereditary  subjects  between  the  mountains  and  the  Adriatic,  and  an 
army  of  French  and  German  adventurers  whom  he  attracted  by  his  valor  and  fortune,  he 
held  out  twenty-three  years  against  the  Ottoman  Empire  ;  but  died  at  last  a  fugitive  in  the 
Venetian  territories,  A.  D.  1407.  His  nation  ended  with  his  life.  Not  so  his  fame,  for  the 
Turkish  soldiers  who  rifled  his  tomb,  made  amulets  of  his  bones,  which,  they  believed, 
conferred  invincible  courage  on  whomsoever  possessed  them. 


128  medijEval  history. 

The  first  line  of  these  military  sovereigns  were  called  Bahree  or  Eiver 
Mamelukes,  from  having  been  trained  upon  an  island  in  the  Nile.  They 
took  into  their  pay  another  band  of  Georgians  and  Circassians,  called 
Borghees,  who  in  turn  deposed  the  Bahree  sultan,  and  raised  Barkook, 
their  commander,  to  the  throne,  A.  D.  1387.  The  Borghees  ruled  until 
1517,  when  they  were  deposed  by  the  Ottoman  Turks,  and  Egypt  became 
a  dependency  of  Constantinople.  But  Mameluke  Beys  were  intrusted 
with  the  government  of  twenty-four  provinces,  and  by  their  numerous 
guards  retained  the  real  power,  while  the  viceroys  or  pashas  enjoyed 
only  the  shadow. 

Gaznevide  and  Gauride  dynasties  successively  destroy  the  idols  and  enrich  themselves 
with  the  wealth  of  the  Hindus.  Afghan  emperors,  succeeding,  make  Delhi  the  capital- 
are  defeated  and  plundered  but  not  dethroned  by  Timour.  After  the  dissolution  of  their 
dominion,  his  descendant,  Baber,  establishes  the  great  Mogul  Empire,  which  culminates  in 
Aurungzebe  and  suddenly  declines  at  his  death.  Zenghis  Khan  and  his  family  found  the 
most  extensive  empire  which  the  world  has  seen.  Kublai  Khan  conquers  China;  the 
Golden  Horde  desolate  eastern  Europe.  Timour  conquers  the  Ottoman  Bajazet  and  im- 
prisons him  in  an  iron  cage. 

The  Seljukian  dominion  of  great  extent  but  short  duration.  Malek  Shah  the  most 
powerful  monarch  of  his  time. 

Ottoman  Turks  conquer  all  the  territories  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  while  the  Ca?sars  still 
reign  in  the  capital.  In  the  battle  of  Nicopolis  they  destroy  the  bravest  and  noblest 
defenders  of  Christendom.  Corps  of  the  Janizaries  formed  of  Christian  captives.  Con- 
stantinople taken,  A.  D.  1453. 

Dominion  of  the  Mamelukes  in  Egypt  gives  Avay  only  nominally  to  that  of  the  Turkish 
viceroys. 


QTJICSTIOIS-S   TTOH   RE^IE^V. 

Book  II. 

1.  What  changes   in   the   11th   century  among   the   Mohammedan  rulers   of 

the  east? ??  1.  2,  158,  159. 

2.  What  motives  and  influences  led  to  the  Crusades?      .        .    Book  I.,  88,  Book  II.,  3-5. 

3.  Describe  the  numbers,  character,  and  fate  of  the  first  crusaders,      ...  7. 

4.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  the  eight  holy  wars,  .        .  ....  7-40. 

5.  What  emperors,  kings,  and  royal  princes  were  engaged?   8,  9,  IG,  20,  22,  ?,?>,  35,  38,  40,  41. 

6.  Describe  the  first  king  of  Jerusalem 8,  12. 

7.  His  kingdom  at  its  least  and  greatest  extent, 13. 

8.  W'hat  other  Christian  principalities  were  formed  in  the  cast?  .        .       .        .  9,  21,  41. 

9.  Tell    the    history    of    the    three    principal    religious    orders    of   knights, 

14,  19,  20,  37,  39,  42,  47,  85-87. 

10.  How  many  crusades  were  directed  to  Egypt? SJ,  38. 

11.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Latin  Empire  at  Constantinople, 27-80. 

12.  Describe  the  results  of  the  crusades, 44-46. 


QUFSTIOyS  FOB  REVIEW.  129 

13.  What  principles  were  involved  in  the  strife  of  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines?      .    g§5l,  58. 

14.  Describe   the  relations   of   emperors   and   popes   during   the   time   of   the 

crusades, 48,  49,  51,  59. 

15.  Of  the  emperors  with  the  Italian  cities, 52-55. 

IG.  Name  the  emperors  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen .        51-60. 

17.  Describe  the  character  and  career  of  Frederic  Barbarossa,         .       .       .       .20,  52-55. 

18.  Of  Frederic  II., 35,  36,  56-59. 

19.  The  ascendency  of  the  French  in  Italy, GO,  61. 

20.  What  changes  in  the  Empire  after  the  death  of  Frederic  II.?         ...  62. 

21.  By  what  means  did  the  Baltic  countries  become  civilized?     .        .        .47,  49,  54,  83. 

22.  Describe  the  tirst  Plantagenct  king   of    England,  and   the    extent   of  his 

dominions,  63,  64. 

23.  Tell  the  history  of  Richard  I., 22-24,  65. 

24.  How  and  from  whom  were  the  Great  Charters  of  Hungary  and  England 

obtained? 65,  66,  84. 

25.  In  what  circumstances  was  the  first  English  parliament  assembled?     .       .  67. 

26.  Describe  the  policy  of  Edward  I.  in  Wales  and  Scotland,         ....  68. 

27.  What  changes  in  France  during  12th  and  13th  centuries?         ....        G9-73. 

28.  Describe  the  character  and  acts  of  St.  Louis, 38,  48,  72. 

29.  Name  the  chief  religious  orders  at  the  end  of  the  Crusades 75,  76. 

SO.  Describe  the  Inquisition, 77. 

31.  The  secret  tribunal  of  Westphalia, 78. 

32.  Sketch  the  condition  of  the  European  countries  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  80,  81. 

33.  What  changes  during  that  century  in  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Poland?       ,  84. 

34.  Describe  the  reign  of  Boniface  VIII., 82. 

35.  What  was  meant  by  the  Babylonish  Captivity  of  the  Popes  ?    .        .        .        .  85. 

36.  What  was  the  great  Schism  in  the  western  Church? 100,  115. 

37.  Describe  the  Rise  of  the  Swiss  Republics 88. 

38.  The  Emperor  Henry  VII.  and  his  immediate  successors,       .       .       89,  90. 

39.  What  led  to  the  accession  of  the  Valois  in  France? 91. 

40.  Describe  tlie  English  wars  and  the  principal  battles,  .        .        .       .91,  102,  103. 

41.  Tell  the  story  of  Joan  d'Arc 103,  104. 

42.  What  is  said  of  Phihp,  Duke  of  Burgundy? 101. 

43.  What  led  to  the  change  from  feudal  to  modern  methods  in  war?         .       .     102,  142. 

44.  What  occasioned  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  in  England? 105. 

45.  Describe  the  character  and  policy  of  Louis  XI.  in  France,      .       .       .     107,  108,  110. 

46.  Of  Charles  of  Burgundy 109. 

47.  Name  the  kings  of  France,  A.  D.  987-1498,  Book  I.  86  ;  II.  69-73,  81,  91,  95,  9G,  \(\Z,  107,  110. 

48.  Of  England,  A.  D.  1066-1485,    .        .      63  and  note,  65,  67,  08,  87,  91,  96, 105,  106. 

49.  What  can  you  tell  of  the  duchy  of  Brittany? 95.  111. 

50.  Give  an  outline  of  the  history  of  Naples,       ....       56-58,  60,  61,  96,  100,  125. 

51.  Describe  the  constitution  of  the  Empire  under  Charles  IV.,    ....  112. 

52.  Name  the  three  emperors  who  succeeded  Charles, 114. 

53.  The  first  religious  reformers  in  England  and  Bohemia,  .        .  115. 

54.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Council  of  Constance, 116,  117. 

55.  Of  the  religious  wars  in  Bohemia,        .        .  ....  118. 

56.  What  were  the  chief  acts  of  the  Council  of  Basle? 118-20. 

57.  Of  that  of  Ferrara? .  119. 

58.  Describe  the  progress  of  the  Turks  in  eastern  Europe,        .        .        .      122-124,  160-163. 

59.  Sketch  the  history-  of  Milan Book  I.,  97;  IL,  53,  94,  126. 

60.  Of  Venice, Book  L,  94;  II.,  26-29,  43,  47,  124,  127. 

61.  Of  Genoa,       .        .  Book  I.,  96;  IL,  43,  128. 

62.  Of  Florence 129,  130,  149,  150. 

03.  Of  the  Spanish  kingdoms, 81,131-13.5. 

64.  Of  the  Jews  in  mediaeval  Europe, 6,  81,  99,  136. 

M.  H.  9. 


130 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


65.  Describe  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  the  Middle  Ages,       .       .       .  gg  138-141. 

66.  What  changes  preceded  the  modern  era? 79,  137. 

67.  Describe  the  universities  and  their  students, 146. 

68.  The  invention  of  printing, 144. 

69.  Mediaeval  scholarship  and  the  revival  of  ancient  learning,         ....  145,  150. 

70.  In  what  order  were  the  modern  European  languages  formed?        .       .       .  147-149. 

71.  How  many  Mohammedan  dynasties  have  ruled  India? 151-154. 

72.  Describe  the  successive  conquests  of  China, 155. 

73.  The  Mongols  in  Europe  and  western  Asia, 156,  157. 

74.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Seljukian  empire, 158,  159. 

75.  Of  the  Ottoman  Turks 160,  161. 

76.  Of  the  Mamelukes, 162. 


HOUSES  OF  YORK  AND  LANCASTER. 
Edward  III. 


Edward,  Black  Prince. 
Richard  II. 


Lionel,  d.  of  Clarence. 

Philippa,  m.  earl  of 

I       ^larch. 
Roger  Mortimer,  earl 
I  of  March. 


Edmund.    Aiine,  m.  (2d)  son  of  d.  of  York. 
Richard,  d.  of  York. 


John,  d.  of  Lancaster.    Edmund,  d.  of  York. 
i 
John  Beaufort,  earl  of  , 

fl    Somerset. 
John  Beaufort,  duke  of 
I  Somerset. 

Margaret,  m.  Edmund  Tudor, 

I        earl  of  Richmond. 
Henry  VII  (Tudor). 


Henry  IV. 
Henry  V. 
Henry  VI. 


Edward  IV. 
Edward  V. 


Richard  III.    George,  d.  of  Clarence. 


Richard,  d.  of  York. 


Elizabeth,  married  King  Henry  VII. 


BOOK  III. 


THE    MODEE]^    EEA, 

Feom  the  Discovery  of  America  to  the  Close  of  the  Thirty 

Years'  War. 

A.  D.  1492-1648. 


DISCOVERIES  AND  EXPLORATIONS. 

1.  Our  study  has  hitherto  been  confined  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
and  mainly  to  that  small  north-western  portion  of  its  vast  extent  which 
is  covered  by  the  continent  of  Europe.  We  now  approach  the  unveiling 
of  lands  long  hidden  from  the  civilized  world,  though  vague  surmises 
concerning  them  may  be  found  in  ancient  literature,  and  during  the 
Dark  Ages  several  adventurous  seamen  doubtless  reached  their  shores — 
never,  however,  to  return  and  increase  the  general  knowledge  by  a  record 
of  their  observations. 

2,  The  few  existing  traces  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  New 
World  may  well  engage  the  ingenuity  of  antiquarians,  but  form  at  present 
no  part  of  history.  The  structure  of  the  American  continent  would 
seem  to  have  insured  its  being  discovered  and  introduced  to  the  rest  of 
the  world  by  inhabitants  of  Europe  rather  than  of  Asia.  The  precipitous 
mountain  barriers  of  the  western  coast  are  strongly  contrasted  with  the 
broad  and  gradual  slope,  the  deep  bays,  excellent  harbors,  and  numerous 
navigable  rivers  of  the  eastern.  That  part  of  America  which-  most  resem- 
bles Europe  lies  nearest  to  it,  and  seems  to  have  invited  discovery.  An 
Icelandic  colony  was  formed  in  Newfoundland  near  the  end  of  the  tenth 
century ;  but  all  intercourse  with  the  parent  country  having  ceased,  the 
settlers  must  have  become  absorbed  into  the  native  tribes ;  and  when  the 
renewed  enterprise  of  the  sixteenth  century  again  brought  Europeans  to 
that  region,  their  descendants,  if  any  survived,  Avere  undistinguishable, 
either  in  color  or  customs,  from  the  native  savages  of  the  coast. 

(131) 


132  MODERN  HISTORY. 

3.  The  polarity  of  the  magnet,  and  its  application  in  the  mariner's 
compass,  were  known  in  western  Europe  early  in  the  twelfth  century; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  the  fifteenth,  with  its  extraordinary  reawakening 
of  human  thought  and  enterprise,  to  commence  the  great  era  of  maritime 
discovery.  The  Portuguese,  as  was  natural,  from  their  western  position 
looking  out  upon  the  Atlantic,  were  pioneers  in  the  exploration  of 
unknown  seas.  The  Catalans  had,  indeed,  preceded  them  by  passing, 
A.  D.  1346,  the  hitherto  impassable  point  of  Cape  Non;  and  French 
seamen  from  Dieppe  had  penetrated,  in  1364,  to  Sierra  Leone  and  Rio 
Sestos.  About  the  same  time  the  Spaniards,  partly  by  accident,  discov- 
ered the  Fortunate  or  Canary  Islands,  which  were  conquered  and  settled 
in  successive  expeditions  from  1393  to  1495. 

4.  Prince  Henry,  fourth  son  of  John  I.  of  Portugal,  gave  to  Europe 
the  first  example  of  a  truly  royal  patronage  of  nautical  science.  At  his 
residence  near  Cape  St.  Vincent,  where  the  waves  of  the  mysterious 
ocean  almost  washed  the  base  of  his  observatory,  he  called  together 
learned  men  from  all  countries,  especially  those  who  were  skilled  in 
astronomy  and  the  mathematics  of  navigation,  and  consulted  them  con- 
cerning his  favorite  schemes.  His  liberal  enterprises  were  rewardedj  by 
the  discovery,  A.  D.  1419,  of  the  Madeiras,  and  later  of  the  Azores  and 
Cape  Verde  Islands  and  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

5.  The  Roman  pontiffs,  as  heirs  of  the  Caesars,  claimed  the  right  to 
dispose  of  all  islands  and  newly  discovered  lands.  At  the  request  of  the 
king  of  Portugal,  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  published  a  bull,  adding  to  that 
monarchy  all  the  countries  between  Cape  Non  and  India!  Hitherto  the 
products  of  Asia  had  been  brought  into  w^estern  Europe  by  Venetian 
vessels  from  Alexandria.  The  Portuguese  now  surmised  a  sea  route  to 
India,  and  in  1487,  Bartholomew  Diaz  actually  passed  the  "Cape  of 
Storms,"  which  from  this  happy  success  received  its  new  name  of  "  Good 

_  Hope."     The  great  admiral,  Vasco  de  Gama,  following  the 

same  course,  was  the  first  European  to  enter  the  Indian 
Ocean.  In  spite  of  many  difficulties  and  dangers,  he  explored  the  Malabar 
coast,  and  returned  to  Portugal,  bearing  not  only  a  precious  cargo  of 
gold  and  spices,  but  wonderful  reports  of  the  wealth  and  civilization 
of  that  populous  region. 

(>.  The  hostility  of  the  Mohammedan  rulers  of  India  compelled  the 
newcomers  to  put  forth  all  their  naval  force  in  order  to  obtain  a  foothold 
and  a  share  in  the  trade  with  the  tribes  of  the  interior ;  but  the  fort  and 
factories  established  at  Cochin  soon  became  the  cradle  of  a  great  com- 
mercial empire,  whose  power  was  felt  from  China  to  the  Red  Sea.  Its 
most  flourishing  seat  was  the  Isle  of  Ormuz,  where  semi-annual  fairs 
transformed  the  salt  and  barren  rock  into  almost  the  fabled  splendor  and 
luxury  of  an  Oriental  palace.     Goa,  the  more  permanent  capital  of  the 


DISCOVERIES  AND.    EXPLORATIONS.  133 

Portuguese  dominion,  still  displays  in  its  stately  churches,  warehouses, 
and  deserted  dwellings,  a  remnant  of  that  magnificence  which  gave  it 
the  title  of  "  the  Golden."  The  opening  of  the  maritime  route  to  India, 
though  of  less  historical  interest,  was  of  greater  immediate  importance 
than  the  discovery  of  America.  It  revolutionized  the  commerce  of  Europe 
and  contributed  more  than  any  other  cause  to  the  decline  of  Venice. 

7.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  two  great  maritime  republics  of  Italy 
furnished  the  two  discoverers  of  the  western  continent,  and  by  opening 
the  navigation  of  the  Atlantic  gave  another  fatal  blow  to  their  own 
Mediterranean  commerce.  Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of  Genoa, 
spurred  to  emulation  by  the  success  of  the  Portuguese,  conceived  it  possi- 
ble to  reverse  their  route  and  reach  India  by  sailing  westward.  Bits  of 
carved  wood,  logs,  and  even  two  human  bodies  of  unfamiliar  complexion 
washed  up  by  the  waves  upon  the  shores  of  Madeira  and  the  Azores, 
convinced  him  that  some  unknown  continent  was  not  far  distant.  The 
spherical  form  of  the  earth — though  denied  by  the  Church,  and  distinctly 
affirmed  by  only  a  few  bold  thinkers,  like  the  Archbishop  of  Cambray— 
afforded  the  basis  of  his  calculations. 

8.  Many  painful  years  were  spent  in  imploring  aid  from  the  govern- 
ments of  Genoa,  Portugal,  England,  and  Spain.  At  last,  Isabella  of 
Castile  exclaimed,  "  I  will  undertake  the  enterprise  for  mine  own  crown, 
and  if  it  be  needful  I  will  pawn  my  jewels  to  defray  the  expense."  Colum- 
bus was  made  High  Admiral  and  Viceroy  of  all  the  lands  which  he  might 
discover,  and  secured  in  one-tenth  of  the  net  profits  of  trade  with  the 
same.  Three  small  ships  were  placed  at  his  disposal,  and  he  set  sail 
from  Palos,  Aug.  3,  1492.  After  stopping  at  the  Canaries  to  refit,  the 
little  squadron  pushed  westward  into  those  unknown  regions  which  were 
peopled  with  indescribable  terrors  for  the  ignorant  and  superstitious 
seamen.  Just  as  their  discontent  was  breaking  out  into  dangerous  mu- 
tiny, the  glad  sound  of  "  Land  ahead !"  was  heard.  They  were  approach- 
ing one  of  the  Bahamas,  now  known  as  St.  Salvador.  Reverently  kneeling 
on  the  shore,  the  great  discoverer  gave  thanks  for  safety  and  success, 
and  took  possession  of  the  land  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns. 

0.  The  larger  islands  of  Hayti  and  Cuba  were  discovered  during  the 
subsequent  four  months.  Believing  that  he  had  arrived  in  the  Indies, 
Columbus  called  the  natives  Indians,  and  these  names  qualified  by  the 
epithet  "  West,"  are  still  applied  to  the  islands  and  people.  Having 
built  and  garrisoned  the  little  fort  of  La  Navidad  in  Hayti,  the  Admiral 
sailed  for  Europe,  carrying  with  him  plants,  animals,  and  some  of  the 
native  men  as  proofs  of  his  success- and  specimens  of  the  products  of  the 
newly  discovered  countries.  A  storm  drove  him  into  the  Tagus,  Avhere 
King  John  11. — though  mortified  by  his  own  former  rejection  of  an  enter- 
prise which  had  now  proved  so  gloriously  successful — received  the  Admiral 


134  MODERN  HISTORY. 

with  distinguished  honors.  Seven  months  and  eleven  days  from  his 
departure,  the  ships  of  Columbus  reentered  the  port  of  Palos.  All  the 
bells  of  the  village  rang  joyously,  while  its  entire  population  accom- 
panied the  Admiral  and  his  crew  to  the  principal  church ;  and  thanks 
were  offered  as  for  persons  rescued  from  the  grave.  Their  progress 
through  Spain  was  marked  by  the  joy  and  wonder  of  all  the  people,  and 
their  entry  into  Barcelona,  then  the  residence  of  the  court,  was  like  a 
Eoman  triumph.  Multitudes  thronged  to  see  the  discoverer  of  a  "new 
world."  The  sovereigns  received  him  with  honors  never  before  paid 
to  mere  intellectual  greatness,  unsupported  by  rank,  fortune,  or  military 
renown.  The  natives  in  his  train  were  immediately  baptized,  and  the 
hope  of  extending  to  their  race  the  blessings  of  Christianity  was  the 
strongest  motive  which  engaged  the  pure  and  lofty  spirit  of  Isabella  in 
the  further  prosecution  of  discoveries.  Letters  of  the  time  describe  the 
impulse  suddenly  given  to  the  imagination  of  all  Europe  by  the  great 
and  unexpected  event.  Men  congratulated  each  other  on  having  lived 
to  see  a  day  when  the  bounds  of  human  knowledge  were  widened  by 
the  opening  of  such  vast  new  fields  for  observation. 

10.  An  India-house  was  immediately  established  at  Seville  and  a 
Custom-house  at  Cadiz,  under  the  direction  of  a  new  Board  of  Trade. 
The  Pope,  Alexander  VI.,  magnanimously  conferred  upon  the  Spanish 
sovereigns  all  lands  then  or  thereafter  to  be  discovered  in  the  western 
seas ;  which  territories  were  to  be  divided  from  those  of  Portugal  by  an 
imaginary  line  passing  due  north  and  south,  a  hundred  leagues  west  of  the 
Azores.  The  possibility  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  westward  voyages 
coming  into  collision  with  the  Portuguese  who  sailed  toward  the  south 
and  east,  did  not  disturb  the  calculations  of  his  Holiness. 

11.  Detaining  by  skillful  diplomacy  a  fleet  which  King  John  of  Portu- 
gal was  sending  forth  in  the  hope  of  retrieving  his  mistake,  Isabella 
hastened  the  departure  of  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage.  Seventeen 
ships  were  now  at  his  disposal,  and  from  the  multitude  of  applicants  for 
enrollment  in  his  service,  it  had  been  difficult  to  exclude  all  but  fifteen 
hundred.  With  high  hopes  cheered  by  the  acclamations  of  the  crowd, 
this  fleet  sailed  from  Cadiz,  Sept.  25,  1493.  The  treaty  of  Tordesillas, 
concluded  with  Portugal  the  following  June,  removed  the  partition 
line  between  the  foreign  possessions  of  the  two  nations  to  370  leagues 
westward  of  the  Azores — a  most  important  transaction,  since  it  confirmed 
the  Portuguese  in  their  subsequent  claims  to  Brazil. 

12.  The  second  voyage  of  Columbus  was  rewarded  by  the  discovery 
of  Jamaica  and  of  many  of  the  Caribbee  Islands.  His  colony  in  Hayti 
had  been  cut  off  by  the  natives  in  just  vengeance  for  unprovoked 
outrages ;  but  he  planted  a  new  town,  which  received  the  name  Isabella, 
in  honor  of  the  queen.      The   fatal   discovery   of  gold  dust  in    Hayti, 


DISCOVERIES  AND  EXPLORATIONS.  135 

diverted  the  attention  of  the  Spaniards  from  agriculture  and  regular 
trade ;  and  eventually  brought  to  the  West  Indies  an  indolent  and  worth- 
less crowd  of  adventurers,  who  sought  only  to  repair  their  wasted  for- 
tunes at  the  expense  of  the  unfortunate  natives.  These  mild  and  friendly 
people,  who  in  their  ignorance  had  welcomed  the  first  white  men  as 
messengers  from  heaven,  were  soon  undeceived.  The  tax  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  gold  dust  imposed  upon  each  was  an  unjustifiable  extortion ; 
but  it  was  only  changed  for  the  iniquitous  system  of  ripartimientos,  by 
which  a  number  of  natives  was  assigned  to  each  settler,  and  compelled 
to  render  personal  service  in  lieu  of  tribute.  Feeble  in  body  and  mind, 
accustomed  to  live  indolently  upon  the  spontaneous  products  of  the 
soil,  and  strangers  to  the  consuming  thirst  for  gold  which  animated  their 
masters,  the  people  rapidly  sank  under  the  labors  of  the  mines.  At  one 
time  their  intolerable  sufferings  drove  them  into  a  revolt  in  which  sev- 
eral hundreds  of  thousands  perished.  In  the  space  of  fifteen  years,  the 
population  of  Hayti  was  reduced  by  disease  or  violence  from  1,000,000 
to  60,000. 

13.  In  his  third   voyage  Columbus  touched  the  American  continent 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  and  coasted  the  provinces 

since  called  Para  and  Cumana.  But  the  grandeur  of  his 
discoveries  only  increased  the  envy  and  hatred  of  the  Spanish  cavaliers, 
whose  misconduct  would  long  before  have  destroyed  the  colony  but  for 
the  severe  coercive  measures  of  the  Admiral.  Such  loud  complaints 
reached  the  Spanish  sovereigns  that  a  commissioner  with  full  powers 
was  sent  to  investigate  the  affairs  of  the  colony.  The  narrow  mind 
of  Bobadilla  was  unbalanced  by  a  little  brief  authority,  and  without  a 
show  of  justice  he  caused  the  Admiral  to  be  seized  and  sent  to  Spain 
in  irons!  The  noble  queen  hastened  to  soothe  the  wounds  which  this 
insolence  had  inflicted,  by  reinstating  Columbus  in  all  his  honors,  and 
assuring  him  in  many  delicate  ways  of  her  unshaken  confidence  and 
gratitude. 

14.  His  fourth  voyage  was  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  passage 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  might  afford  a  westward 
route  to  India.  After  coasting  through  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  he  was 
compelled  by  storms  and  the  mutinous  spirit  of  his  men  to  abandon  his 
design.  He  was  subsequently  shipwrecked  upon  the  coast  k  t,  ^r^ 
of  Jamaica ;  and  returning  to  Spain  had  the  grief  to  find 

that  his  faithful  friend,  the  queen,  w^as  upon  her  death-bed.  Her  hus- 
band, the  covetous  and  ungrateful  Ferdinand,  evaded  the  payment  to 
Columbus  of  his  just  share  in  the  reward  of  his  labors,  until  the  great 
Admiral,  worn  out  with  disappointments,  died  in  poverty  at  Valladolid. 
His  tomb  at  Seville  bore,  by  order  of  Ferdinand,  the  inscription :  "  To 
Castile  and  Leon,  Columbus  gave  a  New  World."      His  remains  were 


136  MODERN  HISTORY. 

afterward  removed  to  the  hemisphere  he  had  discovered,  to  rest  in  the 
cathedral  at  Havana.  The  continent,  almost  by  accident,  received  the 
name  of  a  Florentine  adventurer,  Amerigo  Vespucci. 

15.  The  singular  achievements  and  misfortunes  of  Columbus  have 
merited  a  more  detailed  description  than  can  be  afforded  to  the  other 
explorers.  One  year  before  the  discovery  of  the  South  American  conti- 
nent, Sebastian  Cabot,  the  son  of  a  Venetian  merchant,  though  in  the 
service  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  explored  the  North  American  coast 
from  Lat.  67 J°  to  38.°  The  Portuguese  Cabral  in  A.  D.  1500,  having 
taken  an  unusually  westerly  course  in  a  voyage  to  India,  discovered  the 
rich  and  fertile  country  of  Brazil,  and  took  possession  in  the  name  of 
King  Emmanuel  I.  It  had  been  previously  visited  by  Pinzon,  a  friend 
and  former  companion  of  Columbus,  but  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of 
Tordesillas,  above  mentioned,  it  was  resigned  by  the  Spaniards.  In  the 
service  of  the  same  king  of  Portugal,  Caspar  Cortereal  explored  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  coast  of  Labrador  to  the  entrance  of 
Hudson  Bay. 

16.  Diego    Columbus,    being    invested    in    1509   with    his    hereditary 

viceroyalty  of  the  New  World,  projected  the  conquest  and  colonization 

of  Cuba,  which  were  accomplished  in  1511.     The  next  year  the  veteran 

Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  undertook  at  his  own  cost  an  explora- 
A.  D.  1512.  .  ... 

tion  of  the  mainland,  being  led  by  a  romantic  tradition  to 

seek  there  a  fountain  of  perpetual  youth.  Near  the  present  town  of 
St.  Augustine,  he  reached  a  coast  which,  either  from  its  flowery  appear- 
ance or  from  the  circumstance  of  his  arrival  on  Palm  Sunday,  he 
called  Flonda.  In  1513,  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  with  290  Spaniards, 
crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and,  first  of  Europeans,  looked  upon  the 
Pacific  from  its  western  border.  Advancing  in  full  armor  into  its 
waters,  he  vowed  as  a  true  knight  to  conquer  and  defend  them  for  the 
king  of  Spain. 

17.  Six  years  later  Hernando  Cortez,  with  less  than  600  men,  under- 
took the  conquest  of  Mexico.  The  wealth,  luxury,  and  high  civilization 
of  this  empire  were  strongly  contrasted  with  the  rude  manners  of  the 
barbarous  tribes  on  the  north  as  well  as  of  the  indolent  natives  of  the 
coast.  Its  populous  cities  were  guarded  by  a  well-ordered  police ;  in 
their  markets  were  found  as  great  a  variety  of  merchandise  as  in  any 
European  fair.  The  capital  city  was  situated  in  the  midst  of  an  immense 
salt  lake,  and  though  itself  many  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  was 
surrounded  by  mountains  of  far  greater  altitude.  Its  temples  were  re- 
markable for  their  architectural  grandeur,  and  were  adorned  with  delicate 
and  curious  carvings  in  stone  and  wood.  A  race  of  hereditary  emperors 
was  regarded  with  almost  religious  veneration. 

First  subduing  the  warlike  republic  of  Tlascala,   and  drawing   from 


DISCOVERIES  AND  ADVENTURES.  137 

it  6,000  auxiliaries,  Cortez  advanced  to  the  important  town  of  Cholula. 
Here  the  officers  of  Montezuma  entertained  him  with  a  show  of  friend- 
ship, while  secretly  laying  plots  for  his  destruction.  But  Cortez  detected 
the  treachery  and  revenged  it  by  a  massacre  of  several  thousands  of 
citizens. 

18.  The  feeble  Montezuma,  unable  to  resent  this  violence,  received 
the  Spaniards  with  great  magnificence  in  his  capital;  but  his  efforts 
at  conciliation  were  unavailing  to  save  either  his  kingdom  or  his  life. 
He  was  seized  and  detained  in  the  Spanish  quarters  as  a  hostage,  and 
was  slain  during  an  attack,  by  a  missile  from  the  hand  of  one  of  his  own 
subjects.  The  Spaniards  were  forced  to  withdraw  for  awhile  from  the 
capital,  but  returning  with  fresh  reinforcements,  they  captured  the 
new  emperor,  Guatimozin,  and  soon  became  masters  of  the  whole  empire. 
The  possession  of  fire-arms  and  of  horses  had  given  the  mere  handful 
of  Spaniards  a  comparatively  easy  victory  over  thousands  of  brave  but 
defenseless  natives.  Armies  of  missionary  monks  completed  the  con- 
quest which  force  had  begun.  The  Mexicans,  convinced  that  the  gods 
of  their  fathers  had  either  deserted  them  or  had  themselves  been  con- 
quered, flocked  in  such  numbers  to  embrace  the  new  faith,  that  thousands 
were  baptized  in  a  single  day.  The  humane  efforts  of  the  missionaries, 
especially  of  the  good  Las  Casas,  preserved  the  Mexicans  in  great  meas- 
ure from  the  cruel  fate  which  Spanish  conquest  had  brought  upon  the 
natives  of  the  islands ;  and  they  were  rewarded  by  the  ardent  attachment 
of  that  people  to  the  Roman  Church. 

19.  A  more  disgraceful  tale  of  deceit  and  violence  might  be  told  of 
the  conquest  of  Peru,  A.  D.  1531-1536.  The  mineral  treasures  of  this 
great  empire  had  been  described  to  Balboa  by  the  natives  of  the  Isthmus ; 
but  the  magnificence  of  the  court  and  capital  of  Atahualpa  far  surpassed 
all  that  had  been  told.  After  buying  his  life  with  a  room  full  of  gold, 
the  unhappy  Inca  was  nevertheless  condemned  to  be  burned  at  the 
stake ;  and  the  utmost  indulgence  which  he  could  obtain  by  a  profession 
of  Christianity,  was  death  by  a  halter  before  the  flames  were  kindled. 
Quarrels  among  the  Spaniards  themselves  delayed  the  establishment  of 
their  power.  Pizarro,  the  commander,  was  slain  by  one  of  his  subordi- 
nates, but  the  rebel  Almagro  was  in  turn  put  to  death,  and  order  was 
restored  by  a  new  governor,  Vaca  de  Castro.  By  a  most  cruel  system 
of  oppression,  the  Peruvians  were  driven  in  gangs  to  the  mines,  which 
they  were  compelled  to  work  for  the  benefit  of  their  conquerors;  and 
it  is  said  that  four-fifths  of  the  laborers  died  under  these  exactions. 

20.  In  the  mean  while  Magalhaens  or  Magellan  had  passed  the  south- 
ernmost point  of  the  American  continent,  and  in  his  attempted  voyage 
around  the  world,  crossed  the  Pacific  and  discovered  that  important 
group  of  islands  which  afterward  received  the  name  Philippine,  in  honor 


138  MODERN  HISTORY, 

of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  was  killed  in  those  eastern  seas,  and  his 
squadron,  completing  the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  arrived  in  Spain 
under  another  commander.  The  western  coast  of  North  America  was 
explored  by  the  Spaniards,  Coronado  and  Cabrillo,  A.  D.  1540-42.  Perdi- 
nand  de  Soto  undertook  to  colonize  that  fertile  and  attractive  region 
which  Ponce  de  Leon  had  discovered ;  but  the  Florida  Indians  proved 
themselves,  what  their  descendants  have  since  been  found,  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  subdue  of  all  the  natives  of  the  coast.  Failing  in  this  enterprise, 
De  Soto  pushed  on  into  the  interior,  and  reached  the  Mississippi  Eiver 
not  far  from  the  present  town  of  Memphis.  Descending  that  river, 
he  entered  the  Arkansas  and  explored  its  basin.  He  died  in  the  wilder- 
ness, leaving  neither  settlement  nor  permanent  conquest  to  preserve 
the  memory  of  his  toils. 

21,  The  discovery  of  silver  in  Bolivia  and  Buenos  Ayres  quickened 
the  Spanish  enterprises  in  South  America.     The  towns  of  Quito,  Guaya- 

quil,  Santiago,  and  Buenos  Ayres  were  all  founded  within 
five  years ;  but  two  centuries  of  war  in  Chili  failed  to  sub- 
due the  brave  and  freedom-loving  Araucanians.     Several  captaincies  were 
established  in  Brazil  by  the  Portuguese ;   and  in  A.  D.  1549,  these  were 
united  under  a  Governor-General  whose  capital  was  Bahia. 

22.  The  French  were  among  the  last  to  compete  with  other  Europeans 
in  the  search  for  undiscovered  lands ;  but  the  fisheries  on  the  Banks  of 
Newfoundland  early  attracted  the  bold  seamen  of  Brittany,  and  there 
is  even  some  evidence  of  their  presence  there  before  the  discovery  of  the 
mainland  by  Cabot.  King  Francis  I.,  envying  the  wealth  and  dominion 
of  his  hated  rival  Charles  V.  in  the  New  World,  and  pursuing  his 
favorite  policy  of  patronizing  Italian  genius,  gave  a  commission  to  Verraz- 
zano,   a  Florentine  navigator,   to  seek  a  westward   passage   to  Cathay. 

Though  this  expected  opening  was  not  found,  Verrazzano 
explored  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America  from  Lat.  34°  to  50°, 
and  was  the  first  European  to  visit  the  harbors  of  New  York  and  New- 
port. The  misfortunes  of  Francis  I.  interrupted  these  enterprises,  but 
they  were  resumed  in  1534,  when  Jacques  Cartier,  a  Breton  of  St.  Malo, 
made  a  slight  examination  of  Newfoundland  and  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  next  year  he  returned  with  greater  force,  and  ascended 
the  river  beyond  the  present  sites  of  Quebec  and  Montreal  —  even  then 
the  centers  of  a  large  population.  Five  years  later,  he  made  another 
expedition  to  the  New  World,  as  lieutenant  of  the  Sieur  de  Roberval, 
who  followed  with  additional  forces  in  1542.  This  time  a  colony  was 
planted  in  Nova  Scotia,  but  its  brief  existence  affords  nothing  worthy 
of  mention.  The  fisheries  and  the  trade  in  furs  and  marine  ivory  still 
engaged  the  enterprise  of  the  French ;  but  their  colonization  began 
only  at  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century,  with  the  daring  advent- 


mSE  OF  EUROPEAN  STATES-SYSTEM.  139 

iires  of  Samuel  de  Champlain  and  the  establishment  of  the  feudal  sov- 
ereignty of  De  Monts. 

The  western  continent  received  one  or  more  European  colonies  before  its  discovery  by 
Columbus.  Exploration  of  the  Atlantic  begun  by  the  Catalans,  greatly  promoted  by  Prince 
Henry  of  Portugal.  The  Portuguese  open  a  sea-route  to  India,  and  thus  revolutionize  Euro- 
pean commerce.  Goa  the  Golden  becomes  capital  of  their  empire  in  the  east.  .Columbus, 
believing  the  sphericity  of  the  earth,  crosses  the  Atlantic  under  patronage  of  Itiabclla  of 
Spain ;  discovers  San  Salvador,  Hayti,  and  Cuba.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  divides  the  heathen 
world  between  Spain  and  Portugal.  Haytians  perish  by  hundreds  of  thousands  under 
riparttmiento  system  of  the  Spaniards.  Columbus  discovers  the  continent  in  his  third 
voyage,  is  shipwrecked  in  his  fourth,  and  dies  in  poverty.  North  America  discovered  and 
explored  by  Cabot  for  Henry  VII.  of  England ;  Brazil  by  Cabral  for  Emmanuel  of  Portu- 
gal. Cuba  colonized  by  Diego  Columbus.  Florida  discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon  —  the 
Pacific  by  Balboa.  Mexico  conquered  by  Cortez,  Peru  by  Pizarro.  The  globe  first  cir- 
cumnavigated by  the  fleet  of  Magellan.  Cabrillo  and  Coronado  explore  the  western,  De 
Soto  the  eastern  side  of  the  North  American  continent.  Silver  discovered  and  towns  built 
by  the  Spaniards  in  South  America.  French  fishermen  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland. 
Verrazzano  visits  the  harbors  of  New  York  and  Newport.  Colonies  attempted  by  Cartier 
and  Roberval. 

KisE  OF  THE  European  States-System. 

23.  From  the  new  continent,  the  exploration  of  whose  bays  and  rivers 
was  engaging  the  most  active  spirits  of  an  adventurous  age,  we  turn  to 
resume  the  thread  of  European  history  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
era.  The  common  interests  of  the  several  states  had  been  greatly  multi- 
plied by  the  progress  of  civilization ;  certain  events  were  felt  to  afTect  all 
nations  alike  —  especially  the  progress  of  the  Turks  and  the  growth  in 
every  country  of  opinions  contrary  to  the  doctrines  of  the  established 
Church.  The  new  art  of  printing  increased  the  interchange  of  ideas ;  and 
the  establishment  of  colonies  in  Asia  and  America  led  to  more  intimate 
commercial  dealings  between  the  parent  states.  All  these  causes  con- 
spired to  develop  the  European  States-system  —  a  confederacy  of  powers 
independent  and  widely  various  in  their  local  constitutions — whose  rela- 
tions are  determined  and  maintained  not  by  authority  but  by  diplomacy, 
or  by  the  still  incomplete,  though  constantly  maturing,  science  of  inter- 
national law. 

The  preservation  of  the  "  balance  of  power,"  i.  e.,  of  the  independence 
of  all  the  states,  by  preventing  any  from  acquiring  a  preponderance 
which  would  threaten  the  general  security,  became  a  chief  object,  and 
demanded  from  every  government  a  vigilant  attention  to  the  affairs  of 
other  nations.  Thence  arose  many  alliances  and  counter-alliances  and 
much  diplomatic  activity.  States  of  inferior  rank,  like  Savoy,  Lorraine, 
and  the  Swiss  Eepublics,  were  protected  by  their  more  powerful  neigh- 
bors, as  convenient  smaller  weights  in  the  balance. 


140  MODERN  HISTORY. 

24.  Among  the  great  nations  of  Europe,  Spain  was  clearly  predomi- 
nant at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Since  the  conquest  of  the 
Moors,  all  the  peninsula  except  Portugal  obeyed  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
and  the  important  Aragonese  dependencies,  Sardinia,  and  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies,  were  soon  permanently  reunited  to  the  crown,  while 
the  extension  of  Spanish  dominion  in  the  New  World  promised  unlimited 
increase  of  wealth  aad  power.  France  had  equal  European  advantages, 
though  destitute  of  colonial  possessions.  Bretagne  was  recently  annexed 
to  the  crown  by  marriage,  and  Burgundy,  the  last  of  the  great  fiefs 
which  had  threatened  the  sovereign  power,  was  absorbed  into  the  king- 
dom upon  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold.  England  was  likewise  consoli- 
dated and  pacified  by*  the  blending  of  rival  claims  to  the  crown  in  the 
marriage  of  Henry  VII.  with  Elizabeth  of  York,  and  by  the  extinction 
of  some  formidable  families  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

25.  The  Empire,  no  longer  Eoman  except  in  name,  was  henceforth 
almost  an  hereditary  appanage  of  the  House  of  Austria.  The  theory  of 
the  universal  supremacy  of  the  Csesar  had  vanished  with  the  discovery 
of  a  hemisphere  unknown  to  Augustus  or  his  successors.  Maximilian 
I.  was  a  great  ruler,  but  it  was  as  Archduke  of  Austria,  Count  of  the 
Tyrol,  Duke  of  Styria  and  Carinthia  and  Eegent  of  the  Netherlands, 
rather  than  as  emperor.  The  multitude  of  petty  German  sovereigns  had 
collectively  far  more  power  than  their  nominal  head.  Still  the  empire 
continued  for  two  centuries  to  form  an  essential  part  of  the  system  of 
European  states — "important  to  all,  but  dangerous  to  none."  The  Otto- 
man power  came  to  the  height  of  its  greatness  under  Solyman  II.,  A.  D. 
1520-1566.  His  fleet  nearly  controlled  the  Mediterranean,  and  his  Janiza- 
ries—  then  the  most  effective  infantry  in  the  world  —  were  equally  for- 
midable on  land. 

26.  Charles  VIII.  of  France  no  sooner  found  himself  in  possession  of 
sovereign  power,  than  he  prepared  to  prosecute  the  claim  to  Naples  de- 
rived by  his  father  from  Charles  of  Maine.  Though  full  of  grand  schemes 
of  conquest,  the  young  king  was  diminutive  and  deformed  in  person 
and  weak  in  mind.  His  army,  which  had  cost  ruinous  sacrifices  to  equip, 
waited  for  him  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  until  he  had  spent  in  tournaments 
and  festivities  the  entire  sum  provided  for  the  war;  and  he  could  only 
proceed  by  borrowing  50,000  crowns  from  a  Milanese  merchant.  Hav- 
ing entered  Italy  he  borrowed  and  pawned  the  jewels  of  the  Duchess  of 
Savoy  and  the  Marchioness  of  Montferrat,  in  order  to  prosecute  his  enter- 
prise. His  chief  ally  was  Ludovico  Sforza,  uncle  of  the  reigning  duke 
of  Milan,  and  one  of  the  most  unscrupulous  plotters  of  the  age.  He  had 
invited  the  French  into  Italy  in  the  hope  of  being  protected  by  them  in 
the  usurpation  of  the  duchy ;  and  his  nephew  died  about  this  time  under 
strong  suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned  by  Ludovico. 


RISE  OF  EUROPEAN  STATES-SYSTEM.  141 

27.  The  Florentines  were  ancient  allies  of  the  French,  but  their  present 
ruler,  Piero  de  Medici,  was  bound  by  a  treaty  to  Alfonso  II.  of  Naples. 
A  sedition  arose  against  Piero,  who,  driven  by  his  fears  to  an  opposite 
extreme  of  policy,  voluntarily  offered  to  put  Charles  VIII.  in  possession 
of  all  the  Tuscan  fortresses,  and  to  furnish  him  with  a  Joan  of  200,000 
florins.  Enraged  by  this  degrading  submission,  the  Florentines  expelled 
the  Medici  from  their  city,  confiscated  their  goods,  and  offered  a  price  for 
their  heads.  The  Dominican  reformer,  Savonarola,  who  had  foretold  the 
coming  of  the  French  as  ministers  of  divine  vengeance  upon  the  corrup- 
tions of  Italy  —  especially  the  notorious  wickedness  of  the  Pope  and  his 
family,  the  Borgias  —  now  came  to  the  head  of  affairs.  Appearing  before 
Charles  VIII.  at  Lucca,  he  prophesied  for  him  earthly  victory  and  heav- 
enly glory,  on  condition  of  his  protecting  the  liberties  of  Florence.  The 
king  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Tuscan  capital,  but  upon  his  proposing 
to  tax  the  city  and  recall  the  Medici,  the  people  rose  as  one  man  in  de- 
fense of  their  rights,  and  he  was  compelled  to  retire. 

28.  Charles  entered  Eome  with  an  army  of  50,000  men  and  a  train  of 
artillery.  The  personal  wickedness  of  Alexander  VI.  was  deepened  in  the 
view  of  his  contemporaries  by  his  close  but  unnatural  alliance  with  the 
Turkish  sultan,  Bajazet.  Zizim,  a  younger  brother  and  hated  rival  of  Ba- 
jazet,  had  taken  refuge  with  the  Knights  of  St.  John  at  Eliodes.  For 
greater  security  he  was  sent  to  France,  A.  D.  1483,  and  remained  several 
years  in  various  fortresses  belonging  to  the  order ;  while  Bajazet,  well  satis- 
fied to  have  him  out  of  the  way,  paid  a  liberal  yearly  allowance  for  his 
maintenance.  Later,  the  unfortunate  prisoner  was  committed  to  the  keep- 
ing of  the  Pope,  and  Alexander  now  made  use  of  so  valuable  a  prize  in  his 
negotiations  with  Bajazet.  Charles  VIII.  was  well  known  to  aim  at  the 
conquest  of  the  Turks  and  a  restoration  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  the  title 
to  which  he  had  purchased  from  Andrew  Palseologus,  nephew  of  the  last 
reigning  emperor.  The  Pope  now  sent  word  to  the  sultan  that  Charles 
was  scheming  to  get  possession  of  Zizim  in  furtherance  of  his  plans 
against  the  Ottomans.  Bajazet  replied  by  offering  300,000  ducats  for  the 
murder  of  his  brother,  and  as  Zizim  died  within  a  few  months,  Lis  death 
was  commonly  imputed  to  a  slow  poison  administered  by  order  of  the 
Pope. 

29.  As  soon  as  the  French  army  entered  the  Neapolitan  dominions,  the 
people  rose  against  their  king,  Alfonso  II.,  a  harsh  and  odious  tyrant. 
Seized  with  remorse  and  terror,  the  king  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son ;  but 
the  virtues  of  Ferdinand  II.  were  unable  to  retrieve  the  desperate  fort- 
unes of  his  family.  His  infantry  threw  down  their  arms  at  the  approach 
of  the  French ;  one  of  his  principal  officers  betrayed  Capua  to  Charles, 
and  the  city  of  Naples  rose  in  revolt.  Ferdinand  burned  or  sank  most  of 
his  fleet,  placed  his  available  troops  in  the  fortresses  near  Naples,  and 


142  MODERN  HISTORY. 

retired  to  Sicily  with  fifteen  ships.  The  king  of  France  entered  the  capi- 
tal the  next  day  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people ;  the  fortresses  soon 
surrendered,  and  in  a  few  weeks  the  entire  kingdom  had  fallen  into  his 
hands  almost  without  a  blow. 

30.  This  undeserved  success  turned  the  weak  head  of  Charles.  He 
treated  the  Neapolitans  as  a  conquered  people ;  and  instead  of  rewarding 
their  nobles  and  generals,  whose  influence  had  mainly  secured  his  triumph, 
he  confiscated  their  hereditary  lands  and  ofiices  to  bestow  them  upon  his 
own  idle  followers.  The  first  extensive  league  known  to  European  history 
was  now  formed  against  him  by  the  arts  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  who  had 
gained  all  he  could  hope  from  the  presence  in  Italy  of  the  French,  and 
was  alarmed  by  the  nearness  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  rightful  heir  of 
the  Visconti.  A  treaty  was  signed  at  Venice  in  March,  1495,  by  represent- 
atives of  the  Pope,  the  Emperor,  King  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  the  Venetian 
Republic,  and  the  Duke  of  Milan.  A  Spanish  army  was  soon  landed  in 
Sicily  and  a  Venetian  fleet  appeared  on  the  Apulian  coast. 

Disappointed  of  a  coronation  by  the  Pope,  Charles  consoled  himself  by 
a  magnificent  entry  into  Naples,  clothed  in  the  robes  of  an  eastern 
emperor,  bearing  a  globe  in  one  hand  and  a  scepter  in  the  other.  The 
next  week  he  left  his  southern  capital  unprovided  with  either  money  in 
its  treasury  or  food  or  ammunition  in  its  fortresses.  As  a  contrast,  how- 
ever, to  the  poverty  in  which  he  had  entered  Italy,  he  was  followed  in 
his  northward  march  by  an  immense  baggage-train  loaded 
with  treasure.  At  Fornovo  in  Lombardy  he  was  met  by 
the  army  of  the  allies,  which  nearly  four  times  outnumbered  his  own. 
All  might  have  been  lost  for  the  French,  but  that  their  rich  plunder 
diverted  the  attention  of  the  enemy,  whose  disorderly  ranks  were  easily 
put  to  flight.  The  king  then  made  a  new  treaty  with  Sforza,  who 
acknowledged  himself  the  vassal  of  Charles  for  Genoa,  and  promised 
to  take  no  part  in  any  of  the  movements  of  the  allies  against  France. 

31.  Meanwhile  the  French  dominion  in  Naples  was  falling  as  rapidly 
as  it  had  arisen.  The  king  of  Aragon  sent  an  army  to  the  aid  of  Ferdi- 
nand II.,  who  landed  at  Reggio  within  a  week  of  Charles'  departure. 
His  forces  were  defeated  at  Seminara;  but  the  people  of  the  capital,  now 
weary  of  their  new  masters,  rose  in  revolt  and  welcomed  their  natural 
sovereign  with  shouts  of  joy.  All  the  southern  coast  declared  for  Ferdi- 
nand. The  French  king's  cousin  and  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Montpensier, 
made  some  efforts  to  continue  the  war,  but,  no  aid  arriving  from  France, 
he  was  forced  to  conclude  a  treaty,  in  which  little  more  was  granted  to 
the  French  than  permission  to  depart  for  home.  While  awaiting  trans- 
ports, a  pestilence  broke  out,  which  destroyed  the  viceroy  himself  and 
great  numbers  of  his  men.  The  Constable  d'Aubigny  was  defeated  about 
the  same  time  in  Calabria,  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  whose  career  of  un- 


I 


RISE  OF  DIPLOMACY.  143 

interrupted  victories  won  him  the  title  of  the  Great  Captain.  Ferdinand 
II.,  dying  in  1496,  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle  Don  Frederic,  a  prince  of 
great  talents  and  popular  disposition,  who  soon  destroyed  the  last  traces 
of  French  domination. 

32.  The  chief  result  of  the  wild  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  was  a  fatal 
thirst  for  distant  conquests  excited  in  the  sovereigns  and  people  who  had 
been  drawn  into  his  wars;  and  unhappy  Italy,  weakened  by  her  own  dis- 
sensions, suffered  many  years  from  the  display  of  her  helplessness  and 
wealth.  To  the  refined  and  enervated  Italians,  the  invasion  by  the . 
French  was  like  a  new  irruption  of  northern  barbarians;  for  the  carnage 
wrought  by  the  well-served  artillery  of  Charles,  presented  a  murderous 
contrast  to  the  Italian  battles  of  the  day,*  in  which  "the  worst  that  a 
soldier  had  to  fear  was  the  loss  of  his  horse  or  the  expense  of  his  ransom." 
Another  and  more  important  effect  of  Charles'  Italian  expedition,  may  be 
traced  in  larger  views  of  national  policy  among  the  governments  of 
Europe. 

Several  marriages  negotiated  about  this  time  by  the  Spanish  sover- 
eigns had  a  controlling  influence  upon  subsequent  history.  The  Prin- 
cess Margaret,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  discarded  bride 
of  Charles  VIII.,  was  married  to  John,  Prince  of  Asturias  and  eldest 
son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;  while  her  brother  Philip,  heir  of  the 
Netherlands,  became  the  husband  of  their  second  daughter,  Joanna. 
Their  eldest  daughter,  Isabella,  was  espoused  to  the  king  of  Portugal ; 
and  their  youngest,  Catherine,  to  the  heir  of  the  English  crown.  The 
early  deaths  of  the  Infant  of  Spain,  the  queen  of  Portugal  and  her  only 
son,  left  the  inheritance  of  the  Spanish  monarchies  to  the  eldest  son  of 
Philip  and  Joanna,  who  fills  a  most  important  place  in  the  history  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

33.  The  crimes  and  vices  of  the  Borgias  gave  terrible  energy  to  the 
preaching  of  Savonarola,  who  loudly  summoned  the  princes  of  Europe  to 
convene  a  council  and  depose  the  Pope.  Alexander  responded  by  excom- 
municating the  Florentine  prophet  and  all  the  members  of  his  govern- 
ment. The  fanaticism  of  the  Piagnoni,  or  Weepers,  who  followed  Savona- 
rola, had  strengthened  two  other  parties  in  Florence;  and  it  was  by 
availing  himself  of  their  dissensions  that  the  Pope  procured  the  death  of 
his  bold  adversary.     Savonarola,  with  two  of  his  disciples,  was  burnt  in 


*  The  manufacture  of  defensive  armor  during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  so  far  excelled 
that  of  the  weapons  of  destruction,  that  war  became  almost  as  safe  as  the  peaceful  con- 
tests of  the  chess-board.  It  was  chiefly  carried  on  in  Italy  by  mercenary  companies  of 
adventurers,  who  were  hired  out  by  their  captains  to  any  prince  or  city  that  offered  the 
greatest  pay  or  plunder ;  and  it  was  the  obvious  policy  of  the  leaders  to  keep  their  forces 
undiminished,  as  the  material  of  future  bargains.  Machiavelli  mentions  two  decisive 
battles,  in  one  of  which  no  man  was  injured,  and  in  the  other,  one  was  killed  only  by 
the  accident  of  falling  from  his  horse  and  being  smothered  in  the  mud. 


144  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  market-place  at  Florence,  May  23,  1498.  But  the  pontiff  did  not 
thus  escape  the  natural  result  of  his  crimes.  His  eldest  son,  the  Duke  of 
Gandia,  had  already  been  murdered  by  Caesar  Borgia,  his  own  brother, 
who  bore  in  the  Church  the  high  rank  of  Cardinal  of  Valencia.  For  a 
few  days  even  Alexander  VI.  was  struck  with  remorse.  He  openly  con- 
fessed his  sins  and  promised  reformation;  but  he  soon  plunged  more 
deeply  than  ever  into  violent  and  degrading  courses.  He  not  only  for- 
gave the  murderer,  but  by  releasing  him  from  his  vows  as  a  prelate, 
prepared  to  make  him  a  great  secular  prince. 

34.  Charles  VIII.  was  preparing  for  a  fresh  invasion  of  Italy,  when  a 
sudden  death  cut  off  his  designs.     He  left  no  son,  and  the  French  crown 

r»  HOC  passed  to  the  younger  branch  of   the  Valois,  now  repre- 

sented  by  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans.  The  training  which 
Louis  had  experienced  in  the  stern  school  of  adversity  proved  a  benefit 
to  his  realm.  No  king  since  Louis  IX.  had  shown  so  active  a  sympathy 
for  his  poorer  subjects ;  and  the  fear  of  the  courtiers  that  he  might  avenge 
himself  for  the  slights  and  persecutions  which  he  had  suffered  during  the 
minority  of  his  cousin,  were  silenced  by  his  noble  remark  that  "it  ill 
became  a  king  of  France  to  remember  the  quarrels  of  a  duke  of  Orleans." 
If  his  foreign  policy  had  been  equally  mild  and  moderate,  the  nation 
might  have  had  still  greater  reason  to  rejoice.  But  the  fatal  bequests  of 
Joanna  of  Naples  and  Valentina  of  Milan  were  destined  still  to  be  the 
curse  of  the  French  people. 

35.  With  Louis  XII.  began  the  ascendency  of  the  Cardinal-statesmen, 
who,  with  little  intermission,  governed  France  150  years.  George  d'Am- 
boise.  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  had  long  been  a  faithful  friend,  and  was  now 
the  trusted  minister  of  the  king,  whose  designs  upon  Italy  he  warmly 
favored,  in  the  hope  of  succeeding  to  the  papacy  at  the  next  election. 
CsDsar  Borgia,  won  to  French  interests  by  the  gift  of  the  duchy  of  Valen- 
tinois,  promised  to  insure  this  result  by  creating  as  many  new  cardinals 
as  might  be  needed.  He  brought  also  to  the  king  a  dispensation  from  his 
marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Louis  XL,  and  permission  to  espouse  the 
Duchess  Anne,  widow  of  Charles  VIIL,  thus  reannexing  Bretagne  to  the 
French  monarchy. 

36.  The  king's  next  object  was  the  prosecution  of  his  hereditary  claim 
to  the  duchy  of  Milan.  All  things  being  ready,  an  army  of  23,000  men 
was  sent  across  the  Alps  under  three  experienced  generals.  Venice  was 
the  ally  of  Louis.  Tlie  success  of  the  expedition  was  as  sudden  as  that 
of  Charles  VIIL  against  Naples.  The  Milanese  were  disaffected  with 
their  duke,  who,  fearing  violence,  departed  to  the  Tyrol  to  ask  aid  in 
person  of  Maximilian.  In  his  absence,  the  city  of  Milan  set  the  example 
of  declaring  for  the  French,  and  all  Lombardy  was  annexed,  without  a 
battle,  to  the  dominions  of  Louis.     The  king  crossed  the  Alps  to  enter  his 


THE  FRENCH  IN  ITAL  Y.  145 

new  capital  in  triumph,  and  the  Lombards  were  charmed  with  fair 
promises  of  a  mild,  paternal  government.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he  re- 
turned to  France,  when  the  extortions  of  Trivulzio,  his  lieutenant,  and 
the  rudeness  of  his  soldiery,  exasperated  the  people  and  revived  the  party 
of  the  exiled  duke.  Sforza  now  approached  with  an  army  which  he  had 
raised  in  Switzerland,  and  the  French  retreated  to  Mortara. 

In  April,  1500,  the  two  armies  met  near  No  vara ;  but  the  infantry  on 
both  sides  was  Swiss — in  the  one  case  obtained  by  treaty  with  the  govern- 
ment, in  the  other  enlisted  man  by  man.  The  recruits  of  Sforza  had 
received  orders  from  their  Diet  not  to  fight  their  countrymen ;  and  imme- 
diately after  the  opening  of  the  battle,  they  retreated,  accordingly,  into 
the  town.  Here  they  began  a  secret  agreement  with  the  French,  promis- 
ing to  desert  the  duke  and  go  home,  on  condition  of  a  safe-conduct, 
which  was  readily  granted.  One  private  soldier  surpassed  the  perfidy 
of  his  comrades  by  betraying  Ludovico  himself  while  trying  to  pass  out 
in  their  ranks,  disguised  as  a  monk.  He  was  carried  into  France  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  a  dungeon.  In  spite  of  the  perfidious 
crimes  which  mark  him  for  condemnation,  Ludovico  Sforza  had  been  in 
many  respects  a  wise  and  beneficent  sovereign.  The  great  Lombard  plain 
owes,  to  this  day,  much  of  its  productiveness  to  the  canal  by  which  he 
completed  its  system  of  irrigation.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  the  greatest  artist 
of  the  time,  chose  Ludovico  for  his  patron  and  friend,  and,  as  painter, 
sculptor,  and  poet,  contributed  much  to  the  splendor  of  his  court. 

37.  A  counter-revolution  now  made  Louis  XII.  again  master  of  the 
Milanese,  and  opened  the  way  for  his  march  upon  Naples.  The  cousin 
and  natural  ally  of  King  Frederic  —  Ferdinand  of  Spain  —  had  secretly 
turned  against  him,  and  made  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  France,  to  di- 
vide the  Neapolitan  dominions  between  them.  Under  pretense  of  a  cru- 
sade against  the  Turks,  which  was  duly  proclaimed  by  Pope  Alexander, 
Ferdinand  had  a  fleet  and  army  ready  in  the  ports  of  Sicily  t^  irm 
before  the  arrival  of  the  French.  Several  towns  and  fort- 
resses which  had  been  committed  to  him  by  his  cousin  as  a  friend  and 
ally,  were  retained  for  his  own  possession.  When  the  disgraceful  plot 
became  known,  Frederic  abandoned  his  kingdom  rather  than  subject  his 
people  to  a  useless  war;  and  surrendering  himself  to  Stuart  d'Aubigny, 
was  conveyed  into  France.  The  military  fame  of  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  is 
covered  with  disgrace  by  his  obedience  to  a  faithless  king.  He  gained 
possession,  by  a  false  oath,  of  the  son  of  King  Frederic  and  heir  to  the 
kingdom,  who  was  sent  as  a  prisoner  into  Spain.  Thus  ended  the 
Neapolitan  branch  of  the  House  of  Aragon,  which  had  reigned  sixty-five 
years  in  the  Two  Sicilies. 

38.  The  fraudulent  conquerors  of  Naples  naturally  quarreled  in  the  di- 
vision of  their  spoils.     The  French  gradually  gained  the  whole  country, 

M.  H.  10. 


146  MODERN  HISTORY. 

excepting  Barletta  and  a  few  towns  on  the  south-western  coast.  A  new 
fraud  put  the  Spaniards  again  in  possession.  The  Archduke  Philip,  on 
his  return  from  Spain  to  the  Netherlands,  was  commissioned  to  make  a 
treaty  with  the  king  of  France  at  Lyons.  It  was  there  agreed  that  the 
two  sovereigns  should  bestow  their  newly  acquired  kingdom  upon  two 
children,  Charles  of  Austria  and  Claude  of  France,  who  were  to  be  mar- 
ried when  they  became  of  age.  In  the  meantime  Philip  was  to  be  regent 
for  his  infant  son,  and  to  govern  at  Naples,  jointly  with  a  commissioner 
from  the  king  of  France.  Louis,  relying  on  this  treaty,  ordered  his 
generals  in  Italy  to  suspend  hostilities ;  but  Ferdinand,  who  had  resolved 
not  to  be  bound  by  it,  sent  secret  commands  to  his  Great  Captain,  who 
by  a  sudden  and  rapid  movement  surprised  the  French  in  their  inaction. 
The  two  decisive  battles  of  Seminara  and  Cerignola  secured  the  king- 
dom to  the  Spaniards.  Most  of  the  towns,  including  Naples  itself,  opened 
their  gates  to  Gonsalvo,  and  within  three  months  the  last  Frenchman 
had  quitted  the  dominion. 

Opening  of  the  modern  era  marked  by  great  increase  of  diplomatic  relations  between 
the  several  states  of  Europe.  Predominance  of  Spain  ;  consolidation  and  increased  power 
of  England  and  France.  The  Empire  still  important  in  theory  thougli  reduced  in  effect- 
ive force,  and  possessed  almost  exclusively  by  the  Austrian  princes.  Culmination  of 
Turkish  power  under  Solyman.  Invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France ;  occupa- 
tion of  Florence  and  Rome ;  conquest  of  Naples.  League  formed  against  the  French ; 
Naples  recovered  by  the  House  of  Aragon.  Important  alliances  of  the  Spanish  royal 
family.  Martyrdom  of  Savonarola;  crimes  of  the  Borgias.  Accession  of  Louis  XII.  in 
France ;  his  conquest  of  the  Milanese ;  end  of  the  career  of  Ludovico  Sforza.  In  alliance 
with  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  the  French  again  conquer  Naples,  but  are  outwitted  by  him, 
and  finally  expelled  from  the  kingdom. 

Progress  of  European  States-System. 

39.  The  Borgias  had  availed  themselves  of  the  presence  of  the  French 
to  conquer,  by  force  or  fraud,  many  small  sovereignties  in  central  Italy, 
from  which  they  intended  to  organize  a  new  and  powerful  "  kingdom  of 
Romagna."  But  Alexander  VI.  was  doomed  to  perish  by  his  own  wicked 
devices.  Of  the  forty-three  cardinals  whom  he  appointed,  the  greater 
number  bought  their  dignity  with  enormous  sums  of  gold ;  but  after  they 
had  become  enriched  by  employments  in  the  Church,  very  many  were 
poisoned,  that  the  papal  coffers  might  again  be  filled  by  the  confiscation 
of  their  estates  and  the  sale  of  their  high  offices.  Such  a  fate  was  de- 
signed   for  the  Cardinal  of  Corneto,  who  was  invited  with 

A.    V) ,    ioUo. 

Caesar  Borgia  to  the  Belvedere,  a  favorite  retreat  of  the  Pope 
near  the  Vatican.  A  servant  had  been  instructed  to  serve  the  guest 
with  poisoned  wine ;  by  mistake  the  bottles  were  interchanged,  and  Alex- 


PROGRESS  OF  STATES-SYSTEM.  147 

ander  and  his  son,  as  well  as  their  unsuspecting  victim,  partook  of  the 
fatal  drugs.  The  vigorous  constitutions  of  the  younger  men  conquered 
the  violent  illness  which  ensued ;  but  the  Pope,  now  seventy-two  years 
of  age,  died  within  a  week. 

40.  The  Cardinal  d'Amboise  now  proved  the  worthlessness  of  that 
friendship  which  is  bought  with  worldly  favors.  A  French  army,  on  its 
march  to  Naples,  halted  near  Rome  to  influence  the  choice  of  a  new  pope ; 
but  perceiving  that  the  election  must  nevertheless  go  against  him,  Am- 
boise  gave  the  votes  of  his  party  to  the  Cardinal  of  Siena.  He  was  a 
good  old  man,  but  his  elevation  was  owing  chiefly  to  a  mortal  illness  with 
which  he  was  already  prostrated,  and  which  ended  his  life  in  less  than  a 
month.  He  had  used  the  few  days  allotted  to  him  in  planning  a  general 
council  for  the  purification  of  the  Church.  The  second  election  was 
yet  more  destructive  to  the  hopes  of  Amboise.  Cardinal  Julian  della 
Eovera,  an  active  and  powerful  man,  received  the  votes  of  the  conclave, 
and  became  Pope  Julius  II.  His  warlike  reign  was  absorbed  by  two 
objects:  the  expulsion  of  foreigners  from  Italy,  and  the  recovery  of  the 
alienated  estates  of  the  Church.  The  spiritual  dangers  which  more  and 
more  threatened  the  papal  supremacy  failed  to  attract  his  attention. 
Csesar  Borgia  was  soon  stripped  of  all  his  ill-gotten  possessions,  and  im- 
mured in  the  same  tower  in  Rome,  where  he  had  himself  confined  innu- 
merable prisoners.  When  released,  he  availed  himself  of  the  safe-conduct 
of  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  and  repaired  to  Naples,  only  to  be  betrayed  by 
that  general  into  the  hands  of  his  perfidious  sovereign  and  consigned  for 
three  years  to  a  Spanish  prison.  He  escaped,  and  fell  fighting  in  one  of 
the  civil  wars  of  Navarre.* 

41.  Filled  with  resentment  by  the  ill-faith  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon 
and  his  Great  Captain,  Louis  XII.  had  lost  no  time  in  fitting  out  three 
expeditions  —  one  against  Naples  and  two  against  Spain.  The  first  was 
delayed,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  selfish  schemes  of  Cardinal  d'Amboise, 
until  the  lateness  of  the  season  rendered  all  its  efforts  futile.  Heavy  rains 
had  converted  the  valley  of  the  Garigliano  into  a  noisome  swamp;  hundreds 
of  the  French  died  of  malaria,  while  the  army  of  Gonsalvo,  better  posted 
and  more  thoroughly  fed  and  equipped,  was  able  to  take  advantage  of 
their  misfortunes.      The  battle,  or  rather  the    rout,  of  the   Garigliano, 


*  Macaulay  has  given  in  a  few  vigorous  phrases  the  most  favorable  view  of  the  charac- 
ter and  career  of  Csesar  Borgia  —  "  who  emerged  from  the  sloth  and  luxury  of  the  Roman 
purple,  the  first  prince  and  general  of  the  age ;  who,  trained  in  an  unwarlike  profession, 
formed  a  gallant  army  out  of  the  dregs  of  an  unwarlike  people ;  who,  after  acquiring  sov- 
ereignty by  destroying  his  enemies,  acquired  popularity  by  destroying  his  tools;  who  had 
begun  to  employ  for  the  most  salutarj'  ends  the  power  which  he  had  attained  by  the  most 
atrocious  means ;  who  tolerated  within  the  sphere  of  his  iron  despotism  no  plunderer  or 
oppressor  but  himself;  and  who  fell  at  last  amid  the  mingled  curses  and  regrets  of  a 
people,  of  whom  his  genius  had  been  the  wonder,  and  might  have  been  the  salvation." 


148  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Dec.  29,  1503,  completed  the  conquest  of  Naples  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
two  French  expeditions  against  Spain  were  no  more  effective ;  and  a  peace 
between  the  two  nations  was  negotiated  by  Frederic,  the  deposed  and 
captive  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

42.  In  A.  D.  1504,  died  the  good  Queen  Isabella,  overwhelmed  with 
grief  for  the  loss  of  her  family,  and  especially  for  the  insanity  of  her 
daughter  Joanna,  the  wife  of  Philip  of  Austria.  King  Ferdinand,  in  the 
absence  of  his  daughter,  became  Kegent  of  Castile,  though  he  caused 
Philip  and  Joanna  to  be  proclaimed  as  sovereigns.  Encouraged  by  a 
party  among  the  nobles  opposed  to  Ferdinand,  Philip  wrote  a  discourte- 
ous letter  requiring  his  father-in-law  to  withdraw  into  his  own  kingdom 
of  Aragon.  Ferdinand  replied  by  inviting  Philip  to  Spain;  but  he 
sought  revenge  by  making  a  close  alliance  with  Louis  XII.  of  France, 
and  marrying  Germaine  de  Foix,  a  niece  of  that  monarch.  The  French 
claims  upon  the  kingdom  of  Naples  were  her  dowry. 

43.  Early  in  A.  D.  1506,  Philip  and  Joanna  set  sail  for  Spain;  but 
their  Dutch  and  Flemish  fleet  was  dispersed  by  a  storm,  and  they  them- 
selves driven  to  take  refuge  in  an  English  port.  Henry  VII.  availed  him- 
self of  their  misfortune  to  extort  from  Philip  a  commercial  treaty,  which 
favored  England  at  the  expense  of  the  Netherlands,  and  a  promise  of 
the  close  alliance  of  their  families  by  two  marriages,  which,  however, 
never  took  place.  After  several  months'  delay,  the  sovereigns  were  per- 
mitted to  depart  for  Spain,  where  they  received  the  allegiance  of  the 
Castilian  cortes.  Ferdinand  resigned  all  authority  in  Castile,  retaining 
only  the  West  Indian  revenues  and  the  grand-masterships  of  the  three 
military  orders,  which  were  secured  to  him  by  the  will  of  Isabella,  and 
set  sail  for  Italy  with  his  new  queen.  Before  his  arrival  at  Naples,  he 
received  tidings  of  the  sudden  death  of  Philip.  Ferdinand  was  willing, 
however,  to  have  his  absence  regretted  by  the  ungrateful  Spaniards,  who, 
in  fact,  were  thrown  into  great  confusion  and  alarm  by  the  unexpected 
event.  He  proceeded,  therefore,  to  regulate  at  his  leisure  the  affairs  of  his 
Neapolitan  kingdom,  and  only  returned  to  Spain  in  the  summer  of  1507. 

44.  The  unfortunate  Joanna,  whose  mental  malady  was  aggravated  by 
excessive  grief,  submitted  herself  wholly  to  her  father's  control,  and 
during  the  remaining  forty-seven  years  of  her  life,  never  consented  to 
take  any  active  part  in  public  affairs.  Her  son,  Charles,  remained  in  the 
Netherlands,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  grandfather,  the  emperor. 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Maximilian,  now  the  second  time  a  widow,  was 
appointed  regent  of  those  countries.  To  her  skill  in  diplomacy  was  due 
the  treaty  of  Cambray,  which  united  the  Emperor,  the  Pope,  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  the  king  of  France  against  the  Venetian  Eepublic.  It  was 
negotiated  by  Margaret  with  the  Cardinal  d'Amboise,  and  was  signed  in 
the  cathedral  of  Cambray,  Dec.  10,  1508. 


THE  LEAGUE  OF  CAMBRAY.  149 

45.  The  wealth  and  power  of  Venice  —  lately  confirmed  by  the  capture 
of  several  Greek  islands  from  the  Turks — excited  the  fear  and  jealousy 
of  her  neighbors.  Louis  XII.,  as  duke  of  Milan,  wished  to  reclaim  sev- 
eral Lombard  towns  which  had  been  secured  by  treaty  to  the  Venetians 
during  his  wars  with  Sforza.  The  Pope  insisted  upon  the  grants  of  Pepin 
and  Charlemagne,  securing  Rimini,  Faenza,  and  some  other  towns  to  the 
dominion  of  St.  Peter.  Ferdinand  coveted  Brindisi  and  other  maritime 
cities  which  had  been  pledged  to  the  Venetians  by  his  cousin  and  prede- 
cessor, King  Frederic,  as  security  for  their  expenses  in  his  cause. 
Padua,  Vicenza,  and  Verona  were  claimed  as  belonging  to  the  empire  by 
ancient  right;  Roveredo,  Treviso,  and  Friuli,  to  the  House  of  Austria. 
The  Duke  of  Savoy,  as  lineal  descendant  of  Guy  of  Lusignan,  claimed 
the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  which  had  been  bequeathed  to  the  Venetians  by 
Catherine  Cornaro,  widow  of  its  last  reigning  sovereign,  and  the  king  of 
Hungary  desired  to  reannex  the  lands  conquered  by  the  Republic  in 
Dalmatia  and  Slavonia. 

46.  Florence  was  drawn  into  the  league  by  an  act  of  the  basest  perfidy 
on  the  part  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain  and  Louis  of  France.  Ever  since  the 
Italian  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.,  Pisa,  previously  the  unwilling  sub- 
ject of  Florence,  had  been  bravely  struggling  for  independence.  Maxi- 
milian, as  emperor,  and  therefore  nominal  sovereign  of  Italy,  had  been 
implored  to  undertake  her  cause,  but  his  movements  were  so  long  delayed 
that  "succor  for  Pisa"  had  become  a  proverb  and  by-word  in  Germany. 
The  French  and  Spanish  monarchs  now  agreed  to  place  a  garrison  in 
Pisa,  which  would  readily  be  received  as  friendly,  but  which  should  be 
instructed  to  open  the  gates  at  an  appointed  time  to  the  Florentines. 
For  this  act  of  royal  treachery,  the  king  of  France  was  to  receive  100,000 
ducats,  and  the  king  of  Spain  50,000.  The  half-starved  city  was  entered, 
June  8,  1509,  by  the  soldiers  of  Florence,  who,  by  a  liberal  distribution 
of  food,  showed  greater  generosity  than  their  allies. 

47.  The  League  of  Cambray  is  important  as  having  been  the  first  great 
coalition  of  leading  European  powers  since  the  Crusades.  It  is  said  tc 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  public  law,  by  raising  the  question  whether 
ancient  and  hereditary  right,  the  faith  of  treaties,  or  general  considera- 
tions of  the  common  good  shall  have  precedence  in  controlling  national 
affairs.  The  text  of  the  treaty  is  deeply  tinged  with  the  hypocrisy  of  the 
time,  for  it  declares  the  main  object  of  the  alliance  to  be  a  war  against 
the  Turks  —  as  preliminary  to  which,  it  was  necessary  to  put  an  end  to 
the  rapine,  losses,  and  injuries  caused  by  the  insatiable  cupidity  and  thirst 
for  domination  which  characterized  the  Venetian  Republic.  Venice  was, 
in  fact,  the  strongest  barrier  of  Europe  against  the  Turks,  and  best  able 
by  her  maritime  power  to  oppose  them  in  the  seat  of  their  dominion. 

48.  Pope  Julius  II.  opened  hostilities  by  a  decree  of  excommunication 


150  MODERN  HISTORY. 

against  the  Venetians,  expressed  in  the  bitterest  terms  of  reproach. 
Louis  XII.  was  the  first  in  the  field,  and  by  a  victory  at  Agnadello,  gained 
all,  and  more  than  all  that  had  been  assigned  to  him  in  the  treaty  of 
Cambray;  for  he  was  able  to  send  to  Maximilian  the  keys  of  Verona, 
Vicenza,  and  Padua.  The  Venetians,  reduced  to  desperation  by  the 
number  and  strength  of  their  enemies,  adopted  the  masterly  plan  of 
setting  free  all  their  Italian  dependencies,  throwing  thus  upon  the  subject 
cities  the  burden  of  their  own  defense,  and  narrowing  the  frontiers  of  the 
Eepublic  to  the  islands  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  which  had  been  its 
earliest  territories.  They  also  surrendered  to  Ferdinand  the  Apulian 
towns  which  he  demanded,  and  made  dutiful  professions  of  obedience  to 
the  emperor  and  the  Pope.  The  barbarities  committed  by  both  French 
and  Germans  had,  however,  the  efiect  of  arousing  the  peasantry  of  all 
north-eastern  Italy  to  take  part  with  Venice.  Padua  was  retaken  and 
garrisoned  by  a  Venetian  force.  It  was  presently  besieged  by  Maximilian 
with  an  army  of  40,000  men,  but  the  defense  was  obstinate  and  at  length 
successful;  the  emperor  withdrew  and  disbanded  his  forces,  and  the 
Venetians  again  became  masters  of  many  cities. 

49.  The  Pope  had  now  gained  all  that  he  desired  for  the  territories 
of  the  Church,  and  his  mind  reverted  to  the  other  great  object  of  his 

ambition,  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Italy.  He  re- 
lieved Venice  from  the  interdict,  and  he  made  an  alliance 
with  the  Swiss,  who  having  quarreled  with  the  king  of  France,  agreed 
to  furnish  6,000  or  more  of  their  best  halberdiers  to  the  service  of  the 
Church.  The  king  of  Aragon  was  propitiated  by  the  feudal  investiture 
of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the  tribute  formerly  demanded  from  that 
realm  was  commuted  into  a  yearly  offering  of  a  white  horse,  and  an  aid 
of  three  hundred  lances  in  case  of  actual  invasion  of  the  States  of  the 
Church.  The  Duke  of  Ferrara  had  incurred  the  wrath  of  the  Pope  by 
yielding  in  every  thing  to  the  counsels  of  the  king  of  France.  The  first 
signal  of  the  change  in  the  papal  policy  was  the  sudden  dismissal  from 
the  Koman  court  of  the  embassadors  of  the  king  and  the  duke. 

50.  The  allied  French  and  German  armies  were  still  carrying  on  war 
in  northern  Italy  with  more  brutality  than  success.  Vicenza,  which, 
after  the  imperial  failure  at  Padua,  had  speedily  returned  into  alliance 
with  Venice,  was  now  exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  the  Germans.  All 
its  people  who  could,  removed  their  families  and  property  to  Padua ;  but 
the  remainder,  with  the  neighboring  peasantry,  took  refuge  in  a  vast 
cavern  in  the  mountains  not  far  from  the  city.  The  French  soldiery 
filled  the  entrance  of  the  cave  with  light  wood,  which  they  kindled  into 
a  flame,  and  thus  smothered  all  who  were  within,  to  the  number  of  six 
thousand.  Porto  Legnano  and  Monselice,  two  fortified  places  of  immense 
strength,  had  just  yielded  to  the  allied  armies,  when  the  Pope's  declara- 


THE  HOLY  LEAGUE.  151 

tion  of  war  against  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  a  simultaneous  attack  of 
his  Roman  and  Swiss  forces  upon  Genoa  and  Milan,  turned  the  scale 
against  the  imperialists.  The  Venetians,  promptly  availing  themselves 
of  the  change,  recovered  Vicenza  and  many  other  places.  The  papal 
officers  failed,  however,  to  excite  in  Genoa  a  revolt  against  the  French; 
and  the  Swiss  who  had  descended  upon  the  Lombard  plain,  finding  them- 
selves entrapped  among  the  numerous  rivers  and  harassed  by  the  move- 
ments of  their  enemy,  hastily  retreated  into  their  own  country  without 
approaching  Milan. 

51.  Louis  XII.  was  now  deprived  by  death  of  the  invaluable  services 
of  Amboise;  but  the  French  clergy,  assembled  at  Lyons,  peremptorily 
called  upon  the  Pope  to  lay  down  weapons  so  unsuited  to  his  spiritual 
dignity,  and  submit  his  complaints  to  a  general  council.  A  new  treaty 
was  signed  at  Blois  between  the  emperor  and  the  French  king,  which 
provided  for  the  sending  of  French  forces  into  the  field.  Only  enraged 
by  these  movements,  Julius  II.  pushed  his  warlike  preparations  with 
increased  vigor.  He  wa'i  nearly  taken  captive  by  the  French  at  Bologna, 
while  confined  to  his  bed  by  dangerous  illness ;  but  he  managed  to  amuse 
their  general  by  negotiations  until  a  Venetian  army,  including  a  body  of 
Turkish  horsemen,  came  up.  Untamed  by  his  infirmities,  the  fiery  old 
pontiff*  proceeded  to  besiege  in  person  the  fortresses  of  Concordia  and 
Mirandola  amid  the  snows  of  a  most  severe  winter.  Encased  in  armor, 
his  white  hairs  covered  by  a  helmet  of  steel,  he  appeared  on  horseback 
among  his  men,  sharing  all  their  hardships  and  perils,  and  encouraging 
them  with  the  promise  of  rich  plunder.  When  at  length  the  place  sur- 
rendered, he  entered  by  a  ladder  at  a  breach  effected  by  his  guns,  being 
too  impatient  to  await  the  opening  of  the  gates. 

52.  In  a  congress  convened  by  Maximilian  at  Bologna,  the  Pope  vainly 
tried  to  detach  the  emperor  from  the  alliance  of  France ;  and  peace  was 
rendered  impossible  by  the  haughty  bearing  of  the  imperial  secretary. 
The  Pope,  seized  with  panic,  quitted  Bologna,  and  his  army,  pursued  by 

,  the  French,  lost  its  great  standard,  twenty-six  cannon,  and  an  immense 
quantity  of  baggage.  The  Bolognese  received  back  the  Bentivoglios,  their 
former  masters,  and  destroyed  the  bronze  statue  of  Julius  IL,  which  was 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  works  of  Michael  Angelo. 

53.  A  new  alliance,  called  the  Holy  League,  was  formed  against  the 
French  by  the  Pope,  the  king  of  Spain,  and  the  Venetians.  ^^^  ^.^^ 
Henry  VIII.  of    England    and   the    Emperor  were   secret 

parties  to  the  transaction ;  but  they  delayed  the  open  avowal  of  their 
designs  until  the  interests  of  each  could  be  best  secured.  Henry  was 
promised  a  reconquest  of  Guiennie,  and  the  title  "  Most  Christian  King," 
of  which  Louis  XII.  was  to  be  deprived.  The  romantic  mind  of 
Maximilian  was  filled  just  now  with  an   uncommonly  visionary  scheme. 


152  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  illness  of  the  Pope  had  inspired  the  Emperor  with  the  idea  of  taking 
holy  orders  and  becoming  himself  a  successor  of  St.  Peter.  While  waiting 
thus  to  unite  the  two  supreme  dignities  of  the  West,  he  assumed  in 
advance  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  which  the  popes  had  inherited 
from  the  Caesars. 

54.  By  a  singular  contrast  of  characters  and  conduct,  the  spiritual  head 
of  Christendom  combined  the  genius  of  a  general  with  the  ambition  of  a 
temporal  sovereign;  the  king  of  France  was  holding  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils, and  the  Emperor  began  to  sigh  in  his  old  age  for  the  dignity 
of  a  pope  and  the  life  of  a  saint.  Louis  XII.,  the  object  of  Julius'  bit- 
terest enmity,  was  the  only  prince  who  scrupled  to  fight  against  him,  and 
voluntarily  resigned  advantages  he  had  gained,  rather  than  do  injury  to 
the  reputed  vicar  of  Christ ;  while  Henry  VIII.,  the  future  destroyer  of 
papal  supremacy  in  his  own  realm,  was  at  present  willingly  bought  with 
a  few  skillful  flatteries  by  the  head  of  the  Church. 

55.  The  French  armies  in  Italy  were  commanded  by  Gaston  de  Foix, 
nephew  of  Louis  XII.  and  brother-in-law  of  the  king  of  Spain  —  a  young 
nobleman  of  extraordinary  genius,  whose  brief  and  brilliant  career  filled 
Europe  with  amazement,  and  gained  for  him  the  name  of  the  "  Thunder- 
bolt of  Italy."  By  a  swift  and  resolute  movement  he  threw  his  army 
into  Bologna,  then  besieged  by  the  allies.  The  forces  of  the  League 
immediately  decamped;  and  Gaston,  leaving  Bologna  strongly  guarded, 
marched  with  still  greater  rapidity  into  Lombardy,  where  he  learned  that 
two  cities  had  expelled  or  imprisoned  their  French  garrisons.  He  de- 
feated the  Venetians  near  Isola  della  Scala  in  a  battle  before  day-break, 
with  no  light  but  that  of  the  stars  reflected  from  the  snow.  Brescia  was 
taken  by  storm  and  given  up  to  plunder  and  massacre.  Bergamo  escaped 
this  terrible  fate  only  by  timely  submission  and  the  payment  of  a  ransom. 

56.  Perceiving  the  strength  of  the  combination  against  him,  the  king 
of  France  now  ordered  his  kinsman  to  fight  one  decisive  battle,  which 
being  gained,  he  was  to  march  upon  Rome,  depose  the  Pope  and  dictate 
the  terms  of  a  peace.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  the  viceroy  moved  toward 
April  11, 1512.  I^^venna,  the  allied  army  retiring  before  him.  The  engage- 
ment which  followed  has  been  described  as  "one  of  those 

tremendous  days  into  which  human  folly  and  wickedness  compress  the 
whole  devastation  of  a  famine  or  a  plague."  The  French  commander, 
who  claimed  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  and  regarded  the  king  of  Spain  as 
his  personal  foe  and  rival,  left  his  right  arm  bare,  that  he  might  bathe 
it  in  Spanish  blood.  The  artillery  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  from  one  end 
of  the  crescent-shaped  line  of  the  French,  kept  up  a  destructive  cross-fire, 
which  mowed  down  whole  ranks  of  the  Spanish  and  papal  troops.  In 
the  cavalry-charge  which  followed,  the  French  were  victorious;  but  the 
serried  ranks  of  the  Swiss,  bristling  with  the  points  of  their  long  lances, 


DISSOL  UTION  OF  HOL  Y  LEA  G  UE.  153 

like  a  Macedonian  phalanx,  had  a  more  difficult  conflict  to  sustain  with 
the  short  swords  and  Roman  drill  of  the  Spanish  infantry.  They  were 
only  rescued  from  destruction  by  the  French  horsemen,  led  by  the  gallant 
young  viceroy  himself,  who  dearly  purchased  a  victory  by  the  sacrifice 
of  his  life.  On  hearing  the  fatal  news,  Louis  XII.  exclaimed,  "  Would 
to  God  that  I  had  lost  all  Italy,  and  that  Gaston  were  safe !" 

57.  In  the  first  panic  of  the  allies,  all  Romagna  surrendered  to  the 
French.  Rome  trembled,  and  even  the  iron-hearted  Pope  was  ready  to 
accept  Louis'  terms  of  peace.  A  few  weeks  changed  the  aspect  of  afiairs. 
The  French  soldiery  were  dispirited  by  the  loss  of  their  general;  the 
German  lancers  were  withdrawn,  and  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  negotiated 
a  separate  peace  with  the  Pope.  The  Council  which  met  at  Rome  three 
weeks  after  the  battle  of  Ravenna  opposed  the  terms  offered  by  France. 
The  Pope,  the  Emperor,  and  the  Swiss  combined  to  place  Maximilian 
Sforza,  son  of  Ludovico,  upon  the  ducal  throne  of  Milan.  The  French 
general,  La  Palisse,  retired  before  them,  first  to  Pavia,  and  thence,  after 
a  bloody  battle,  into  his  own  country.  Scarcely  more  than  three  towns 
and  three  fortresses  in  Italy  remained  to  Louis  XII.  at  the  end  of 
June,  1512. 

58.  The  Holy  League,  however,  when  relieved  from  external  pressure, 
soon  fell  apart  by  its  own  dissensions.  The  Pope,  bent  upon  enlarging 
the  States  of  the  Church  to  their  greatest  former  limits,  seized  the  cities 
of  Parma  and  Piacenza  from  the  new  duke  of  Milan,  and  sent  his  nephew 
to  occupy  the  duchy  of  Ferrara,  while  he  detained  the  now  pardoned  and 
reconciled  Alfonso  as  a  prisoner  at  Rome.  Maximilian  sent  his  army  to 
prey  upon  the  territories  of  his  new  allies,  the  Venetians ;  while  the  Swiss 
reserved  for  themselves  the  three  districts  of  the  Valtelline,  Locarno,  and 
Chiavenna,  and  levied  forced  contributions  upon  the  subjects  of  Maximil- 
ian Sforza,  whom  they  had  deposed.  The  late  allies  agpeed  only  upon 
one  point  —  the  necessity  of  punishing  Florence  for  her  neutrality  during 
their  wars ;  and  this  was  done  by  conferring  power  in  the  Republic  upon 
that  party  which   could  pay  the  highest  price. 

The  Cardinal  John  de  Medici  had  been  a  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Ra- 
venna; but  he  escaped  in  the  confusion  attending  the  retreat  of  the 
French  from  Milan.  He  was  now  sent  with  a  Spanish  army  to  revolution- 
ize Florence,  and  restore  the  dominion  of  his  family.  The  suburban 
village  of  Prato  was  taken  and  subjected  to  a  brutal  massacre  and  pillage. 
The  Florentine  government,  in  consternation,  deposed  its  chief  magistrate, 
and  accepted  all  the  terms  of  the  allies,  including  a  large  payment  in 
money  to  the  emperor  and  the  Spaniards,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
Medici,  though  not  as  princes,  but  as  citizens.  Julian  de  Medici,  youngest 
son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  entered  the  city,  followed  shortly  by 
his  brother,  the    Cardinal,  who,  in   a   packed    assembly  of  the    citizens, 


154  MODERN  HISTORY. 

obtained  a  complete  reversal  of  the  Eepublic  and   the  establishment  of 
a  narrow  oligarchy  with  Julian  at  its  head. 

59.  The  next  year,  upon  the  death  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  John  de'  Medici 

received    the    papal    crown    with    the    name    of    Leo    X. 

A.  D.  lol3. 

Though  he  had  been  raised  at  the  age  of  thirteen  to  the 
highest  dignity  but  one  which  the  Church  could  bestow,  Leo  had  derived 
from  his  father  and  the  brilliant  freethinkers  of  the  New  Academy 
(see  Book  IL,  §  150)  fully  as  much  respect  for  pagan  mythology  as  for  the 
Christian  faith.  Though  his  spiritual  qualifications  for  the  pastorate  of 
western  Christendom  were  thus  singularly  deficient,  his  mind  had  been 
improved  by  travel  and  the  conversation  of  the  greatest  and  wisest  men 
of  his  day ;  his  taste  in  art  was  perfect ;  his  court  was  distinguished  at 
once  by  the  highest  elegance  and  the  most  profuse  magnificence ;  and  to 
all  his  accomplishments  he  added  wonderfully  winning  and  amiable  man- 
ners. He  differed  from  his  stern  and  warlike  predecessor  no  less  in 
character  than  in  principles  of  government.  He  dissolved  the  Holy 
League  and  made  peace  with  France ;  and  if  he  pursued  Julius'  favorite 
policy  of  expelling  foreigners  from  Italy,  it  was  only  that  he  might  unite 
the  peninsula  under  the  sway  of  his  own  house.  Julian  de'  Medici,  whose 
weak  and  pliant  character  ill  fitted  him  for  the  control  of  a  freedom- 
loving  people,  abdicated  his  government  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Lorenzo 
IL,  and  accepted  from  his  brother  the  post  of  Captain-General  of  the 
Church.     Unhappy  Florence  became  the  slave  of  a  despotic  master. 

Poisoning  of  Alexander  VI.;  successive  elections  of  Pius  III.  and  Julius  II.  Fall  of 
Csesar  Borgia.  Defeat  of  the  French  in  southern  Italy.  Death  of  Isabella  of  Spain  and  the 
Archduke  Philip ;  regency  of  Ferdinand  in  Castile.  League  of  Cambray  against  Venice  an 
important  landmark  in  European  diplomacy.  Success  of  the  allies  and  humiliation  of 
Venice.  The  Pope  changes  sides  and  forms  a  new  league  against  the  French.  Gaston  do 
Foix  gains  the  battle  of  Ravenna;  but  the  loss  of  his  life  ruins  French  interests  in  Italy. 
Restoration  of  the  Medici  in  Florence;  Cardinal  de'lNIedici  becomes  Pope  Leo  X. 

Henry  VIII.  —  Francis  I.  —  Charles  V. 

60.  Meanwhile  the  English  army  which  was  to  have  been  conveyed  in 
Spanish  vessels  to  the  coast  of  Guienne  had  been  landed  by  order  of 
Ferdinand  in  his  own  dominions,  where  he  strove  to  enlist  the  Marquis 
of  Dorset,  its  commander,  in  his  own  schemes  against  Navarre.  Though 
the  English  refused  actual  hostilities,  their  presence  as  allies  of  Spain  so 
overawed  the  Navarrese,  that  the  Duke  of  Alva  was  able  to  conquer  the 
entire  country.  Navarre  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Castile,  while 
its  native  sovereigns,  though  still  retaining  their  royal  titles,  were  reduced 
to  their  little  principality  of  Beam,  north  of  the  Pyrenees. 

61.  In  April,  1513,  Margaret,  regent  of  the  Netherlands,  concluded  a 
new  treaty  at  Mechlin,  between  the  Emperor  her  father,  Ferdinand  of 


ACCESSION  OF  FRANCIS  I.  155 

Spain,  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  the  Pope,  by  which  the  contracting 
parties  bound  themselves  to  invade  France  from  four  separate  quarters, 
while  still  pursuing  their  combined  hostilities  in  Italy  against  Louis.  The 
French  king  hastened  his  preparations,  and  in  the  month  of  May,  his 
generals,  by  a  series  of  brilliant  and  fortunate  actions,  subdued  all  Lom- 
bardy  except  two  towns.  The  Italians,  now  equally  disgusted  with  the 
inefficiency  of  Sforza  and  the  brutality  of  the  Swiss,  welcomed  the  French 
on  every  side.  But  the  reaction  was  as  sudden  and  rapid  as  the  advance. 
Fresh  arrivals  of  Swiss  compelled  the  French  to  raise  the  siege  of  No  vara,  ^ 
and  within  a  few  days  they  were  defeated  and  driven  beyond  the  Alps. 

62.  Henry  VIII.  arrived  with  his  army  at  Calais,  and  was  joined  by  the 
Emperor  in  the  siege  of  Terouenne.  The  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs,"  in  which 
the  French  cavalry  were  not  so  much  defeated  as  put  to  flight,  decided 
the  fate  of  the  city.      It  surrendered  and  was  destroyed, 

to  the  great  consternation  of  the  Parisians.  Not  far  from 
the  same  time,  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  the  generous  ally  of  Louis  XII., 
who  had  vainly  tried  by  an  invasion  of  England  to  prevent  the  move- 
ments of  Henry  VIII.  against  France,  perished  in  the  disastrous  battle 
of  Flodden  Field.  The  invasion  of  Burgundy  by  Swiss  and  German 
troops  in  the  pay  of  the  Emperor,  was  defeated  by  bribery.  It  was  the 
most  disgraceful  period  in  the  history  of  the  Swiss  republics,  wlien  their 
brave  mountaineers,  not  content  with  once  exchanging  their  blood  for 
gold,  sold  themselves  successively  to  the  highest  bidders. 

63.  The  eventful  year  1513  was  destined  to  see  still  greater  changes. 
Before  its  close,  Louis  was  reconciled  with  the  Pope  and  sought  the 
friendship  of  the  Emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain,  with  a  view  to  fur- 
thering his  designs  upon  Milan.  His  consort,  Anne  of  Brittany,  dying 
in  January,  1514,  he  allied  himself  with  Maximilian  by  engaging  to 
marry  the  Emperor's  granddaughter,  Eleanora  of  Austria,  while  his  own 
daughter,  Renee,  was  affianced  to  the  Archduke  Charles,  heir  of  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands.  But  this  projected  union  of  families  alarmed  the 
Pope,  by  its  threatened  consolidation  of  Austria,  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Low  Countries  into  one  enormous  state,  which  would  inevitably  have 
destroyed  the  newly  cherished  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  With  the 
aid  of  two  English  prelates,  he  substituted  for  it  another  marriage-treaty, 
by  which  Louis  espoused  Mary,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  This  wedding  took 
place  at  Abbeville,  in  October,  1514 ;  but  the  consequent  festivities  were 
fatal  to  the  already  failing  health  of  the  king  of  France.  He  died  on 
the  first  day  of  1515.  His  eldest  daughter,  the  Princess  Claude,  was 
already  married  to  Francis,  Duke  of  Angouleme,  and  representative  of 
the  younger  branch  of  the  House  of  Orleans  —  who,  as  Louis  left  no  son, 
became  at  once  the  sovereign  of  the  realm.  The  duchy  of  Bretagne  re- 
mained henceforth  a  part  of  France. 


156  MODERN  HISTORY. 

64.  The  new  king  was  twenty-one  years  of  age,  gay,  brilliant,  and 
equally  fond  of  pleasure  and  of  military  glory.  The  cares  of  government 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  mother,  Louisa  of  Savoy,  whom  he  made  Duch- 
ess of  Angouleme  and  Anjou.  The  queen-mother  surrounded  herself  with 
ladies  of  the  noblest  families,  and  it  was  under  her  auspices  that  the 
French  court  first  became  noted  for  elegance  and  extravagant  gayety. 
The  penetrating  wit  of  French  women,  vailing  profound  art  with  consum- 
mate grace,  has  ever  since  made  its  influence  felt,  for  good  or  ill,  in  the 
affairs  of  France.  The  Chancellor  Duprat  and  the  Constable  de  Bourbon — 
elevated  to  their  respective  dignities  by  the  favor  of  the  queen-mother — 
played  important  parts  in  the  history  of  the  reign.  Pedro  Navarro,  a 
noted  military  engineer,  long  in  the  service  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain, 
having  been  wronged  by  that  sovereign,  entered  the  armies  of  France; 
and  from  the  recruits  which  he  raised  among  the  mountaineers  of  the 
Cevennes  and  Pyrenees,  presented  Francis  with  the  invaluable  aid  of  regi- 
ments formed  upon  the  model  of  the  Spanish  infantry.  The  French  king 
lost  no  time  in  assuming  the  title  of  Duke  of  Milan,  and  preparing  to 
prosecute  the  claims  of  his  house  in  northern  Italy. 

65.  The  history  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  largely 
occupied  by  three  sovereigns,  then  all  recently  entered  on  the  stage  of. 
active  life.  Henry  VIII.,  the  second  of  the  Tudor  kings  of  England,  was 
the  first  who,  in  more  than  a  hundred  years,  had  ascended  the  throne 
of  that  country  with  an  undisputed  title.  The  three  Lancastrian  kings, 
Henry  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.  (A.  D.  1399-1461)  had  owed  their  crowns,  first 
to  a  successful  usurpation,  then  to  the  support  of  the  Church  and  the 
popularity  of  the  wars  with  France.  The  House  of  York  (A.  D.  1461- 
1485)  had  nearly  been  ruined  by  the  reckless  caprices  of  Edward  IV.  and 
the  haughty  assumptions  of  his  brother,  Richard  III.  Henry  VII.  (A.  D. 
1485-1509),  who  represented  the  Lancastrian  line,  had  to  resist  two  for- 
midable rebellions,  led  by  pretenders  to  the  dignities  and  claims  of  the 
House  of  York;  while  his  unbounded  avarice  exhausted  at  once  the 
purses  and  the  patience  of  his  people.  The  ample  treasures  which  he 
left,  contributed  largely,  however,  to  the  popularity  of  his  son,  who, 
while  punishing  the  agents  of  his  father's  exactions,  made  no  scruple  of 
using  the  funds  in  furtherance  of  his  own  schemes.  Inheriting  from  his 
mother  the  claims  of  the  House  of  York,  Henry  began  his  reign  with 
proofs  of  justice,  intelligence,  and  liberality,  which  secured  to  him  the 
unlimited  affection  of  his  people.  His  later  history  is  clouded,  as  we 
shall  see,  with  caprice,  and  stained  with  odious  tyranny. 

66.  Charles,  son  of  Philip  of  Austria  and  Joanna  of  Spain,  replaced 
his  aunt,  Margaret,  in  the  government  of  the  Netherlands,  during  the 
same  year  that  Francis  I.  received  the  crown  of  France.  The  next  year 
the  death  of  his  grandfather,  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  gave  him  the  govern- 


ACCESSION  OF  CHARLES  V.  157 

ment  of  that  country ;  for  his  mother  continued  to  her  death  in  a  state 
of  mental  incapacity,  though  her  name,  as  rightful  queen,  was  always 
associated  with  that  of  Charles.  Three  years  later,  upon  the  death  of 
his  paternal  grandfather,  Maximilian,  Charles  received  the  votes  of  the 
German  electors,  and  added  to  all  his  other  dignities  the  imperial  crown. 
Nearly  at  the  same  time  the  victories  of  Cortez  added  the  empire  of  the 
Montezumas  to  his  dominions,  and  —  what  was  of  greater  consequence  to 
his  European  schemes  —  ships  laden  with  Mexican  gold  and  silver  began 
to  arrive  in  his  ports.     See  pp.  136,  137. 

67.  Francis  I.,  the  third  in  this  trio  of  youthful  monarchs,  was  in 
many  things  the  bitter  rival  of  Charles,  but  especially  in  his  aspirations 
to  the  imperial  dignity.  Beside  this,  Charles  demanded  the  restitution 
of  Burgundy,  which  had  been  confiscated  from  his  grandmother,  the 
Duchess  Mary,  by  Louis  XI.;  he  inherited  the  Suabian  and  Aragonese  right 
to  Naples,  while  Francis  represented  the  House  of  Anjou;  as  emperor 
he  became  sovereign  of  the  imperial  fiefs  in  Italy,  including  the  duchy 
of  Milan,  which  Francis  claimed  as  head  of  the  House  of  Orleans.  All 
these  rival  claims  afforded  so  many  pretexts  for  indulging  the  ambition 
and  jealousy  of  the  two  princes. 

68.  They  commenced  their  reigns,  however,  in  close  alliance,  for  Charles 
was  at  this  moment  on  unfriendly  terms  with  his  two  grandfathers,  who 
were  actively  opposing  Francis'  operations  in  Italy.  A  Swiss  army  guarded 
the  only  western  Alpine  passes  then  deemed  practicable  —  those  of  Mont 
Cenis  and  Mont  Genevre — or  was  stationed  in  the  Italian  plain  to  close 
the  exits  from  the  valleys.  In  this  difficulty  the  French  forces,  consist- 
ing of  64,000  men,  with  72  great  and  300  smaller  cannon,  performed  one 
of  the  most  extraordinary  transits  recorded  in  history.  Guided  by 
chamois-hunters  or  Alpine  shepherds,  the  two  generals,  Trivulzio  and 
Lautrec,  with  the  engineer,  Navarro,  pioneered  a  more  southerly  route 
over  the  Col  d'Argentiere.  This  path,  scarcely  passable  by  the  sure  foot 
and  practiced  eye  of  the  mountaineer,  was  prepared  by  the  skill  and 
genius  of  Navarro  for  the  transportation  of  heavy  artillery.  Bridges  were 
thrown  from  one  dizzy  height  to  another ;  masses  of  rock  were  removed 
by  charges  of  gunpowder ;  cannon  were  swung  from  peak  to  peak  by 
means  of  ropes.  Before  the  enemy  were  aware  that  the  ascent  had  begun, 
the  French  army  stood  triumphant  on  the  Lombard  plain. 

69.  A  small  division  of  cavalry,  crossing  by  another  route  never  before 
trodden  by  horses,  had  meanwhile  surprised  Prosper  Colonna,  the  Pope's 
general,  at  Villafranca,  with  700  of  his  men.  The  main  army  proceeded 
by  way  of  Turin,  the  Swiss  retiring  before  them  to  Milan  and  No  vara, 
while  a  detachment,  turning  southward,  recovered  Genoa  and  the  whole 
region  south  of  the  Po  by  a  bloodless  victory.  At  Marignano,  about  ten 
miles  from   Milan,  was  fought  a  decisive   battle,  which  transferred  the 


158  MODERN  HISTORY. 

duchy  from  Sforza  to  Francis  I.  The  Swiss,  newly  reinforced  by  20,000  of 
their  countrymen,  burst  unexpectedly  upon  the  French  quarters,  late  in 
the  afternoon  of  September  14.  The  furious  onset  and  no  less  fierce  resist- 
ance rendered  the  issue  doubtful ;  and  only  midnight  and  the  going  down 
of  the  moon  interrupted  the  combat  for  that  night.  The  exhausted  com- 
batants threw  themselves  on  the  ground  in  a  mingled  throng  of  friends 
and  foes.  The  French  king  slept  on  a  gun-carriage,  and  at  day-break  ral- 
lied his  men  with  sound  of  trumpet.  The  victory  was  again  doubtful, 
until  a  small  body  of  Venetians  appearing  upon  the  scene,  the  Swiss 
drew  off  in  perfect  order.  Francis  received  the  order  of  knighthood  on 
the  battle-field,  from  the  hand  of  Chevalier  Bayard  — "  the  good  knight 
without  fear  and  without  reproach." 

70.  Sforza  retired  into  France  on  a  pension.  With  the  aid  of  his 
natural  allies,  the  Florentines  and  Venetians,  Francis  might  easily  have 
conquered  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  But  his  false  and  shallow  notions  of 
honor  led  him  to  consider  manufacturers  and  merchants  as  unfit  confed- 
erates for  a  great  prince.  He  therefore  made  a  close  alliance  with  the 
Medici,  the  oppressors  of  Florence ;  sacrificing  most  of  the  advantages  of 
his  victory,  and  consenting,  at  the  Pope's  persuasion,  to  defer  his  attack 
on  Naples  until  the  death  of  Ferdinand.  At  Geneva  he  made  a  treaty 
of  peace  and  alliance  with  the  Swiss,  by  which  he  gained  the  important 
right  to  levy  troops  in  their  country.  Then  disbanding  most  of  his  army, 
and  appointing  the  Constable  de  Bourbon  his  lieutenant  in  the  Milanese, 
he  retired  into  France. 

71.  Before  his  departure,  Leo  X.  was  already  conspiring  with  the 
emperor  and  the  kings  of  Spain  and  England,  to  invest  Francisco 
Sforza  with  the  duchy  of  Milan ;  though  his  recognition  of  Francis  in 
that  dignity  had  been  almost  the  only  article  in  the  treaty  of  Bologna 
which  favored  the  French  king.  The  league  which  had  been  promoted 
by  Ferdinand  of  Spain  was,  however,  disconcerted  by  his  sudden  death  in 
January,  1516.  The  different  estimates  of  this  sovereign  by  his  friends^ 
and  enemies  are  well  expressed  in  his  titles.  "  Spain  called  him  the' 
Wise ;  Italy,  the  Pious ;  France  and  England,  the  Perfidious."  When  we 
remember  his  ingratitude  toward  Columbus  and  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  or  i 
the  base  deception  by  which  he  deprived  his  cousin  Frederic  of  the  crown 
of  Naples,  we  can  not  but  think  the  latter  epithet  the  best-deserved.  He 
was,  however,  the  most  successful  prince  of  his  age,  and  even  his  avarice 
and  cunning  laid  the  foundation  for  the  brief  ascendency  of  Spain,  while 
his  narrow,  persecuting  policy  introduced  the  elements  of  its  sudden  and 
fatal  decline. 

72.  In  March,  1516,  the  emperor  fulfilled  his  part  in  the  treaty  by 
invading  Lombardy  with  a  large  body  of  Swiss,  German,  and  Spanish 
troops.     The  French  general,  Lautrec,  was  forced  to  retire  into  Milan, 


END   OF  LEAGUE  OF  CAMBRAY.  169 

while  the  Constable  de  Bourbon  burned  the  surrounding  villages,  to  pre- 
vent their  affording  shelter  to  the  enemy.  Thirteen  thousand  Swiss  in 
the  army  of  the  French  refused  to  fight  their  countrymen,  now  approach- 
ing under  the  banners  of  Maximilian,  and  Bourbon  was  reluctantly  com- 
pelled to  dismiss  them.  But  the  emperor's  good  fortune  deserted  him 
when  apparently  within  his  grasp.  As  usual  his  coffers  were  empty  and 
his  soldiers  unpaid :  the  Swiss  colonel  entering  his  bed-chamber  one  morn- 
ing bluntly  declared  that  he  would  lead  his  men  over  to  the  service  of 
the  French  unless  their  pay  was  forthcoming.  The  emperor  left  his  army- 
and  made  a  hasty  journey  to  Trent  under  pretense  of  collecting  money ; 
but  as  he  failed  to  return,  his  army  fell  to  pieces,  and  its  scattered  com- 
panies consoled  themselves  for  their  arrears  of  pay  by  pillaging  several 
unoffending  towns.  The  threatening  war-cloud  dissolved  itself  in  vapor, 
and  Maximilian,  conscious  of  the  ridicule  he  had  incurred,  never  again 
led  an  army  to  the  field. 

73.  Upon  the  death  of  King  Ferdinand,  the  Spanish  prime-minister, 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  proclaimed  the  Archduke  Charles  at  Madrid,  then 
recently  become  the  seat  of  government  for  the  united  kingdoms.  The 
Navarrese  made  a  fruitless  attempt  to  restore  the  house  of  Albret ;  the 
Cardinal  wreaked  a  terrible  vengeance  upon  the  country,  destroying  its 
towns,  villages,  and  castles  to  the  number  of  2,000,  reserving  only 
Pampeluna  and  a  few  places  on  the  upper  Ebro,  as  military  posts  from 
which  to  hold  the  nation  in  awe.  The  exposed  positions  of  Navarre  and 
the  Netherlands  led  Charles  still  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  king 
of  France.  By  the  treaty  of  Noyon,  he  engaged  to  marry  the  infant 
daughter  of  Francis,  who  was  to  bring  as  her  dowry  all  the  French  claims 
to  the  kingdom  of  Naples;  and  already  by  anticipation  addressed  that 
sovereign,  who  was  scarcely  older  than  himself,  as  "  my  good  Father." 

74.  The  Peace  of  Brussels  between  the  emperor,  the  French  king,  and 
the  Venetians  (Dec,  1516)  closed  the  wars  which  had  sprung  from  the 
League  of  Cambray.  The  next  autumn  Charles  visited  his  Spanish 
dominions  for  the  first  time  since  his  accession,  and  the  joy  of  the  unex- 
pected meeting  dispelled  for  a  moment  the  cloud  which  rested  upon  the 
mind  of  Queen  Joanna.  The  Spaniards,  however,  were  disgusted  with 
the  insolent  rapacity  of  the  Flemish  courtiers  who  accompanied  their 
king  and  absorbed  his  confidence.  A  continual  stream  of  gold,  drawn 
from  their  offices  and  pensions,  flowed  from  Spain  to  the  Netherlands. 
The  aged  minister,  Ximenes,  addressed  from  his  sick-bed  a  letter  to  the 
king,  begging  a  personal  interview.  The  Flemings  feared  the  ascendency 
of  the  great  minister ;  by  their  persuasions  Charles  replied  in  terms  which 
vailed  under  forms  of  courtesy  the  coolest  and  basest  ingratitude ;  for  they 
involved  a  dismissal  from  all  his  offices  except  that  of  bishop.  This  blow, 
from  a  prince  whom  he  had  served  so  faithfully  and  well,  brought  on  a 


160  MODERN  HISTORY. 

relapse  of  the  fever,  which  had  already  subdued  the  iron  frame  of  the 
Cardinal,  and  he  died  in  his  81st  year,  only  commending  his  university* 
at  Alcala,  with  his  last  breath,  to  the  favor  of  Charles. 

75.  To  his  zeal  for  learning  and  his  great  ability  as  a  statesman, 
Ximenes  added  warlike  talents,  in  which  he  was  scarcely  surpassed  by 
Pope  Julius  II.  In  1509  he  undertook  to  chastise  the  Moors  in  Africa 
for  their  depredations  on  the  Spanish  coast.  He  personally  took  Oran  by 
assault,  and  it  was  in  pursuance  of  his  plans  that  several  important  fort- 
resses became  permanent  possessions  of  Spain.  The  darkest  shade  upon 
his  character  belongs  more  properly  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  During 
his  eleven  years'  presidency  of  the  Inquisition,  he  "permitted,"  says 
Llorente,  2,536  persons  to  be  burned  at  the  stake,  while  51,167  suffered 
less  aggravated  punishments.  The  chancellorship  vacated  by  his  death 
was  bestowed  upon  one  Fleming,"^  and  his  primacy  upon  another.  The 
Castilian  cities,  early  accustomed  to  a  voice  in  national  affairs,  now  joined 
to  defend  their  rights,  and  addressed  a  petition  to  the  king,  in  which  they 
complained  of  the  unlawful  bestowal  of  high  ofl&ces  on  foreigners,  the 
increase  of  taxes,  and  the  exportation  of  coin.  Charles  disregarded  their 
complaints,  but  the  "Junta"  threatened  at  a  later  period  to  overthrow 
the  monarchy. 

76.  The  rapid  progress  of  the  Ottomans  about  this  time  demanded  the 
attention  of  Europe.  Selim,  son  of  Bajazet  II.,  by  a  successful  revolt 
dethroned  his  father,  whom  he  put  to  death,  as  well  as  two  brothers  and 
five  nephews ;  and  then  subdued  a  great  part  of  Persia  and  Mesopotamia, 
and  the  whole  of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt.  The  death  of  King  Ladislaus 
of  Hungary  and  the  long  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  II.,  left  that 
country  —  already  exhausted  by  a  ruinous  war  of  the  peasantry  —  an  easy 
prey  to  the  victorious  Turks.  It  was  reprieved  a  few  years  by  a  revolt 
of  the  Janizaries,  which  absorbed  the  attention  of  Selim,  and  by  his 
sudden  death  in  1520. 

77.  The  result  of  the  election,  which  followed  the  death  of  Maximilian 
in  1519,  has  already  been  stated.  The  seven  electors,  conscious  of  the 
enormous  powers  they  were  bestowing,  required  from  Charles  a  solemn 
guarantee  of  all  their  privileges ;  and  the  Elector-Palatine,  with  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  formed  the  "Electoral  Union  of 
the  Rhine  "  for  common  defense.     The  new  emperor,  now  in  his  twentieth 


*The  name  of  Ximenes  is  rendered  illustrious  by  his  Polyglot  edition  of  the  Bible  — 
the  grandest  literary  -work  of  his  age,  and  one  of  the  chief  glories  of  the  University  of 
Alcala.  It  was  the  work  of  nine  scholars,  deeply  versed  in  the  ancient  languages,  who 
were  sustained  by  the  patronage  and  guided  by  the  coiinsel  of  Ximenes.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment contained  the  original  Hebrew,  with  Chaldaic,  Greek,  and  Latin  versions;  the  New 
Testament,  the  Greek  and  Vulgate.  The  type  was  cast  at  Alcala  under  the  eye  of  Ximenes, 
as  none  yet  existed  in  the  Oriental  character.  The  most  ancient  Hebrew  texts  were  found 
among  the  confiscated  property  of  the  exiled  Jews. 


FIELD  GF  CLOTH  OF  GOLD.  161 

year,  showed  little  promise  of  the  commanding  character  which  after- 
ward distinguished  him.  He  was  sluggish  in  mind  and  weak  in  body; 
but  the  motto,  "iVb/i  Dum^''  (Not  Yet,)  which  he  assumed  at  his  first 
tournament,  expressed,  perhaps,  some  consciousness  of  unawakened  power. 
His  Spanish  subjects  were  deeply  ofiended  by  his  acceptance  of  the 
imperial  crown ;  and  it  was  with  difiiculty  that  Charles  obtained  a  grant 
of  money  from  the  Cortes,  to  enable  him  to  make  a  suitable  appearance 
in  his  new  dignity. 

78.  On  his  way  to  Germany  he  visited  the  king  of  England  in  order 
to  divert  him  from  any  alliance  with  France.  Cardinal  Wolsey  was 
gained  by  gifts  and  promises ;  the  king  was  already  opposed  to  France  by 
his  desire  to  renew  the  conquests  of  Henry  V.     He  proceeded,  however, 

to    that   celebrated    interview    with    Francis    I.,    which    is  ^        ^.^^ 

'  ^  June,  lo20. 

known  as  the  Field  of  Cloth  of  Gold^ — so  overladen  with 
costly  display  were  the  tents  and  trappings  of  the  courtiers  on  either  side ; 
and  in  reading  aloud  his  state-paper,  prepared  for  the  occasion,  he  is 
even  said,  by  an  affectation  of  courtesy,  to  have  dropped  his  own  cus- 
tomary title,  "  King  of  France."  ^  The  emperor  waited  at  Gravelines 
for  this  visit  to  be  over ;  and,  subsequently,  spent  some  days  with  Henry 
at  Calais,  in  order  to  remove  any  favorable  impression  which  the  French 
king  might  have  made. 

Charles  was  crowned  as  emperor-elect  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  October, 
1520 ;  and  in  the  following  January  held  his  first  Diet  at  Worms,  where 
were  transacted  affairs  of  momentous  importance,  which  must  be  related 
more  in  detail. 

Ferdinand  of  Spain  conquers  Navarre ;  joins  the  emperor,  Pope,  and  English  king  in 
hostility  to  France.  Brilliant  but  transient  conquests  of  tlie  French  generals  in  Italy  in 
1513,  Battle  of  the  Spurs  lost  by  the  French ;  Terouenne  taken  and  demolished  by  Henry 
VIII.  James  IV.  of  Scotland  slain  at  Flodden.  Marriage  of  Louis  XII.  with  an  English 
princess ;  he  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Francis  of  Angoul6me.  Henry  VIII.,  as  heir  to  the 
two  lines  of  York  and  Lancaster,  unites  all  parties  in  England.  Charles,  lord  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, ultimately  becomes  king  of  Spain  and  emperor.  The  French  armies,  crossing  the 
Alps  by  a  new  route,  invade  Italy  and  gain  a  great  victory  over  the  Swiss  at  Marignano ; 
but  their  king  relinquishes  most  of  its  advantages  by  his  alliance  with  the  Medici,  includ- 
ing Pope  Leo  X.  The  Emperor  Maximilian  is  prevented  by  his  poverty  from  dislodging 
the  French  from  Italy.  Charles,  succeeding  his  grandfather,  Ferdinand,  offends  the  Span- 
iards by  indulging  his  Flemish  courtiers,  and  the  Castilian  cities  form  a  Junta  in  oppo- 
sition. The  prime-minister,  Ximenes,  punishes  a  revolt  in  Navarre  with  frightful  severity; 
founds  a  university  at  Alcala,  makes  a  famous  edition  of  the  Bible,  conquers  Oran  for  the 
Spanish  crown.  Under  Sultan  Selim,  the  Turkish  power  makes  threatening  advances. 
Charles,  elected  eriiperor,  visits  England  and  secures  Cardinal  Wolsey  to  his  interests. 
The  kings  of  France  and  England  meet  at  the  Field  of  Cloth  of  Gold.  Four  Electors  form 
the  Union  of  the  Rhine  for  mutual  protection  against  imperial  usurpations. 


*It  was  only  within  the  present  century  that  the  English  sovereign  abandoned  his  old 
style,  "  King  of  England,  France,  and  Ireland." 

M.  H.  11. 


162  'MODERN  HISTORY. 

THE  REFORMATION. 

79.  The  reformation  in  religion,  which  led  to  the  withdrawal  ^of  a 
large  part  of  the  Teutonic  nations  from  the  Roman  Church,  was  among 
the  most  important  events  connected,  either  as  cause  or  consequence, 
with  the  opening  of  the  modern  era.  The  luxury  and  venality  of  the 
papal  court ;  its  removal  to  Avignon,  to  the  neglect  of  the  Pope's  especial 
diocese ;  the  subsequent  schism,  during  which  the  adherents  of  one  pope 
were  accustomed  to  ridicule  and  condemn  the  others ;  the  notoriously  evil 
lives  of  such  pontiffs  as  Sextus  IV.  and  Alexander  VI.,  and  the  vices  of 
their  clergy;  the  wars  of  Julius  II.  and  the  quarrels  of  many  of  his 
predecessors  Avith  the  emperors  —  these  were  but  a  few  of  the  many  causes 
which  had  broken  up  the  old  traditional  reverence  for  the  popes  as  vicars 
of  Christ  and  fathers  of  the  Church.  There  had,  indeed,  never  been  a 
time  when  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  were  not  called  in  question  in 
some  part  of  Europe;  but  the  invention  of  printing  —  now  beginning  to 
diffuse  among  the  middle  classes  opinions  and  speculations  which  had 
hitherto  existed  only  in  cloisters  or  among  the  most  learned  —  gave  tre- 
mendous importance  to  the  teachings  of  Luther. 

80.  This  remarkable  man  was  the  son  of  a  Saxon  miner,  and  had  been 
born  at  Eisleben,  in  1483.  Like  other  poor  scholars,  he  earned  his  daily 
bread  by  singing  from  door  to  door;  and  thus  cultivated  that  love  and 
talent  for  music  which  enabled  him  afterward  to  move  the  heart  of  Ger- 
many by  his  sacred  songs.  His  studies  at  the  University  of  Erfurt  dis- 
ciplined and  enriched  his  mind,  while  they  inspired  him  with  contempt 
for  the  frivolous  technicalties  which  formed  the  greater  part  of  the  learn- 
ing of  the  age.  In  1507,  deep  religious  impressions  led  him  to  abandon 
the  profession  of  law,  and  become  a  monk  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine. 
His  experience  in  the  monastery  at  Erfurt  led  him  to  suspect  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  the  rites  of  the  Church  to  give  peace  to  the  conscience ;  but 
a  Latin  Bible,  which  he  found  chained  in  the  library,  and  then  read 
for  the  first  time,  afforded  more  effectual  comfort  to  his  mind.  His  sus- 
picions were   confirmed   during  a  visit  which  he   made  to 

A.  D.  1510.  ^  ^ 

Rome  on  business  connected  with  his  order.  The  warlike 
pomp  and  ambition  of  the  Pope,  the  avowed  infidelity  of  the  clergy, 
and  their  sacrilegious  contempt  for  the  mysteries  of  the  faith,  shocked 
his  religious  nature ;  in  the  midst  of  his  ascent  of  the  Holy  Staircase, 
the  words,  "The  just  shall  live  by  faith,"  flashed  upon  his  mind  and 
became  the  watch-word  of  the  Reformation. 

81.  Before  this  time,  in  1508,  Luther  had  been  appointed  professor  of 
Theology  in  the  new  university  of  Wittenberg,  where  his  clear  and 
vigorous  style  drew  crowds  of  students  to  his  lectures.  Frederic  the 
Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony,  was  at  once  a  devout  member  of  the  ancient 


THE  REFORMATION.  163 

Church  and  a  firm  friend  and  protector  of  Luther,  whom  he  prized  as  the 
chief  ornament  of  his  favorite  university ;  and  tlie  esteem  in  which  the 
Saxon  prince  was  held  tliroughout  the  empire  secured  a  respectful  hearing 
to  the  doctrines  of  the  reformer.  The  sale  of  "indulgences"  was  just 
then  attracting  new  attention  in  Germany.  This  traffic,  from  apparently 
innocent  beginnings,  had  risen  by  successive  degrees  to  be  the  principal 
source  of  income  to  the  papal  treasury.  At  first,  remission  of  temporal 
penalties  for  sin  was  promised  to  all  who  took  part  in  the  Crusades  — 
then  to  those  who  founded  churches  or  monasteries,  or  paid  a  certain 
amount  of  money  as  a  commutation  for  personal  service.  It  was  after- 
ward to  be  obtained  by  the  performance  of  pilgrimages,  especially  by 
visiting  Rome  during  the  years  of  Jubilee. 

82.  It  was  Alexander  VI.  who  first  assumed  to  remit  the  penalties  of 
sin  in  a  future  life,  in  consideration  of  money  paid  or  penances  performed 
in  this ;  but,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  affections  as  well  as  the  hopes 
and  fears  of  the  faithful  were  enlisted  by  the  promise  of  releasing  the 
souls  of  their  departed  friends  from  the  pains  of  purgatory.  "  At  the 
moment  when  the  money  clinks  in  the  chest,  the  soul  flies  upward." 
Germany,  whether  from  the  credulity  or  piety  of  its  people,  was  the  great 
market  for  the  sale  of  indulgences;  and  the  immense  sums  of  money 
remitted  on  this  account  to  Eonie  were  there  named  "the  sins  of  the 
Germans."  So  open  was  the  management  of  this  revenue,  that  the  great 
Augsburg  bankers,  the  Fuggers,  farmed  it  like  any  other  tax ;  and  por- 
tions of  it  were  sometimes  granted  by  the  Pope  to  temporal  princes  for 
limited  times.  Thus,  Frederic  the  Wise  had  himself  obtained  the  sale  of 
indulgences  in  Saxony  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  bridge  over  the 
Elbe  ;  the  king  of  Hungary,  in  1508,  received  two-thirds  of  the  proceeds 
in  his  kingdom  for  the  prosecution  of  his  wars  against  the  Turks ;  and 
the  emperor  at  one  time  permitted  the  sale  only  on  condition  of  the  pay- 
ment of  one-third  into  his  treasury.  The  ektravagance  of  the  court  of 
Leo  X.  demanded  increased  revenues,  and  the  sale  of  indulgences  was 
therefore  pushed  with  greater  energy  than  ever,  during  the  years  which 
followed  Luther's  return  from  Rome.  Albert,  Elector  of  Mentz  and  Pri- 
mate of  Germany  —  a  young  and  dissolute  churchman  —  had  purchased 
his  see  at  a  ruinous  price,  and  was  aided  by  the  Pope  to  pay  for  it,  by  a 
special  dispensation  of  indulgences. 

83.  One  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  monk,  but  a  man  of  infamous  char- 
acter, was  his  agent,  and  traveling  through  the  country  offered  not  only 
remission  of  past  sins,  but  indulgence  for  future  transgressions  at  a  regu- 
larly graded  tariff  of  prices.  Animated  by  his  new  and  ardent  belief  in 
justification  by  faith  alone,  Luther  preached  with  great  energy  against 
the  traffic,  and  refused  absolution  to  any  of  his  hearers  who  should  buy 
the  wares  of  Tetzel.     A  more  decisive  act,  which   is  celebrated  as  the 


164  MODERN  HISTORY. 

beginning  of  the  Reformation,  was  the  affixing  to  the  door  of  the  Castle 
,_,_        Church  at  Wittenberg,  of  ninety-five  theses,  in  which  Luther 

UCt.  olj  lol7. 

denounced  the  papal  assumptions,  and  declared  that  every 
sincere  penitent  would  receive  the  remission  of  his  sins  without  the 
intervention  of  the  Church. 

84.  Tetzel  and  others  published  replies,  and  news  of  the  affair  reached 
Eome ;  but  the  Pope,  who  cared  little  for  doctrine,  affected  to  regard  the 
dispute  as  a  mere  monkish  quarrel,  and  praised  the  genius  of  Luther  in 
highly  complimentary  terms.  Dr.  John  Eck,  however,  wrote  a  book  to 
show  the  identity  of  Luther's  heresy  with  that  of  Huss.  Luther's  reply 
showed  so  many  weak  points  in  the  argument  of  Eck,  that  the  latter, 
in  revenge,  spared  no  effort  to  excite  the  Pope  to  interfere.  Luther  was, 
in  fact,  summoned  to  Eome ;  but  as  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  his  sovereign, 
forbade  him  to  go,  and  demanded  that  he  should  be  tried  in  Germany, 
Cardinal  Cajetan  was  sent  as  papal  nuncio  to  decide  the  case  in  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg.  Appearing  before  this  assembly,  Luther  declared  his  readi- 
ness to  retract  all  his  doctrines,  provided  that  they  were  proved  erroneous 
by  comparison  with  Holy  Scripture.  The  cardinal  refused  all  discussion, 
and  scornfully  rejected  the  second  offer  of  the  Reformer  to  submit  his 
theses  to  the  four  universities  of  Basle,  Freiburg,  Louvain,  and  Paris.  Per- 
ceiving that  a  just  judgment  was  out  of  the  question,  Luther  drew  up  an 
appeal  to  the  Pope,  which  he  affixed  to  the  cathedral  of  Augsburg,  and, 
quitting  that  city,  returned  to  his  post  at  Wittenberg.  Three-fourths  of 
the  German  people  were  now  on  his  side  ;  and  t,he  most  enlightened  men 
of  the  age  —  poets,  painters,  and  scholars — joined  in  doing  honor  to  his 
piety  and  moral  energy. 

85.  The  war  of  opinions  was  interrupted  a  year  or  two  by  several 
political  causes.  Upon  the  death  of  Maximilian,  the  imperial  crown  was 
first  offered  to  Frederic  of  Saxony,  and  though  he  refused  it  and  rec- 
ommended the  young  king  of  Spain,  yet  Charles,  who  owed  him  his 
crown,  could  not  immediately  offend  the  Elector  by  punishing  a  man  who 
enjoyed  his  patronage  and  esteem.  Charles,  too,  had  quarrels  of  his  own 
with  Leo  X.,  concerning  the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  and  purposely  favored 
the  Lutherans  for  the  sake  of  annoying  the  Pope.     These  matters  being 

settled,  a  papal  bull  was  issued,  requiring  the  reformer  to 
burn  his  books  and  abstain  thenceforth  from  preaching  or 
writing.  Luther,  whose  mind  was  now  more  free  from  superstition  than 
when  he  began  his  work,  publicly  burned  the  bull  before  a  gate  of 
Wittenberg.  The  next  month  he  and  all  his  disciples  were  solemnly 
excommunicated  from  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the  emperor  summoned 
him  to  appear  before  the  Diet  then  sitting  at  Worms. 

86.  His  journey  thither  was  a  triumphal  procession,  for  the  people  of 
many  towns  came  a  distance  of  miles  to  meet  and  escort  him.     Thougli 


THE  REFORMATION. 


165 


he  was  accompanied  by  an  imperial  herald  and  protected  by  a  safe- 
conduct  signed  by  Charles  himself,  his  friends  feared  for  his  life;  but 
Luther  replied  to  their  remonstrances :  "  Huss  has  been  burned,  but  the 
truth  has  not  been  consumed  with  him  ;  go  I  will,  were  there  as  many 
devils  aiming  at  me  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs."  Entering  Worms, 
he  was  escorted  to  his  lodgings  by  a  crowd  of  nobles  and  citizens.  The 
next  day  he  appeared  before  the  Diet.  As  he  entered  the  great  hall, 
George  Frundsberg,  a  noted  military  leader,  tapped  him  on  the  arm,  say- 
ing, "  Little  monk,  little  monk,  thou  art  doing  a  more  daring  thing  than 
I  or  any  other  general  ever  ventured  on.  But  if  thou  art  confident  in 
thy  cause,  go  on,  in  God's  name,  and  be  of  good  cheer,  for  He  will  not 
forsake  thee." 

87.  In  his  examination  before  the  Diet,  Luther  admitted  that  he  had 
expressed  himself  concerning  the  Pope  and  the  clergy  with  unbecoming 
violence,  but  he  refused  to  retract  any  of  his  teachings  unless  they  could 
be  refuted  from  the  Bible.  Several  princes  desired  to  seize  him,  in  spite 
of  the  safe-conduct;  but  the  emperor  replied  to  their  petitions,  "No,  I 
will  not  blush  like  Sigismund  at  Constance!"  He  permitted  Luther  to 
depart,  but  warned  him  to  expect  henceforth  the  treatment  due  to  a 
heretic.  The  Edict  of  Worms  enacted  that  whoever  sheltered  the 
reformer,  or  printed,  sold,  bought,  or  read  his  books,  should  incur  the 
penalty  of  outlawry.  Soon  after  his  departure  from  Worms,  Luther  was 
seized  by  a  company  of  horsemen  in  masks,  and  shut  up  in  a  Thuringian 
castle.  This,  however,  was  not  the  act  of  his  enemies,  but  had  been 
ordered  by  the  Elector  Frederic  as  the  only  means  of  securing  him  from 
their  violence.  It  was  generally  believed  that  he  had  been  murdered ; 
and  the  period  of  seclusion  which  followed  was  spent  by  Luther  in  the 
most  important  of  all  his  works,  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 
German  tongue. 

88.  During  the  same  years  with  the  German  reformation,  a  kindred 
movement  took  place  in  Switzerland,  under  the  influence  of  Ulrich  Zwin- 
gli,  a  priest  of  Glarus.  Born  a  few  months  later  than  Luther,  Zwingli, 
like  him,  on  coming  to  manhood,  adopted  the  Scriptures  as  his  only 
standard  of  faith ;  and  when  the  sale  of  indulgences  became  infamously 
common  in  his  country,  he  denounced  it  in  no  less  energetic  terms.  As- 
citizen  of  a  republic,  he  took  a  more  active  part  than  Luther  in  national 
affairs;  and  strongly  opposed  the  foreign  enlistment  of  her  soldiery, 
which  had  disgraced  Switzerland  for  more  than  a  half  a  century.  Being 
transferred  to  Zurich,  Zwingli  obtained  from  the  town- 
council  of  that  place,  an  edict  forbidding  any  thing  to  be 
preached,  except  what  could  be  proved  from  the  Word  of  God.  Three 
years  later,  by  the  same  authority,  the  veneration  of  images  and  relics 
was  forbidden,  and  wine  as  well  as  bread  was  granted  to  the  laity  in  the 


A.  D.  1520. 


166  MODERN  HISTORY. 

holy  Communion.  The  reformation  spread  rapidly,  especially  in  the 
western  or  French-speaking  cantons  of  Switzerland,  and  its  changes  — 
owing,  perhaps,  to  the  freedom-loving  character  of  the  people  —  were  more 
radical  than  in  Germany.  Luther  desired  to  retain  all  the  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Church  which  were  not  contrary  to  the  Scriptures,  while 
Zwingli  desired  to  reject  all  that  were  not  thereby  expressly  commanded 
or  inculcated.  This  difference  led  to  an  unhappy  controversy  between  the 
two  great  reformers,  which,  undoubtedly,  checked  the  progress  of  reforma- 
tion. In  Switzerland  the  mingling  of  civil  with  religious  questions  occa- 
sioned a  war  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  cantons,  in  which 
Zwingli  ultimately  lost  his  life.     A.  D.  1531. 

89.  Meanwhile  the  disappointment  of  Francis  I.,  in  the  bestowal  of  the 
imperial  crown,  gave  rise  to  that  long  series  of  wars  between  France 
and  Austria,  which  was  to  continue,  with  only  slight  intermissions,  nearly 
two  hundred  years  —  A.  D.  1520-1715.  Andrew  de  Foix,  a  relative  of 
the  deposed  king  of  Navarre,  invaded  that  kingdom,  and,  as  its  fortresses 
had  been  nearly  all  destroyed,  (see  §  73,)  made  a  rapid  and  easy  conquest 
of  the  whole  territory.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  he  tried  to  form  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Spanish  insurgents,  who  had  obtained  control  of  the  imbecile, 
queen,  Joanna,  and  sought,  in  her  name,  to  expel  the  regent  appointed 
by  Charles.  The  demands  addressed  by  the  Castilian  Junta  to  their  king, 
show  just  views  of  the  rights  and  interests  of  the  common  people.  They 
required  the  sovereign  to  reside  in  Spain  and  to  appoint  no  foreigner  to 
any  civil  or  ecclesiastical  office  —  demanded  an  assembly  of  the  Cortes  once 
in  three  years,  and  guarded  the  independence  of  their  members  by  a  rule 
that  no  one  of  them  should  receive  any  place  or  pension  from  the  king. 
Judges  were  to  be  supported  by  regular  salaries,  and  forbidden  to  receive 
any  part  of  the  fines  or  forfeitures  of  persons  whom  they  condemned ; 
bishops  to  reside  in  their  dioceses  at  least  half  the  year ;  indulgences  to 
be  sold  only  with  the  consent  of  the  Cortes,  and  the  proceeds  applied 
wholly  to  wars  against  infidels. 

90.  This  bill  of  rights  being  rejected  by  Charles,  the  Junta  proceeded  to 
open  war;  but  their  army  of  20,000  men  was  at  length  defeated  and 
its  leader  executed.  The  attempted  union  with  the  French,  above  men- 
tioned, had  been  prevented  by  the  advance  of  the  royal  army  ;  but  when 
the  French  commander  laid  siege  to  a  Castilian  town,  even  the  insur- 
gents themselves  turned  against  him,  and  compelled  him   to  retire  into 

Navarre,  where,  having  been  defeated  and  captured,  he  died 
June,  1521.  >  >  &  i  >     ^ 

a  few  days  later  of  his  wounds.  Navarre  was  speedily  re- 
covered by  the  Spaniards.  The  petty  wars  carried  on  by  the  French  king 
with  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  had  no  more  important  results. 

91.  Leo.  X.,  meanwhile,  pursued  a  shifting  policy,  allying  himself 
successively  with  either  of  the  great  princes  who  would  aid  or  permit  hi]n 


THE  CONFERENCE  OF  CALAIS.  167 

to  seize  the  most  valuable  estates  in  Italy  for  the  aggrandizement  of  his 
house.  In  this  way  the  duchy  of  Urbino  and  the  lordships  of  Modena, 
Eeggio,  Perugia,  and  Fermo  had  fallen  into  his  possession.  In  1521,  he 
entered  into  a  more  important  league  with  Francis  I.,  to  drive  the 
Spaniards  out  of  southern  Italy,  whence  large  additions  were  to  be  made 
to  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  the  rest  bestowed  in  full  sovereignty  upon 
the  second  son  of  the  French  king.  Some  delay  occurring  in  the  ratifica- 
tion of  this  treaty,  the  Pope  made  a  counter-alliance  with  the  emperor, 
to  expel  the  French  from  northern  Italy.  In  return  for  being  allowed  to 
seize  the  Venetian  territories,  Charles  promised  to  extirpate  the  heresy 
of  Luther  and  his  adherents ;  and  this  agreement  was  signed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  imperial  Diet  on  the  same  day  with  the  Edict  of  Worms. 

92.  Three  months  later,  a  conference  was  held  at  Calais  between  the 
representatives  of  the  Pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kings  of  France  and 
England.  Henry  VIII.  had  offered  his  services  as  mediator  between  Fran- 
cis and  Charles ;  and  his  great  minister,  AVolsey,  was  courted  and  flattered 
by  both  parties,  who  wished  to  gain  him.  The  emperor's  promises  were  the 
more  magnificent;  Wolsey  was  already  his  pensioner  to  the  amount  of 
.10,000  ducats  yearly ;  and  his  vast  influence  was  pledged  to  secure  the 
papal  crown  to  the  English  cardinal  at  the  next  vacancy.  The  claims  of 
the  rival  sovereigns  were,  however,  too  many  and  too  great  to  be  recon- 
ciled. Francis  demanded  the  two  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Navarre ; 
Charles  required  the  abandonment  of  Milan  and  Genoa  by  the  French, 
the  restitution  of  Burgundy,  and  the  release  of  homage  on  his  part  for 
his  possessions  in  the  Low  Countries.  After  all  its  grand  pretensions,  the 
Conference  of  Calais  merely  regulated  some  disputes  concerning  the  her- 
ring fisheries  of  France  and  Flanders!  The  German  and  English  sover- 
eigns immediately  after  concluded  a  treaty,  by  which  each  engaged  to 
invade  France  with  40,000  men  ;  and  the  Pope,  with  his  own  weapons, 
took  part  in  the  enterprise  by  excommunicating  Francis  I.,  and  releasing 
the  French  nation  from  its  allegiance.  In  a  subsequent  treaty  between 
Charles,  Henry,  and  Leo,  all  agreed  to  proceed  with  rigor  against  heretics, 
and  the  English  king,  having  lately  published  a  book  against  Luther,  was 
rewarded  with  the  title,  "  Defender  of  the  Faith,"  which  is  still  borne 
by  his  successors. 

93.  The  war  which  now  broke  out  can  not  be  related  in  detail.  That 
part  of  the  Navarrese  kingdom  which  lies  north  of  the  Pyrenees  was 
recovered  by  the  Albrets,  and  never  again  lost.  In  the  Netherlands,  the 
French  also  gained  the  toAvn  and  fortress  of  Hesdin,  but  lost  Tournay. 
In  Italy,  which  was  to  be  the  chief  seat  of  war,  Lautrec,  an  able  general, 
but  a  cruel  and  rapacious  tyrant,  held  the  viceroyalty  of  Milan,  and  used 
it  only  as  a  means  of  enriching  his  family  at  the  expense  of  the  people. 
The  dissensions  of  the  Parisian  court  crippled  the  war-movements,  and  in 


168  MODERN  HISTORY. 

three  months  lost  to  'France  the  Milanese  duchy.  Two  hostile  parties  in 
the  court  were  led,  one  by  the  king's  mother,  the  other  by  the  Countess 
of  Chateaubriand,  sister  of  the  general,  Lautrec.  When  a  large  sum  of 
money  was  raised  for  the  payment  of  the  army,  Mme.  Louise  of  Savoy 
seized  it  for  her  own  use ;  and  the  20,000  Swiss  commanded  by  Lautrec, 
discontented  for  want  of  pay,  either  marched  home  or  went  over  to  the 
imperial  service.  Lautrec  was  forced  to  shut  himself  up  in  Milan,  but  a 
night-attack  being  made  by  the  Spanish  infantry  upon  the  Roman  gate  of 
that  city,  it  was  opened  by  the  Ghibelline  faction,  who  hated  the  French ; 
and  Lautrec  with  his  brother  sought  safety  in  flight. 

94.  The  fortress  of  Milan  still  held  out ;  but  the  Lombard  cities,  with 
scarcely  an  exception,  opened  their  gates  to  the  imperial  troops.  Parma 
and  Piacenza  were  likewise  taken,  and,  in  fulfillment  of  the  treaty,  were 
held  for  the  Pope.     The  joy  of  these  successes  is  said  to  have  occasioned 

the  death  of  Leo  X.;   other  and  more  probable  accounts 

Dec,  1521.  .  ,  '         .        .  ^ 

ascribe  it  to  poison.     He  died  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his 

age  and  the  ninth  of  his  pontificate.     This  event  threw  the  affairs  of  the 

victorious  allies  into  confusion.     The  papal  army  was  disbanded  for  want 

of  funds;    Urbino,  Perugia,  and  other  places  gladly  received  back    their 

native  rulers. 

95.  After  a  long  and  violent  contest  in  the  conclave,  Adrian,  regent  of 
Spain  and  former  tutor  of  the  emperor,  was  chosen  to  be  pope.  His 
narrow  scholastic   education    made    him    a   bitter  opponent    of    Luther, 

1-99  though    as   an   honest    man    he    deplored    the    corruptions 

of  the  Church.  He  began  his  reign  with  stern  efforts 
at  reform ;  entered  Rome  bare-footed,  in  scornful  rebuke  of  the  luxury  of 
his  predecessors,  and  turned  with  horror  from  the  rare  sculptures  which 
the  taste  of  Leo  had  collected  in  the  Vatican,  exclaiming,  "  These  are 
pagan  idols !"  One  old  servant  provided  as  before  for  his  humble  house- 
hold. The  elegant  courtiers  of  Leo  looked  on  with  disgust,  which  was 
increased  when  their  new  sovereign  attempted  to  retrieve  his  ruined 
finances  by  abolishing  many  useless  and  expensive  offices ;  but  the  com- 
mon people  regarded  with  reverent  enthusiasm  the  self-denying  humility 
of  their  pontiff. 

96.  The  French,  having  been  once  more  defeated  by  the  imperial  army, 
withdrew  from  Italy,  surrendering  all  but  the  three  citadels  of  Milan, 
Novara,  and  Cremona.  Genoa  was  taken  by  the  Germans,  and  Antoni- 
otto  Adorno  became  doge. 

The  departure  of  the  regent,  Adrian,  from  Spain  compelled  the  emperor 
to  visit  that  discontented  country.  Visiting  England  on  his  way,  he 
renewed  his  agreement  with  Wolsey  by  fresh  promises,  flattered  the 
nation  at  large  by  making  the  Earl  of  Surrey  his  admiral,  and  induced 
the  king  to  declare  war  ao;ainst  France. 


CHARLES  V.  IN  SPAIN.  169 

97.  Called  thus  to  contend  with  the  greatest  powers  of  Europe,  Francis 
I.  secured  his  eastern  frontier  by  a  treaty  with  the  Regent  Margaret,  by 
which  he  promised  to  make  no  wars  in  or  against  her  territory  of  Franche 
Comte  for  three  years.  This  treaty,  often  renewed,  left  the  two  Burgun- 
dies in  the  enjoyment  of  peace,  industry,  and  prosperity  for  more  than  a 
century,  while  the  Austro-French  wars  were  raging  around  them.  The 
three  duchies  of  Savoy,  Lorraine,  and  Bar  were  also  neutral  territories, 
which,  with  the  county  of  Burgundy,  completely  covered  the  eastern  side 
of  France. 

98.  Fixing  his  residence  in  Spain,  Charles  won  the  hearts  of  his  sub- 
jects by  his  lenity  to  those  who  had  rebelled  during  his  absence,  by 
adopting  the  dress,  language,  and  manners  of  the  country,  and  by  exclud- 
ing all  foreigners  from  employment  in  Church  or  State.  At  the  same 
time  he  increased  hi^  own  power  at  the  expense  of  the  popular  liberties, 
by  making  the  three  estates  of  the  Cortes  meet  in  separate  places,  thus 
preventing  a  concentration  of  their  strength ;  by  gaining  over  individual 
representatives  of  the  commons  to  his  own  interests;  and  by  permitting 
no  debate  except  in  the  presence  of  a  presiding  officer  of  his  own  appoint- 
ment. His  policy  toward  the  Moors  was  as  unjust  as  that  of  his  grand- 
father toward  the  Jews.  That  refined  and  industrious  people  contributed 
not  a  little  to  the  prosperity  of  Spain,  while  living  in  the  exercise  of 
their  own  religion,  but  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  land.  Suddenly, 
in  1525,  it  was  resolved  to  compel  them  to  a  change  of  faith.  Their 
copies  of  the  Koran  were  seized,  their  mosques  shut  up ;  all  who  were  not 
baptized  before  a  certain  date  were  exiled  from  Spain ;  but  to  prevent 
their  reaching  Africa,  all  the  ports,  except  Corunna  in  the  extreme  north- 
west, were  closed  to  them.  A  subsequent  and  still  harsher  edict  sen- 
tenced all  who  refused  a  change  of  religion  to  forfeit  their  goods  and  be 
sold  into  slavery.  This  atrocious  treatment  drove  many  into  open  revolt. 
Thousands  were  slain  ;  100,000,  more  fortunate  than  the  rest,  escaped  to 
Africa ;  those  who  remained,  conformed  unwillingly  to  the  rites,  customs, 
and  language  of  their  conquerors ;  but  they  were  deprived  of  all  privi- 
leges and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  beasts  of  burden. 

I2.EC^:PITTJXi^TI01T. 

Dissensions  and  decay  in  the  Church  and  diflFusion  of  intelligence  among  the  people 
lead  to  religious  reformation.  Luther,  an  Augustinian  monk  and  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittenberg,  preaches  against  indulgences.  His  95  theses  rouse  all  Germany  to  contro- 
versy. He  is  tried  before  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  is  condemned  by  ahull  of  Leo  X.— which 
he  burns  — and  is  denounced  again  by  the  Diet  of  Worms.  Concealed  for  a  time  in  Thu- 
ringia,  he  begins  to  translate  the  Scriptures  into  German.  Zwingli  moves  reform  in  Swit- 
zerland ;  differing  in  some  points  from  Luther,  he  is  bitterly  opposed  by  him.  Series  of 
Austro-Frankish  wars  begun  by  French  invasion  of  Navarre.  Bill  of  Rights  presented  by 
the  Castilian  Junta  to  Charles  is  rejected,  and  a  rebellion  ensues.  Pope  Leo  X.  plots  alter- 
nately to  drive  the  Spaniards  from  southern  and  the  French  from  northern  Italy;  makes  a 


170  MODERN  HISTORY. 

compact  with  the  Emperor  at  Worms  to  crush  the  Reformation.  Conference  at  Calais  fails 
to  arrest  the  war,  and  is  followed  by  a  fresh  league  against  France.  Intrigues  of  the 
French  court  occasion  defeat  of  Lautrec  and  loss  of  the  Milanese.  Imperial  and  papal 
arms  triumphant  in  Italy.  Leo  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Adrian  VI,  Peace  of  Burgundy 
and  the  neutral  duchies  secured  by  treaty.  Charles  conciliates  the  Spaniards  while  steal- 
ing away  their  liberty ;  but  cruelly  persecutes  the  Moors. 

Wars  in  Italy. 

99.  Europe  was  now  threatened  anew  by  the  Turks.  Solyman  II,  who 
succeeded  Selim  in  1520,  concentrated  his  great  military  talents  upon  the 
conquest  of  Hungary  and  Ehodes.  The  small  army  raised  in  the  south 
of  Hungary  could  offer  no  effective  resistance,  and,  in  the  summer  of 
1521,  Sabatz,  Semlin,  and  finally  Belgrade,  fell  into  the  power  of  Solyman. 
The  Isle  of  Rhodes  was  the  stronghold  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  Its  capture  was  undertaken  by  a  force  of  300  Turkish  ships 
and  110,000  men.     The  knights,   under  their  illustrious   Grand  Master, 

'  L'lle  Adam,  fought  long  and  valiantly,  but  at  last  they  were  compelled 

to  surrender  to  overwhelming  numbers.      After  several  re- 
Dec   ''I  15'^'^ 

■  "  '  movals,  the  surviving  members  of  the  order  were  presented 

by  the  emperor  with  the  island  of  Malta. 

100.  Unable  to  combine  the  Christian  princes  of  Europe  against  the 
Turks,  Pope  Adrian  formed  a  powerful  league  against  the  king  of  France, 
whose  indifference  was  supposed  to  have  thwarted  the  former  attempt. 
The  prompt  invasion  of  Italy,  with  which  Francis  intended  to  meet 
and  disconcert  this  alliance,  was  delayed  by  the  sudden  and  fatal  defec- 
tion of  his  kinsman  and  most  powerful  subject,  the  Constable  de  Bourbon. 
This  great  vassal  possessed  by  inheritance  or  marriage  two  duchies,  four 
counties,  and  two  viscounties,  beside  many  smaller  lordships  in  the  center 
of  France,  and  might  even  hope  to  inherit  the  crown  itself  in  case  of  the 
king's  dying  without  sons.  His  great  military  services  had  been  rewarded 
with  the  highest  dignities  and  revenues ;  but  his  cold  and  haughty  tem- 
per ill  suited  the  jovial  disposition  of  the  king,  and  the  court  favorites 
delighted  to  annoy  so  powerful  a  rival.  Especially  the  queen-mother, 
whose. vanity  had  been  incurably  wounded  by  the  Constable,  pursued  him 
with  unrelenting  enmity.  Representing  an  elder,  though  female,  line  of 
the  House  of  Bourbon,  she  sued  him  before  the  Parliament  of  Paris  for 
all  the  possessions  of  that  duchy,  and  secured  to  herself  the  private  reve- 
nues of  Anne  of  France,  his  mother-in-law. 

101.  Under  this  load  of  insults  and  injuries,  the  proud  heart  of 
Bourbon  resolved  upon  a  bitter  revenge.  He  opened  negotiations  with 
the  emperor  and  the  king  of  England,  to  betray  into  their  hands  the 
French  kingdom,  which  was  then  to  be  divided  among  the  three  princes; 
the  hereditary  dominions  of  the  Bourbons,  with  Provence  and  the  terri- 
tories of  Lyons  and   Dauphine,  being   erected  into  an  independent  sov- 


FRANCIS  I.  IN  ITALY.  171 

ereignty  for  the  Constable  himself.  The  conspiracy  seemed  on  the  point 
of  success.  English  forces  landed  at  Calais,  and,  being  joined  by  an 
imperial  army  from  the  Netherlands,  advanced  within  thirty-three  miles 
of  Paris.  But  the  invasions  from  the  frontiers  of  Germany  and  Spain 
proved  failures,  and  the  discovery  of  the  plot  by  the  French  king  pre- 
vented the  vassals  and  retainers  of  Bourbon  from  executing  their  part  of 
the  agreement.  Bourbon  himself,  instead  of  appearing  on  the  field  of 
war  as  a  sovereign  prince,  master  of  a  great  army  and  of  many  provinces, 
had  to  flee  into  Germany  attended  by  only  sixty  gentlemen,  and  to, 
present  himself  to  the  emperor  like  a  destitute  soldier  of  fortune. 

102.  At  this  crisis  Pope  Adrian  died  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Cardi- 
nal Giulio  de'Medici,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.  Wolsey,  again 
disappointed,  had  to  content  himself  with  the  rank  of  papal  legate  in 
England,  to  which-  were  attached  extraordinary  powers.  In  the  spring  of 
1524  Bourbon  entered  Italy  as  lieutenant-general  of  the  emperor.  The 
incompetent  Bonnivet,  then  commanding  the  French  forces,  was  forced 
by  the  allies  to  retreat  into  France.  In  a  battle  near  Romagnano,  the 
Chevalier  Bayard  was  killed.  An  imperial  army  under  Bourbon  and  the 
Marquis  Pescara  now  invaded  France  by  the  Cornice  Eoad,  received  the 
surrender  of  Aix  and  several  other /towns,  and  laid  siege  to  Marseilles. 
Bourbon  was  disappointed,  however,  in  his  hope  of  French  recruits,  and 
thwarted  not  less  by  the  jealousies  of  the  imperial  generals  whom  he  out- 
ranked, than  by  the  suspicions  of  the  English  king,  who,  moved  by  Wol- 
sey's  revenge,  and,  fearing  that  the  emperor  would  gain  more  than  his 
share  of  the  spoils,  delayed  or  refused  the  promised  supplies  of  money. 
At  length  the  allies  were  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  and  make  a  hasty 
retreat  into  Italy. 

103.  The  French  king  speedily  followed  with  a  well  appointed  army 
of  30,000  men,  and  besieged  Pavia.  The  Pope,  jinder  cover  of  neutrality, 
made  a  secret  treaty  with  Francis,  who,  elated  by  this  turn  of  affairs  and 
the  evident  disorganization  of  his  enemies,  actually  sent  the  Duke  of 
Albany  with  an  army  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Naples.  His  rash- 
ness   proved  his  ruin.     The  imperial  army,  now  reinforced, 

Feb.  1525. 

moved  from  Lodi  and  encamped  within  a  mile  of  the  French 
lines  before  Pavia.  A  night-attack  was  planned  in  concert  with  the  gar- 
rison, but  day  dawned  before  the  preliminary  movements  were  completed, 
and  the  French  then  coming  up,  the  battle  became  general.  The  French 
artillery  produced  great  havoc  in  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  until  Francis, 
inconsiderately  charging  in  advance  of  his  guns,  compelled  his  men  to 
cease  firing  lest  they  should  endanger  him.  The  German  reserves  were 
now  brought  forward,  while  the  garrison  of  Pavia  prepared  to  attack  in  the 
rear.  The  French  yielded  and  fled.  The  king  himself,  Avhile  endeavoring 
to  rally  his  Swiss,  was  unhorsed  and  taken  prisoner.     He  was  recognized 


172  MODERN  HISTORY. 

by  an  attendant  of  Bourbon,  who  besought  him  to  surrender  to  the  Con- 
stable; but  the  king  scornfully  refused  to  become  the  captive  of  his 
rebellious  vassal,  and  calling  for  Lannoy,  gave  his  sword  into  his  hands. 
The  French  army  was  permitted  to  retreat,  and,  within  a  fortnight,  the 
last  soldier  had  crossed  the  Alps. 

104.  AVhen  the  news  reached  Madrid,  the  emperor  forbade  all  public 
rejoicings,  and  studied  to  dissemble  the  exultation  which  he  might  natu- 
rally be  supposed  to  feel.  France  was  filled  with  terror ;  Paris  was 
guarded  as  if  the  enemy  were  already  at  the  gates.  The  queen-mother, 
into  whose  hands  the  defense  of  the  kingdom  was  thrown  at  this  perilous 
crisis,  had  alienated  by  her  intrigues  those  who  should  have  been  her  best 
supporters.  Of  three  chief  princes  of.  the  royal  blood,  one  was  a  declared 
traitor;  another,  the  king's  brother-in-law,  had  disgraced  himself  by 
cowardice  at  Pavia,  and  had  since  died  of  vexation  and  chagrin  ;  and  the 
third,  the  Duke  of  Vendome,  was  an  enemy  to  the  queen-mother,  and 
suspected  of  a  secret  understanding  with  Bourbon.  He  silenced  this  sus- 
picion, however,  by  generously  forgetting  his  grievances  and  joining 
Louisa  at  Lyons.  The  Count  of  Guise,  founder  of  a  family  destined  to 
play  a  still  more  important  part  in  the  history  of  France,  rendered  good 
service  by  suppressing  a  peasant-war  which  had  spread  from  Germany  into 
Lorraine,  Champagne,  and  Burgundy.  The  Parliament  of  Paris,  which 
had  convened  immediately  upon  the  news  of  the  king's  captivity,  pre- 
sented a  long  list  of  wrongs,  and  insisted  upon  redress  before  granting 
supplies  or  taking  measures  for  the  public  defense.  Among  the  least 
offensive  of  their  demands  to  the  regent  was  that  for  the  extermination  of 
the  Lutheran  heretics,  who  were  held  responsible  for  all  the  misfortunes 
that  had  come  upon  France.  Two  of  these  pious  and  unoffending  people 
were  shortly  burned  at  Paris. 

105.  Four  months  after  the  battle  of  Pavia,  the  royal  prisoner  Avas 
conveyed  into  Spain,  where  he  was  subjected  to  a  severe  and  rigorous 
confinement.  Vexation  of  mind  threw  him  into  a  dangerous  illness ;  and 
Charles,  who  had  not  hitherto  deigned  to  visit  his  former  "good  father," 
"  friend,"  and  "  brother,"  now  feared  that  his  prisoner  would  escape  him 
without  subscribing  the  hard  terms  which  he  desired  to  impose.  He 
went  to  see  Francis  in  his  prison,  and  a  few  kind  words  so  raised  the 
spirits  of  the  captive,  that  his  health  began  to  improve.  His  favorite 
sister,  the  recently  widowed  Duchess  of  Alengon,  undertook  an  embassy 
to  Spain,  with  full  powers  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  the  two  mon- 
archs,  but  she  failed  to  obtain  easier  terms  for  France.  Charles  insisted 
upon  a  partition  of  that  kingdom,  by  which  he  himself  was  to  receive 
Burgundy,  Picardy,  and  whatever  else  had  belonged  to  Charles  the  Bold 
at  his  death ;  all  the  Bourbon  possessions,  with  Provence,  were  to  be  con- 
ferred with  a  royal  title  upon  the  Constable,  and  Normandy,  Guienne, 


THE  TREATY  OF  MADRID.  173 

and  Gascony  were  to  revert  to  the  king  of  England.     The  dominion  of 
Francis  would  thus  have  scarcely  exceeded  that  of  the  first  of  the  Capets. 

106.  Subsequently,  the  demands  of  Bourbon  were  reduced  to  a  free 
pardon  and  restitution  to  his  hereditary  possessions.  The  towns  of 
Picardy,  so  long  in  dispute  between  Louis  XI.  and  Charles  the  Bold,  were 
also  abandoned  by  the  emperor ;  and  the  Treaty  of  Madrid,  thus  modified, 
was  sworn  by  Francis  "  on  the  word  and  honor  of  a  king."  He  had  pre- 
viously stated  in  the  presence  of  his  embassadors,  that  he  had  acted 
under  compulsion,  and  did  not  intend  to  execute  the  conditions  which  he 
was  about  to  sign.  The  treaty  was  confirmed,  however,  by  his  betrothal 
with  the  emperor's  sister,  Eleanora,  the  widowed  queen  of  Portugal,  and 
the  two  sons  of  Francis  were  given  as  hostages  for  its  fulfillment. 

107.  Once  free  and  upon  his  own  soil,  he  refused  to  ratify  his  engage- 
ments with  the  Spanish  ministers  at  Bayonne,  on  the  plea  that  he  must 
first  consult  the  Estates  of  France  and  Burgundy ;  and  when  these  were 
assembled,  they  insisted,  as  had  probably  been  prearranged,  that  the  king 
could  not  annul  his  coronation-oath  by  any  subsequent  agreement.  The 
Burgundian  envoys  also  declared  that  they  would  resist  by  force  of  arms 
any  attempt  to  sever  them  from  France.  The  king  then  offered  the 
imperial  embassadors,  who  were  present,  two  millions  of  crowns  as  a  com- 
pensation for  Burgundy,  and  promised  in  all  other  respects  to  fulfill  the 
treaty.  The  emperor,  when  informed  of  this  evasion,  remarked  that  it 
was  easy  for  the  king  of  France  to  redeem  at  least  his  personal  honor  by 
returning  into  Spain ;  but  the  honor  of  Francis  was  of  a  different  tone 
from  that  of  Eegulus,  or  even  of  his  ancestor,  King  John. 

108.  Meanwhile,  the  Italians  had  been  thrown  into  consternation  by 
the  too  decisive  victory  of  their  ally  at  Pavia ;  for  the  whole  peninsula 
seemed  at  the  mercy  of  the  emperor.  Another  Holy  Alliance  was  formed 
against  him  by  the  Pope,  the  Venetians,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  the  king 
of  France.  Francesco  Sforza  had  been  restored  to  his  duchy  only  as  a 
vassal,  and  his  chancellor,  Morone,  now  devised  a  plot  for  destroying  at 
a  blow  the  union  and  freedom  of  Italy.  Pescara,  Italian  by  birth,  though 
Spaniard  by  descent,  was  known  to  be  disaffected  toward  the  emperor. 
He  was  informed  by  a  trusty  messenger  that  all  the  states  of  Italy  were 
ready  to  unite  in  placing  the  crown  of  Naples  upon  his  head ;  provided, 
that  he  would  disband  the  imperial  army,  of  which  he  had  sole  command, 
and  thus  aid  in  delivering  the  peninsula  from  the  German  yoke.  Find- 
ing that  this  conspiracy  was  already  known  in  Madrid,  Pescara  resolved 
to  meet  the  advances  of  the  Milanese  with  a  counter-plot.  He  invited 
Morone  to  a  personal  interview,  and  took  care  to  have  Antonio  de  Leyva, 
the  Spanish  general,  concealed  behind  the  tapestry.  When  the  unsuspect- 
ing chancellor  had  fully  disclosed  the  plans  of  his  master,  he  was  seized, 
and  found  himself  the  victim  rather  than  the  partner  of  Pescara. 


174  MODERN  HISTORY. 

109.  Francesco  Sforza  was  deprived  of  all  his  dominions,  which  were 
then  bestowed  by  the  Emperor  upon  the  Duke  of  Bourbon.  Pescara  died 
a  few  weeks  later.  Morone  remained  a  prisoner  in  Milan,  until  Bourbon, 
wanting^  money,  first  sentenced  him  to  death,  and  then  sold  him  life 
and  liberty  for  20,000  ducats.  The  Milanese  people,  who  had  suffered 
new  miseries  at  every  change  of  masters,  hailed  the  arrival  of  Bourbon  in 
the  hope  of  a  firm  and  settled  government.  He  promised  to  remove  his 
army,  which  had  been  quartered  upon  the  citizens,  upon  the  payment  of 
300,000  crowns.  But  when  that  sum  was  raised,  the  soldiers  still  refused 
to  move,  and  some  of  the  Milanese,  despairing  of  relief,  put  an  end  to 
their  own  lives. 

110.  The  Pope  was  soon  subjected  to  still  greater  misfortunes.  Cardi- 
nal Colonna,  a  man  of  revengeful  and  lawless  temper,  an  old  enemy  of 
Clement  VII.,  with  whom,  however,  he  had  been   formally  reconciled, 

suddenly  raised  an  army  of  his  own  vassals  and  retainers, 

Sept.,  1520.  "^  ''  ' 

and  marched  upon  Eome.     The   Pope  shut  himself  uj)  in 

the   Castle   of   St.  Angelo,  but  for  want  of  provisions  was  compelled  to 

surrender  in  three  days.     The  freebooters  who  followed  Colonna  plundered 

the  Vatican  palace  and  the  church  of  St.  Peter.     The  kings  of  France 

and  England  hastened  to  send  money  and  troops ;  and  Clement  was  soon 

able  to  exact  a  terrible  vengeance  from  the  Colonnas.     Their  palaces  in 

Eome  were  leveled  with  the  ground,  and  their  estates  in  the  country  were 

ravaged  by  the  papal  forces. 

111.  But  a  fresh  calamity  now  threatened  the  Eternal  City.  Frunds- 
berg,  the  famous  Lutheran  captain,  marched  from  Germany  at  the  head  of 
11,000  brigands,  who  had  enlisted  less  in  the  hope  of  pay  than  of  plunder. 
The  papal  capital  was  at  once  the  richest  and  the  weakest  object  that  could 
tempt  them,  and,  joined  by  the  unpaid  and  hungry  troops  of  Bourbon  at 
Milan,  they  marched  upon  Rome.  On  the  way  they  were  met  by  a  papal 
embassy  proposing  a  truce;  the  soldiery,  fierce  for  their  promised  prize, 
rose  in  open  mutiny,  and  even  leveled  their  spears  at  the  breast  of  their 
own  general,  who  was  trying  to  pacify  them.  Stung  by  their  ingratitude, 
Frundsberg  fell  into  convulsions  from  which  he  never  recovered ;  and 
the  soldiers,  too  late  struck  with  remorse,  subsided  into  order,  only  reiter- 
A  D  IS*??  ating   their   cry,    "  Eome !    Eome !"      On    the    evening  of 

May  5,  they  arrived  before  the  walls,  and  the  next  morn- 
ing orders  were  given  for  the  assault.  Bourbon  was  placing  a  ladder  with 
his  own  hands,  when  he  received  a  ball  in  his  side.  Feeling  that  he  must 
die,  he  covered  his  face  with  his  cloak  that  he  might  not  be  recognized, 
and  breathed  his  last,  while  his  victorious  followers  were  making  their 
entrance  into  the  city.  The  Prince  of  Orange  was  chosen  by  the  troops 
to  be  their  commander-in-chief. 

112.  Eome  was  seized  with  a  panic.     The  Pope,  with  a  crowd  of  cardi- 


WARS  IN  ITALY.  175 

nals,  nobles,  and  citizens,  took  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo.  The 
city  was  abandoned  to  the  Spanish  and.  German  soldiery,  and  was  filled 
for  two  weeks  with  horrid  scenes  of  massacre,  pillage,  and  desecration. 
The  treasures,  which  for  centuries  had  been  flowing  from  all  Christendom 
toward  Rome,  were  now  the  prize  of  a  starved  and  greedy  multitude, 
whom  neither  fear  nor  conscience  could  restrain. 

113.  The  Florentines  availed  themselves  of  the  presence  of  the 
imperial  army  to  expel  the  Medici,  and,  placing  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  France,  sought  to  restore  the  Republic  which  Savonarola  J 
had  set  up.  Venice  recovered  Ravenna  and  Cervia,  and  the  Dukes 
of  Urbino  and  Ferrara  revenged  themselves  for  former  disasters,  by  seiz- 
ing several  cities  in  the  States  of  the  Church.  It  was  expected  and  de- 
sired by  many  that  the  Emperor  would  fix  his  residence  in  Rome,  and 
thus  restore  to  the  Western  Empire  its  ancient  capital. 

114.  Charles  affected  the  utmost  humility  and  moderation.  He  attired 
himself  and  his  court  in  mourning  for  the  misfortunes  of  the  Pope,  and 
ordered  prayers  in  all  the  churches  for  his  deliverance.  This  was  effected 
by  treaty,  six  months  after  the  capture  of  Rome.  The  pontiff  paid  a  ran- 
som of  several  hundreds  of  thousands  of  gold  crowns,  promised  to  assem- 
ble a  general  Council  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  heresy,  and  engaged  never  more  to  meddle  in  the  affairs  of 
Naples  or  the  Milanese. 

115.  A  French  army  under  Lautrec  was  already  in  Italy;  and  a 
French  fleet  commanded  by  the  great  admiral,  Andrew  Doria,  besieged 
Genoa,  expelled  the  Ghibelline  doge,  Adorni,  and  set  up  a  governor  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  France.  Lautrec  took  Pavia  by  storm  and  gave 
it  up  to  plunder,  in  revenge  for  its  resistance  to  Francis  and  his  conse- 
quent misfortunes  in  1524.  The  Pope  being  now  liberated,  Lautrec  pro- 
ceeded to  the  siege  of  Naples,  in  which  he  was  aided  by  a  Genoese  and 
Venetian  fleet.  The  city  must  have  been  taken,  had  not  the  French 
king,  intent  only  upon  his  own  pleasures,  withheld  the  needed  supplies 
from  his  army,  and  at  the  same  time  offended  the  Dorias  by  most  injuri- 
ous treatment.  Andrew  Doria  transferred  his  services  to  the  Emperor,- 
and,  sailing  to  Naples,  forced  the  French  commander  to  raise  the  siege. 
Lautrec  was  already  dead  from  a  pestilence  which  had  carried  off  the 
greater  part  of  his  army.  This  fourth  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  armies 
of  Francis  I.  was  a  failure.  The  Prince  of  Orange  w^as  established  as 
viceroy  of  Naples  for  the  Spanish  sovereign.  The  French  were  expelled 
from  Genoa,  and  the  republic  reorganized  under  imperial  protection.  The 
old  feud  of  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  was  ended  by  a  more  just  and  effi- 
cient constitution ;  public  affairs  were  intrusted  to  a  Council  of  Four 
Hundred;  and  Genoa  suffered  no  more  revolutions  until  its  conquest  by 
the  French  in  1797. 


176  MODERN  HISTORY. 

116.  The  war  between  Charles  and  Francis,  after  dragging  another 
year,  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Cambray,  commonly  called  the 
"  Ladies'  Peace,"  as  it  was  negotiated  by  the  Emperor's  aunt  and  the 
King's  mother.  Francis  kept  Burgundy,  but  surrendered  all  his  claims 
in  Italy,  together  With  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  Flanders  and  Artois. 
The  House  of  Bourbon  was  reinstated  in  its  dignities  and  possessions. 
The  sons  of  Francis  were  redeemed  from  their  captivity,  and  were  accom- 
panied from  Spain  by  the  Emperor's  sister,  who  soon  became  queen  of 
France.  The  wars  of  the  French  in  Italy  had  continued  36  years,  from 
the  invasion  by  Charles  VIII. 

Hungary  invaded  and  Rhodes  conquered  by  the  Turks.  Knights  of  St.  John  settled 
finally  at  Malta.  League  against  Francis  I.  joined  by  the  Constable  de  Bourbon,  who  plots 
the  partition  of  France.  Clement  VII.  (Cardinal  Medici)  becomes  pope.  Bourbon  and 
Pescara  drive  Bonnivet  from  Italy  and  invade  France.  Francis  I.  in  turn  enters  Italy 
and  besieges  Pavia  ;  is  taken  prisoner  and  conveyed  into  Spain ;  being  released,  he  evades 
the  fulfillment  of  the  treaty  which  he  signed  at  Madrid,  and  joins  a  new  league  of  the 
Pope  and  other  powers  against  the  Emperor.  Plot  of  Morone  for  deliverance  of  Italy 
being  discovered,  leads  to  the  fall  of  the  Sforzas.  Bourbon  becomes  duke  of  Milan.  Rome 
twice  captured  and  plundered,  once  by  Cardinal  Colonna  and  again  by  an  imperial  army 
under  Bourbon.  French  recapture  Genoa  and  Pavia,  and  besiege  Naples,  but  are  thwarted 
by  pestilence,  and  the  defection  of  the  Dorias.  Genoa  becomes  independent.  Wars  in 
Italy  closed  by  the  Treaty  of  Cambray,  1529. 

Progress  of  the  Eeformation. 

117.  The  Eeformation,  meanwhile,  had  made  only  the  more  rapid 
progress,  while  the  attention  of  spiritual  and  temporal  princes  had  been 
absorbed  by  affairs  in  Italy.  Luther  was  disturbed  in  his  retreat  at  the 
Wartburg  by  news  of  violent  and  fanatical  movements  among  his  fol- 
lowers, which  threatened  discredit  to  the  cause  of  religious  freedom. 
Carlstadt,  his  substitute  at  Wittenberg,  had  nearly  broken  up  the  Uni- 
versity by  denouncing  profane  learning,  encouraging  the  students  to 
deface  the  churches,  and  himself  resorting  to  the  most  ignorant  persons 

for  instruction  in  the  Scriptures.     Though  still  outlawed  by 
the  imperial  edict,  Luther  returned  to  Wittenberg,  and  by 

preaching  and  writing,  threw  his  great  influence  into  the  restoration  of 

order  and  reason. 

118.  Several  causes  were  now  disturbing  the  peace  of  Germany.  In 
spite  of  the  abolition  of  the  right  of  private  war,  knights  still  scoured 
the  country  with  their  retainers,  robbed  merchants  and  rich  travelers, 
and  even  cut  off  the  right  hands  of  their  prisoners.  Franz  von  Sick- 
ingen,  the  greatest  of  the  Rhenish  knights,  became  the  head  of  a  league 
formed  by  his  order  in  hostility  to  the  princes.  The  knights  professed  a 
bitter  hatred  of  the  priests,  and  claimed  the  support  of  Luther ;  but  the 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  Ill 

Keformer,  who  dreaded  nothing  so  much  as  the  propagation  of  his  doc- 
trine by  the  sword,  only  exhorted  Sickingen  and  his  companions  to 
observe  the  peace  of  the  empire.  They  declared  war,  nevertheless, 
against  the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  who  was  aided  by  the  Landgrave, 
Philip  of  Hesse,  and  Frederic,  the  Elector-Palatine.  Sickingen,  after 
being  deprived  of  many  of  his  castles,  was  besieged  at  last  in  Landstuhl ; 
and  its  massive  walls  being  reduced  to  i  heap  of  ruins  by  artillery,  he 
was  found  in  one  of  the  inner  apartments,  mortally  wounded.  "  What 
have  I  done,"  exclaimed  the  archbishop,  as  he  entered  the  vaulted  cham- 
ber, "  that  you  should  attack  me  and  my  poor  people  ?"  "Or  I,"  said 
the  Landgrave  Philip,  "that  you  should  overrun  my  lands  in  my  mi- 
nority ?"  "  I  must  answer,"  replied  Sickingen,  "  to  a  greater  Lord." 
Being  asked  to  confess  his  sins,  he  said  "  I  have  already  in  my  heart  con- 
fessed to  God."  The  princes  knelt  in  prayer,  while  the  chaplain  admin- 
istered the  last  religious  rites,  and  their  enemy  expired.  Twenty-seven 
castles  of  Sickingen  and  his  friends,  and  most  of  the  similar  strongholds 
in  Franconia,  v/ere  soon  dismantled  or  destroyed. 

119.  The  following  years  were  marked  by  a  terrible  revolt  of  the 
peasantry  in  Suabia,  Franconia,  Lorraine,  Alsace,  and  the  Palatinate. 
These  unfortunate  people  believed  that  the  "  new  religion  "  was  to  put  a 
sudden  end  to  all  the  grievances  under  which  they  had  so  long  and  bit- 
terly suffered.  They  submitted  to  Luther  their  list  of  demands,  the  first 
of  which  was  the  right  to  choose  their  own  religious  teachers.  Luther 
advised  them  to  submit  to  their  rulers,  while  he  published  an  appeal  to 
the  latter,  charging  them  with  having  occasioned  the  disturbances  by 
their  suppression  of  the  Gospel.     The  peasants  w^ere  joined 

by  several  nobles  and  knights,  and  gained  some  advantages  • 
over  the  armies  sent  to  oppose  them ;  but  they  could  not  long  withstand 
the  cannon  and  thoroughly  armed  horsemen  of  their  antagonists.  They 
were  defeated,  and  in  multitudes  of  instances  either  hanged  or  tortured  ; 
100,000  persons  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  and  their  fertile  fields 
made  desolate. 

120.  The  fanaticism  of  one  Thomas  Miinzer  prolonged  the  commotions. 
He  drew  around  him  crowds  of  idle  and  unprincipled  people  by  proclaim- 
ing community  of  goods,  and  leading  them  to  the  plunder  of  churches, 
convents,  and  even  castles.  A  young  nobleman,  who  was  sent  to  treat 
with  them,  was  brutally  put  to  death  ;  but  in  the  battle  which  followed 
the  disorderly  crowd  were  slaughtered  without  mercy. 

121.  The  Catholic  princes,  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  the  Electors  of 
Mentz  and  Brandenburg,  and  others,  now  united  themselves  more  closely 
to  oppose  the  Reformation,  while  the  friends  of  the  reformed  d  r26 
doctrines  formed  the  League  of  Torgau,  for  mutual  protec- 
tion in  case  of  attack  upon  their  religion.     Both  parties  were  ready  for 

M.  H.— 12. 


178  MODERN  HISTORY. 

action  in  the  Diet  held  at  Spires,  in  June,  1526.  The  hostile  relations 
between  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope  at  this  crisis,  (see  §§  111-114,)  and 
the  pressing  need  of  uniting  all  Germany  against  the  Turks,  led  to  a 
suspension  of  the  Edict  of  Worms ;  and,  during  the  few  years  of  tran- 
quillity which  followed,  the  Reformation  gained  strength.  In  a  subse- 
quent Diet  at  Spires  the  adherents  of  the  ancient  Church  secured  a 
decree  against  all  innovations  in  worship  or  doctrine;  and  the  reformed 
party  entered  a  solemn  protest  against  this  decree,  which  gave  to  them, 
and  by  derivation  to  all  who  have  since  held  their  essential  doctrines, 
the  name  of  Protestants.* 

122.  All  Europe  was  now  thrown  into  consternation  by  the  movements 
of  Solyman  II.,  who,  in  the  five  years  since  his  capture  of  Belgrade,  had 
subdued  Egypt,  shaken  the  Persian  kingdom  to  its  foundations,  and,  turn- 
ing toward  Europe,  declared  himself  emperor  of  the  West  as  well  as  of  the 
East,  aiming  to  make  Constantinople  again  the  capital  of  the  world.  Hun- 
gary was  his  first  point  of  attack ;  and  that  country  was  reduced  by  the 
wars  of  the  great  nobles  to  the  last  degree  of  weakness  and  poverty.  The 
royal  Council  at  Tolna  were  still  disputing  about  means  of  resisting 
the  Ottoman  invasion,  when  the  smoke  of  a  burning  town  announced  to 
them  that  the  Turks,  now  numbering  300,000  men,  had  crossed  the  Drave 

and  were  in  full  march  northward.     King  Louis  II.  awaited 

Aug    1526. 

them  with  only  20,000,  in  the  marshy  plain  of  Mohacz. 
His  army  consisted  chiefly  of  heavily  armed  cavalry,  while  the  Turk 
had  availed  himself  of  the  latest  improvements  in  fire-arms,  and,  beside 
his  thoroughly  drilled  infantry,  had  three  hundred  well-mounted  cannon 
in  his  camp.  The  dashing  courage  of  the  Hungarians  was  of  little  avail ; 
the  flower  of  their  nobility  soon  lay  dead  upon  the  fatal  field,  and  the 
young  king  —  now  only  in  his  twentieth  year  —  was  drowned  or  smoth- 
ered in  the  swamp  in  attempting  to  escape. 

123.  Solyman  marched  toward  Buda,  burning  towns  and  villages  in 
his  way.  After  two  weeks'  residence  in  the  capital  he  withdrew,  carrying 
with  him  the  valuable  library  collected  by  Matthias  Corvinus,  and  several 
works  of  art  which  served  to  adorn  Constantinople.  The  vacant  crowns 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  were  claimed  by  the  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
(brother  of  the  Emperor  Charles,)  who  had  married  a  sister  of  King 
Louis.  He  was  crowned  at  Prague,  Feb.,  1527;  but  in  Hungary  he  had 
a  powerful  rival  in  John  Zapolya,  the  lord  of  seventy-two  castles  and  the 


*  These  first  Protestants  may  be  here  recorded  :  John,  Elector  of  Saxony;  Philip,  Land- 
grave of  Hesse;  the  Dukes  of  Grubenhagen,  Celle,  and  Mecklenburg;  Prince  Wolfgang 
of  Anhalt ;  two  Counts  of  Mansfield  ;  George,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg ;  and  the  cities  of 
Magdeburg,  Strasbourg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Constance,  Reutlingen,  Windsheim,  Memmin- 
gen,  Lindau,  ICempten,  Ileilbronn,  Issny,  Weissenburg,  Nordlingen,  and  St.  Gallen. 


WARS  WITH  THE   TURKS.  179 

greatest  of  the  Hungarian  magnates,  who  was  supported,  moreover,  by 
the  influence  and  money  of  the  French  king  and  the  Pope.  Zapolya 
received  the  crown  of  St.  Stephen  in  November,  1526 ;  but  a  party  among 
the  nobles  declared  for  Ferdinand,  who  advanced  with  a  large  army  from 
Bohemia,  gained  the  battle  of  Tokay,  and,  together  with  his  consort,  was 
crowned  in  turn  with  St.  Stephen's  diadem. 

124.  Zapolya  now  made  an  alliance  with  the  Sultan,  who  had  con- 
quered the  greater  part  of  Bosnia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Slavonia,  and 
advanced  again  in  1529  to  the  plain  of  Mohacz.  Here  Zapolya  appeared 
and  did  homage  for  his  crown,  after  which  degrading  ceremony  he  accom- 
panied the  Grand  Turk  to  Buda  and  aided  in  putting  its  garrison  to  the 
sword.  The  entire  Turkish  army,  supported  by  a  fleet  in  the  Danube, 
now  laid  siege  to  Vienna.  All  parties  in  Germany  united  in  this  moment 
of  general  danger,  and  the  defense  was  as  determined  as  the  attack  was 
formidable.  The  very  number  of  the  Turks,  moreover,  made  it  difficult  to 
maintain  them  in  a  hostile  country,  and  by  the  middle  of  October  they 
commenced  their  retreat.  Zapolya  was  left  to  conduct  the  civil  war  with 
Ferdinand  on  his  own  account. 

125.  The  Emperor,  who  had  resided  eight  years  in  Spain,  visited  Italy 
to  restore  the  order  so  long  interrupted  by  his  wars  with  the  king  of 
France.  The  freedom  of  Florence,  already  sold  by  the  Pope  in  his  treaty 
with  Charles  at  Barcelona,  was  now  overthrown.  Upon  the  refusal  of  the 
citizens  to  recall  the  Medici,  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  ordered  to  lay 
siege  to  the  city.  It  was  fortified  by  Michael  Angelo,  and  valiantly  de- 
fended by  an  army  without  the  walls;  but  its  best  general  having  been 
slain  in  battle,  and  another  proving  a  traitor,  the  city  was  compelled  to 
receive  an  imperial  garrison,  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom,  and  agree  to  the 
hereditary  rule  of  the  Medici.  The  Prince  of  Orange  was  killed  in  the 
same  battle;  and  his  titles  and  dominions  were  transferred,  by  the  mar- 
riage of  his  sister,  to  the  House  of  Nassau. 

126.  The  Emperor  proceeded  to  Bologna,  where  he  received  from  the 
Pope  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy  and  the  imperial  diadem.  The  Ger- 
man Electors  were  not  invited  to  take  their  hereditary  parts  in  the  cere- 
mony f  the  Duke  of  Savoy  carried  the  crown,  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat, 
the  scepter,  and  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  the  sword.  Charles  V.  was  the  last 
Emperor  crowned  in  Italy. 

127.  Crossing  the  Tyrolese  Alps  into  Germany,  the  Emperor  repaired 
to  Augsburg,  where  he  had  summoned  a  Diet  to  meet  in  May,  1530,  for 
the  two  purposes  of  settling  religious  difficulties  and  concerting  measures 
against  the  Turks.  The  threatening  movements  of  Solyman  compelled 
a  more  conciliating  tone  toward  the  Protestant  princes;  and  thus  the 
Moslem  hosts  became  the  unconscious  allies  of  the  Reformation.  A  state- 
ment of  the  Lutheran  doctrines,  known  as  the  Augsburg  Confession,  had 


180  MODERN  HISTORY. 

been  drawn  up  by  Melancthon,  a  theologian  of  great  learning,  and  firm 
devotion  to  the  truth,  though  of  a  mild  and  gentle  disposition.  It  was 
signed  by  all  the  Protestant  princes  and  representatives,  and  has  ever 
since  been  the  standard  of  belief  in  the  Lutheran  churches. 

128.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  League  of  Smalcald  was  signed 
by  the  same  powers.  Its  leaders  were  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse ;  and  it  included  eventually  seven  princes,  two 
counts,  and  twenty-four  cities.  To  avoid  leaving  the  government  in  the 
hands  of  the  imperial  vicars  during  his  frequent  absences  from  Germany, 
the  Emperor  had  resolved  to  have  his  brother  Ferdinand  elected  king  of 
the  Romans ;  and  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who 
was  one  of  the  vicars,  the  archduke  w^as  actually  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1531.  The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  hereditary  rival  of  the  House 
of  Austria,  allied  himself  with  the  Smalcaldic  League  in  opposing  the 
power  of  Ferdinand.  The  League  was  further  strengthened  by  the 
alliance  of  Francis  L,  who,  though  himself  engaged  in  burning  heretics, 
rejoiced  in  every  sort  of  opposition  to  the  power  of  Charles.  For  the 
same  reason  he  kept  up  his  intimacy  with  King  John  (Zapolya)  of  Hun- 
gary, and  even  with  Solyman,  the  Turk.  The  French  king  declared 
himself  the  protector  of  Christians  in  the  Levant,  and  obtained  from  the 
Sultan  for  their  use  all  the  churches  in  Jerusalem,  except  the  principal 
one,  which  was  now  a  mosque.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  also  favored  the 
League,  for,  though  proud  of  his  controversy  with  Luther,  he  had  his 
own  cause  of  enmity  with  Charles,  which  is  soon  to  be  described. 

129.  The  progress  of  the  Turks  compelled  the  emperor  to  conclude  the 
first  religious  peace  at  Nuremberg,  in  1532.  It  was  confirmed  by  the  Diet 
of  Ratisbon,  and  granted  full  liberty  to  preach  and  publish  the  doctrines 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  same  month,  John  the  Steadfast  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  John  Frederic,  in  the  electorate  of  Saxony. 
In  consequence  of  the  peace,  Charles  was  soon  attended  near  Vienna  by 
an  army  of  80,000  men.  Solyman  advanced  into  Hungary  at  the  head  of 
350,000,  and  with  a  dazzling  display  of  Oriental  magnificence.  Many 
fortresses  sent  him  their  keys,  and  his  march  was  less  like  an  invasion 
than  a  peaceful  progress  through  his  own  dominions.  At  the  little  for- 
tress of  Giins,  however,  he  met  an  opposition  which  severely  wounded  his 
pride.  His  whole  army  was  detained  more  than  three  weeks  by  a  garrison 
of  only  700  men,  who  repulsed  eleven  assaults,  and  at  last  only  permitted 
ten  Janizaries  to  remain  an  hour  in  the  place,  to  erect  the  Turkish  stand- 
ard. The  operations  of  Andrew  Doria  in  the  Morea,  and  the  defeat  of 
his  cavalry  at  the  Summering  Pass,  further  discouraged  the  Sultan,  who 
hastily  retreated,  leaving  only  a  force  of  60,000  men  at  Essek,  to  support 
the  interests  of  Zapolya.  Peace  was  made  the  following  year  between  the 
Empire  and  the  Porte. 


REFORMATION  IN  ENGLAND.  181 

130.  Important  events  had  occurred  meanwhile  in  western  Europe. 
Pope  Clement  VII.,  having  causes  of  offense  with  the  Emperor,  courted 
the  alliance  of  the  king  of  France,  and  negotiated  at  Marseilles  the 
marriage  of  his  niece,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  with  Henry,  Duke  of  Or- 
leans, the  second  son  of  that  monarch.  By  the  subsequent  death  of 
his  elder  brother,  Henry  became  heir  to  the  French  kingdom,  and 
Catherine  during  the  reigns  of  her  three  sons  exerted  a  powerful  and 
most  baleful  influence  upon  the  fortunes  of  France. 

131.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  had  married  Catherine,  youngest 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  and  the  widow  of  his 
brother  Arthur.  All  the  sons  born  of  this  marriage  had  died  in  infancy, 
and  only  one  daughter  remained  —  the  sickly  Princess  Mary,  afterward  as 
queen,  to  bear  so  melancholy  a  name  in  history.  According  to  the 
notions  of  the  age,  Henry  regarded  the  death  of  his  children  as  signs  of 
Heaven's  displeasure  with  the  marriage,  and  for  several  years  had  been 
petitioning  the  Pope  to  annul  it.  Clement,  however,  was  embarrassed  by 
the  necessity  of  conciliating  many  powers.  If  he  declared  for  Catherine, 
both  France  and  England  were  ready  to  sever  their  connection  with  the 
Roman  Church ;  if  he  favored  Henry,  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  were 
no  less  certain  to  become  protestant.  The  queen  of  England  was  aunt  of 
the  Emperor  Charles,  who  naturally  supported  her  claims  and  those  of 
her  daughter.  When  imperial  influence  prevailed  at  the  papal  court, 
Clement  refused  the  divorce ;  when  the  French  king,  who  was  in  alliance 
with  England,  had  the  ascendency,  a  different  decision  was  hinted  as 
probable. 

132.  By  the  advice  of  Cranmer,  then  an  obscure  priest,  Henry  sub- 
mitted the  question  to  the  universities  of  Europe.  The  balance  of  opin- 
ion was  assumed  to  be  in  his  favor,  and,  in  June,  1533,  Cranmer,  now 
promoted  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  solemnly  pronounced  the  mar- 
riage with  Queen  Catherine  annulled.  The  king  was  already  married 
to  Anne  Boleyn,  who  had  imbibed  the  reformed  doctrines  in  the  court  of 
the  French  king's  sister,  Margaret  of  Navarre,  and  was  considered  by  the 
English  Protestants  as  a  powerful  ally  of  their  cause.  The  famous  parlia- 
ment of  1534  abolished  the  papal  authority  in  England,  forbade  the  pay- 
ment of  "Peter-pence"  or  other  tribute  to  Eome,  and  declared  the 
king  to  be  the  head  of  the  national  Church.  Though  this  decisive  event 
was  immediately  brought  about  by  personal  and  selfish  motives,  yet  the 
reformation  in  England  had  a  far  deeper  origin,  and  had  only  been  has- 
tened by  the  discussions  concerning  the  king's  marriage.  The  irresolu- 
tion of  the  Pope  shook  the  faith  of  many  who  would  gladly  have  regarded 
him  as  inspired  with  unerring  wisdom  ;  and  the  question  was  heard:  "If 
Pope  Clement  will  not  decide  when  England's  welfare  is  at  stake,  where 
is  his  justice?  —  if  he  can  not,  where  is  his  infallibility?"     In  spite  of  the 


182  MODERN  HISTORY. 

law  for  the  burning  of  heretics,  now  in  full  force,  and  illustrated  by  many- 
executions  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  hearts  of  the  common 
people  were  more  and  more  alienated  from  the  ancient  Church. 

133.  Pope  Clement  VII.  died  in  September,  1534.  His  pontificate  had 
been  marked  by  losses  and  calamities  unknown  to  his  predecessors:  him- 
self a  prisoner,  Eome  plundered  and  desecrated,  once  by  a  prince  of  the 
Church  and  once  by  the  forces  of  the  Emperor;  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
England  severed  from  their  obedience  to  the  Church,  whose  doctrines 
were  also  denied  by  a  great  part  of  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Clement 
was  succeeded  in  the  papacy  by  Alexander  Farnese,  who  took  the  name 
of  Paul  III. 

134.  The  Mediterranean  coasts  were  infested  at  this  time  by  Moham- 
medan pirates,  especially  by  the  "flying  squadrons"  of  Barbarossa,  who, 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  Horuc,  had  become  king  of  Algiers.  The 
Sultan  Solyman  appointed  this  daring  freebooter  his  admiral;  from  Gib- 
raltar to  Messina,  along  the  borders  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  France,  no  man 
slept  securely ;  and  on  the  African  coast  a  multitude  of  captives  were 
waiting  to  be  ransomed,  while  reduced  by  their  fierce  and  barbarous  mas- 
ters to  a  most  degrading  servitude.  Barbarossa  had  recently  taken  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  of  Tunis,  from  which  he  expelled  its  rightful  mon- 
arch, Muley  Hassan;  and  the  terror  of  Europe  was  only  heightened  by 
this  increase  of  his  power. 

135.  Among  the  most  famous  and  successful  enterprises  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  V.  was  a  crusade  against  these  corsairs.  Mustering  his  forces  at 
Cagliari,  in  Sardinia,  the  Emperor  took  command  in  person,  and  landed 
on  the  African  coast  near  the  ancient  town  of  Utica.  The  fortress  of 
Goletta,  which  protects  Tunis,  was  taken  by  storm ;  Barbarossa  was  routed 
in  a  pitched  battle,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  Christian  captives,  Tunis 
itself  was  taken.  Muley  Hassan  was  restored  upon  his  engaging  to  sup- 
press piracy,  to  protect  all  Christians  in  the  exercise  of  their  religion,  and 
to  pay  the  Emperor  a  yearly  tribute  of  12,000  ducats.  Charles  was  pre- 
ceded into  Europe  by  thousands  of  liberated  captives,  whom  he  had 
caused  to  be  clothed  and  equipped  at  his  expense,  and  who  spread  his 
fame  with  ardent  gratitude  through  their  various  countries. 

136.  The  king  of  France  now  made  a  new  pretext  for  war,  by  advan- 
cing a  most  unreasonable  claim  to  the  duchy  of  Savoy.  The  reigning 
duke  was  his  uncle,  but  was  nearly  allied  both  by  marriage  and  interest 
with  the  Emperor.  Early  in  1536,  the  French  troops  overran  the  duchy. 
All  attempts  at  negotiation  failing,  the  Emperor  declared  war,  and  armies 
were  collected  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands  for  a  double  invasion  of 
France.  With  that  reckless  cruelty  which  too  often  disgraced  his  policy, 
Francis  caused  the  rich  and  beautiful  region  between  the  Alps  and  the 
Rhone,  as  far  north  as  the  Durance,  to  be  made  utterly  waste.     Towns, 


PEACE  OF  TOLEDO. 


183 


villages,  and  mills  were  destroyed,  crops  burnt,  and  wells  poisoned.  Only 
three  places  were  left  to  be  defended,  and  of  these  the  Emperor  chose 
to  attack  Marseilles.  But  the  terrible  plan  of  defense  proved  effectual; 
hunger  and  disease  among  his  troops  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege 
after  sixteen  days,  and  to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  30,000  men.  The  invasion 
of  Picardy  was  attended  by  no  greater  success. 

137.  Francis,  elated  by  the  discomfiture  of  his  rival,  now  cherished 
great  plans  of  conquest  both  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  He  renewed 
his  old  alliance  with  the  Turks,  and  engaged  Barbarossa  to  land  an  army 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  while  he.  himself  should  enter  Lombardy  with 
50,000  men.  These  great  preparations,  however,  came  to  nothing.  The 
queen-regent  *  of  the  Netherlands,  with  her  sister,  the  queen  of  France, 
arranged  a  truce,  in  July,  1537,  which  was  prolonged  by  the  negotiation 
of  the  sovereigns  in  person  at  Nice,  1538,  and  finally  settled  into  a 
"perpetual  peace"  by  the  treaty  of  Toledo.     Francis   was  ^ 

left  in  possession  of  Savoy,  Bresse,  and  half  of  Piedmont ; 
the  rest  of  Piedmont  and  the  duchy  of  Milan  remained  to  the  Emperor. 
The  Duke  of  Savoy,  unjustly  deprived  of  his  dominions,  had  to  content 
himself  with  the  little  county  of  Nice.  Geneva,  long  subject,  nominally, 
to  the  dukes  of  Savoy,  but  really  to  its  bishops,  now  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic.  It  was  ruled  twenty-five  years  by  John  Calvin,  through 
whose  influence  it  became  not  only  the  stronghold  of  the  Keformation  in 
all  the  French-speaking  countries,  but  a  focus  for  all  Europe  of  religious, 
political,  and  scientific  progress. 


Luther  opposes  the  fanaticism  of  many  reformers,  the  lawlessness  of  the  knights,  and 
the  disorders  of  the  peasantry.  Many  castles  destroyed;  100,000  peasants  put  to  death. 
League  of  Torgau  unites  the  Protestant  princes  against  a  counter-alliance  of  the  Catholics. 
Protest  of  the  former  in  the  Diet  of  Spires  gives  a  name  to  their  party.  Advance  of  the 
Turks ;  Louis  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  slain  at  Mohacz ;  Buda  taken  and  plundered. 
Archduke  Ferdinand  becomes  king  of  Bohemia,  and  claims  Hungary,  which  is  held,  how- 
ever, by  Zapolya,  in  alliance  with  the  Turks. 

Florence  captured  by  an  imperial  army  and  the  Medici  restored.  Charles  receives  at 
Bologna  the  crowns  of  Italy  and  the  Empire.  Augsburg  Confession  adopted  by  the  Luther- 
ans. Smalcaldic  League  unites  the  Protestant  powers,  and  is  favored  by  France  and 
England.  Archduke  Ferdinand  crowned  King  of  the  Romans.  Third  invasion  of  Hun- 
gary by  Solyman  attended  with  great  pomp,  but  trifling  results.  Marriage  of  Catherine 
de'  Medici  with  Henry  of  France.  Separation  of  Henry  VIII.  from  Catherine  of  Aragon 
and  his  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn  favor  the  reformation  in  England.  The  king's 
supremacy  in  the  Church  declared  by  Parliament.  Moorish  corsairs  ravage  the  European 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Charles  V.  takes  Tunis  and  liberates  a  multitude  of  captives. 
Francis  I.  lays  waste  Provence.  Charles  besieges  Marseilles  without  success.  Peace  being 
made,  Geneva  becomes  independent. 


*The  Queen-dowager  Mary  of  Hungary,  widow  of  the  young  king,  Louis  II.,  who 
was  slain  at  Mohacz,  and  sister  of  the  Emperor  Charles.  She  succeeded  her  aunt,  the 
Duchess  Margaret,  as  regent  of  the  Netherlands,  in  1530. 


184  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Reign  of  Charles  V. 
138.  The  highest  military  office  in  France  had  remained  vacant  since 
the  treason  of  Bourbon.  It  was  now  filled  by  the  appointment  of  Mont- 
morency, a  life-long  companion  of  the  king,  whom  he  had  served  with 
distinguished  merit,  both  in  the  field  and  the  cabinet,  especially  in  the 
negotiations  for  his  release  from  the  captivity  in  Spain.  Under  his  influ- 
ence, Francis  I.  broke  off  his  friendship  with  the  king  of  England  and 
his  alliances  with  the  Lutherans  and  Turks,  while  he  cultivated  closer 
relations  with  the  Emperor.  A  scheme  was  even  proposed  by  the  French 
embassador  in  England  for  the  partition  of  that  kingdom  among  Charles 
v.,  Francis  I.,  and  James  V.  of  Scotland.  This  coming  to  the  ears  of 
Henry  VIII.,  he  resolved  to  league  himself  more  closely  with  the  confed- 
erates of  Smalcald  (see  §  128)  by  marrying  Anne,  sister  of  the  Duke  of 
Cleves  and  of  the  Electress  of  Saxony.  The  duke  was  one  of  the  great- 
est Protestant  princes,  having  lately  become  heir  to  Guelders  and  Zut- 
phen  by  the  extinction  of  the  family  of  Egmont,  as  well  as  to  his  father's 
duchy  of  Cleves  and  his  mother's  inheritance  of  Berg,  Jiiliers,  and  Ra- 
vensberg.  His  estates  lay  along  the  Rhine,  from  Cologne  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Utrecht,  and  from  the  Werre  to  the  Meuse.  The  marriage, 
however,  having  been  occasioned  by  a  temporary  policy  of  personal  resent- 
ment, was  soon  annulled  by  the  king  himself,  and,  though  Anne  continued 
to  reside  in  England,  the  failure  of  the  alliance  led  to  the  downfall  of 
the  Protestant  party  at  court. 

139.  The  fleet  of  Barbarossa  was  again  pursuing  its  ravages  in  the 
Levant  and  conquering  nearly  all  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  Venice 
^    ^  ^.^^  not  only  lost  these  and  several  places  on  the  mainland,  but 

A.  D.  Io40.  ^  ' 

had  to  pay  a  ransom  which  exhausted  her  resources  and  left 
her  dependent  upon  the  protection  of  France.  The  Emperor,  though 
master  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  had  great  difficulty  in  meeting  the  expenses 
of  his  government,  and  the  Spaniards,  ill-content  to  be  taxed  for  enter- 
prises in  which  they  had  no  concern,  refused  to  vote  supplies.  Charles 
revenged  himself  by  ceasing  to  convene  the  Cortes.  The  grandees  shut 
themselves  up  in  their  palaces  and  country-seats,  where  they  found  conso- 
lation for  the  loss  of  political  power  by  maintaining  all  the  ceremony  of 
royal  courts  and  exercising  sovereignty  over  thousands  of  vassals.  Ruin- 
ing their  fortunes  by  extravagance,  and  losing  all  warlike  energy  and 
skill  in  a  life  of  indolence,  they  ceased  to  be  formidable  to  their  monarch. 

140.  The  Netherlands  protested  in  their  own  way  against  the  burdens 
of  taxation.  Ghent,  the  Emperor's  native  city,  rose  in  revolt,  and  sent 
envoys  to  the  king  of  France,  acknowledging  him  as  its  sovereign.  Fran- 
cis being  now  on  friendly  terms  with  Charles,  betrayed  their  confidence, 
and  even  invited  the   Emperor  to  pass  through  France  on  his  way  to 


BEIGN  OF  CHARLES  V.  185 

punish  the  rebellion.  He  was  entertained  with  great  magnificence,  but 
had  no  sooner  set  foot  in  his  own  dominions  than  he  received  from  Francis 
a  demand  of  the  investiture  of  Milan  as  the  price  of  his  safe  passage.  It 
was  refused,  except  upon  conditions  which  the  French  king  declined  to 
accept;  and  the  Milanese  duchy  was  the  same  year  bestowed  upon  the 
emperor's  son  Philip.  Charles  entered  his  native  city  on  his  birthday, 
1540.  AH  the  principal  citizens,  with  bare  heads  and  feet,  asked  pardon 
on  their  knees.  But  no  submission  could  soften  the  vengeance  of  the 
sovereign.  Twenty  magistrates  were  beheaded ;  the  ancient  abbey  of  St. 
Bavon  and  the  Bell  Roland,  which,  from  its  tower,  had  so  often  summoned 
a  free  people  to  arms,  were  destroyed ;  and  from  the  fines  of  the  citizens  a 
fortress  was  erected  upon  its  site.  All  the  privileges  of  Ghent  were  abol- 
ished. The  commercial  prosperity  of  the  town  was  transferred  to  Antwerp ; 
its  brave  enthusiasm  for  freedom  was  inherited  by  the  northern  provinces, 
which  were  yet  to  wrest  their  independence  from  the  son  of  Charles. 

141.  The  French  king,  disappointed  in  his  mercenary  aims,  now  dis- 
missed Montmorency  and  renewed  his  alliance  with  the  Lutherans  and 
the  Turks.  The  former  had  gained  strength  by  the  accession  in  1535  of 
Joachim  11.  as  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  in  1539  of  Henry  the  Pious 
as  Duke*  of  Saxony,  in  the  places  of  princes  who  had  been  bitterly  opposed 
to  the  reformation.  The  people  of  these  countries  were  already  protestant 
at  heart,  and  the  reformed  worship  now  prevailed  from  the  Ehine  to  the 
Baltic.  Conferences  between  Eomish  and  protestant  divines  were  held  at 
Frankfort  in  1540,  and  before  the  Diet  at  Ratisbon  in  1541,  bringing  the 
two  parties  more  nearly  to  agreement  than  ever  before  or  after,  but  with- 
out producing  peace. 

142.  The  death  of  King  John  Zapolya  of  Hungary  renewed  the  hostili- 
ties with  the  Turks.  Before  the  troops  voted  by  the  Diet  of  Eatisbon 
could  take  the  field,  Solyman  had  a  third  time  entered  the  Hungarian 
capital,  where  he  now  established  both  government  and  religion  upon  a 
Mohammedan  basis,  which  continued  nearly  150  years.  In  vain  King 
Ferdinand  sent  embassadors  offering  to  hold  Hungary  as  a  tributary  of 
the  Porte ;  Solyman  haughtily  replied  by  demanding  a  yearly  tribute  for 
the  arch-duchy  of  Austria.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg  led  a  German 
army  to  the  siege  of  Pesth,  but  he  failed,  and  town  after  town  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks,  until,  in  1547,  the  Sultan  desiring  to  turn  his  arms 
toward  Persia,  consented  to  a  truce  for  five  years.  The  government  of 
the  Turkish  conquests  was  committed  to  twelve  ofiicers  appointed  by  the 
Porte. 


*  It  should  be  remembered  that  there  were  two  branches  of  the  Saxon  family;  the  elder 
or  Ernestine  possessing  the  electoral,  and  the  younger  or  Albertine,  the  ducal  title.  The 
latter  had  the  territories  of  Meissen  and  part  of  Thuringia,  including  the  cities  of  Dresden 
and  Leipzig.    Wittenberg  was  the  capital  of  the  electorate. 


186  MODERN  HISTORY. 

143.  The  Emperor  Charles,  meanwhile,  had   been  overwhelmed  with 

disasters  in  his  expedition  against  Algiers.     His  landing  on 

A.  D.  1541.  .  .11  ,.       •     1 

the  Alrican  coast  was  accompanied  by  a  tempest  oi  wind 
and  rain  which  spoiled  his  ammunition,  swept  away  his  tents  and  turned 
his  encampment  into  a  swamp.  His  fleet  being  wrecked,  the  provisions 
were  destroyed ;  a  pestilence  carried  away  the  greater  part  of  the  army ; 
and  at  last  the  emperor,  accompanied  by  the  shattered  remains  of  his 
splendid  armament,  arrived  in  December  at  the  Spanish  port  of  Carta- 
gena. The  French  king,  his  late  ally,  received  the  news  of  his  calamities, 
with  unconcealed  joy,  and  immediately  sought  to  draw  into  his  own 
alliance  all  who  had  any  cause  of  complaint  against  the  emperor.  A 
rebellious  party  in  Naples,  the  Duke  of  Cleves  and  the  kings  of  Denmark 
and  Sweden,  entered  the  new  league,  but  Henry  VIII.,  incensed  by  the 
intrigues  of  Francis  with  the  Scots,  rejected  his  advances. 

144.  In  the  summer  of  1542,  five  French  armies  were  in  the  field,  three 
of  which  were  to  operate  against  the  Netherlands,  one  in  Italy  and  one 
toward  Spain.  Luxembourg  was  unprepared,  and  many  of  its  fortresses 
were  taken  by  the  Duke  of  Guise  with  a  force  under  the  nominal  com- 
mand of  the  second  son  of  the  king;  but  the  young  prince,  hearing  that 
his  brother  the  Dauphin  was  planning  a  pitched  battle  in  the  south, 
disbanded  a  great  part  of  his  army  and  went  to  join  him,  leaving  Luxem- 
bourg and  Montm6dy  to  be  easily  retaken  by  the  Regent  of  the  Nether- 
lands.    The    siege   of   Perpignan    by   the    Dauphin    failed, 

A   D    1542.  X   cj  ./ 

through  the  incompetency  of  the  engineers  and  the  vio- 
lence of  the  autumnal  rains.  The  place  was  defended  by  the  Duke  of 
Alva  with  the  cooperation  of  Andrew  Doria.  The  king  of  France  ap- 
proached within  forty  miles,  v;hen,  perceiving  the  hopelessness  of  the 
undertaking,  he  ordered  the  siege  to  be  raised.  His  immense  prepara- 
tions—  the  greatest  during  his  reign — had  been  dissipated  in  aimless  or 
trivial  enterprises,  and  only  a  few  small  places  in  Picardy  and  northern 
Italy  remained  as  the  fruits  of  his  efforts. 

145.  An  English  army,  during  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  devastated 
Scotland,  and  its  victory  at  Solway  Moss  hastened  the  death  of  the  Scot- 
tish king  James  V.  His  only  daughter  was  but  seven  days  old,  and  the 
king  of  England,  in  hopes  of  an  alliance  which  might  bring  the  whole 
island  under  one  crown,  recalled  his  forces  and  proposed  a  marriage 
between  his  son  Edward  and  the  infant  queen.  This  union  would  have 
averted  many  miseries  from  both  kingdoms ;  it  was  prevented  by  the 
opposition  of  Scottish  nobles  under  the  influence  of  France. 

146.  The  emperor  now  passed  into  Germany,  to  punish  the  Duke  of 
Cleves  for  his  treacherous  conduct  in  the  recent  wars.  Francis  left  his 
ally  to  his  fate.  Charles  took  Diiren  by  storm  and  caused  every  inhabit- 
ant of  the  place  to  Ijc  massacred.     Tlie  duchy  of  Jiiliers,  whose  strongest 


BEIGN  OF  CHARLES  V.  187 

place  had  been  chosen  for  this  fearful  example  of  vengeance,  immediately 
submitted  to  the  emperor ;  and  the  duke  hastened  to  throw  himself  at  the 
feet  of  his  offended  sovereign.  Charles  let  him  remain  there  without  even 
looking  at  him  for  a  time;  at  length  he  listened  to  terms  which  were 
sufficiently  humiliating  to  the  duke :  Guelders  and  Zutphen  were  sur- 
rendered ;  the  alliance  of  France  and  Denmark  and  the  exercise  of 
protestant  worship  were  renounced,  and  all  the  ducal  troops  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  imperial  armies. 

147.  The  Turkish  freebooters,  who  were  the  most  disgraceful  allies  of 
the  French,  were  now  ravaging  the  south  of  Italy.  They  burned  Eeggio, 
destroyed  all  vineyards  and  olive-orchards  near  the  coast,  carried  off  all 
the  people  whom  they  could  find,  and,  appearing  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  threatened  Rome.  The  French  embassador  interfering  for  the 
protection  of  the  Pope,  Barbarossa  steered  for  Marseilles,  where  he  found 
a  ready  market  for  the  captives  whom  he  had  brought  away  from  the 
Calabrian  coast.  He  was  enraged,  however,  to  find  the  French  unpre- 
pared for  the  grand  enterprise  in  which  he  had  been  invited  to  cooperate; 
and  to  pacify  him  Francis  gave  orders  for  an  attack  upon  Nice.  This  last 
stronghold  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy  might  have  fallen  but  for  the  opportune 
arrival  of  Doria's  fleet  and  a  Spanish  army,  which  caused  the  combined 
force  of  French  and  Turks  to  retire.  The  city  of  Toulon  was  given  up 
as  winter-quarters  to  the  latter,  who  converted  it  for  the  time  into  a 
Mohammedan  town. 

148.  The  imminent  danger  arising  from  the  near  presence  of  the  Turks 
induced  the  emperor,  at  the  Diet  of  Spires,  to  renew  his  con-  ^  ^  ^^^ 
cessions  to  the  protestants,  who  in  turn  vied  with  the  other 

members  of  the  Empire  in  voting  supplies  for  the  war.  Hostilities  in  Pied- 
mont went  on  all  winter  with  great  energy ;  but  as  the  successes  of  the 
French  and  imperial  forces  were  pretty  evenly  balanced,  they  need  not  here 
be  related.  A  large  army  was  assembled  in  Lorraine  by  the  emperor,  who 
received  the  submission  of  Luxeinbourg  and  of  several  other  towns  in  that 
province  and  Champagne.  The  siege  of  St.  Dizier  detained  him  several 
weeks,  but  he  arrived  in  due  time  at  Chateau  Thierry,  within  two  days' 
march  of  Paris.  The  king  of  England,  by  previous  agreement,  invaded 
France  at  the  same  time  with  a  powerful  army ;  took  Boulogne  by  a  two 
months'  siege,  and  was  marching  upon  the  French  capital,  when  he  re- 
ceived the  unwelcome  news  that  Charles  and  Francis  had  made  peace 
at  Crespy  without  the  least  consultation  with  himself 

140.  The  king  of  France,  having  sacrificed  all  other  alliances  for  that 
of  the  Turks,  was  now  forced  to  rid  himself  of  these  unmanageable  allies 
by  the  payment  of  nearly  a  million  of  crowns.  The  corsairs  at  Toulon 
had  behaved  as  if  in  an  enemy's  land,  seizing  men  even  in  the  royal 
galleys  for  service  in  their  fleet,  and  making  slaves  of  whomsoever  they 


188  MODERN  HISTOBY. 

could  capture  in  the  surrounding  country.  Barbarossa  had  sailed  in 
April  for  Constantinople,  ruining  and  wasting  the  coasts  of  Italy  as  he 
went,  and  his  late  ally  was  now  at  liberty  to  conclude  a  treaty  in 
which  he  promised  to  cooperate  with  the  emperor  not  only  in  suppress- 
ing heresy,  but  in  defending  Christendom  against  the  Turks. 

150.  In  pursuance  of  the  former  object,  Charles  ordered  certain  doctors 

of  the  University  at  Louvain  to  draw  up  a  Confession  of  Faith,  which  all 

his  subjects  in  the  Netherlands  were  required  to  accept  under  penalty  of 

death.     As  an  earnest  of  his  resolution,  a  Calvinistic  preacher,  Peter  du 

Breuil  was  burned  alive  in  the  market-place  of  Tournay. 
Feb.,  I'oio.  .      ,      .^.        ^  ,^^ 

The  same  views  were  made  apparent  in  the  Diet  of  Worms, 

which  met  in  March  of  the  same  year.  The  Pope,  fearing  that  his 
dignity  might  be  slighted  by  the  consultation  of  temporal  princes  con- 
cerning the  religious  affairs  of  Europe,  had  issued  a  bull  summoning  at 
last  the  long  delayed  and  eagerly  demanded  Council  to  meet  at  Trent  in 
March,  1545.  So  short  a  time  was  suffered  to  elapse  between  the  sum- 
mons and  the  meeting  of  the  Council,  in  order  that  the  Italian  prelates 
might  have  exclusive  control  of  its  arrangements.  So  few,  however,  were 
present  at  the  first  session,  that  it  was  necessary  to  adjourn  until  the  fol- 
lowing December,  when  the  Council  was  really  opened. 

151.  The  king  of  France  was  signalizing  his  zeal  for  the  faith  by  such 
a  persecution  of  the  innocent  Vaudois  as  would  have  disgraced  the  worst 
of  the  pagan  emperors  of  Rome.  These  simple  people  in  their  elevated 
Alpine  valleys  between  France  and  Piedmont  had  retained,  from  the 
earliest  times,  the  purity  of  their  Christian  faith  and  worship,  unmin- 
gled  with  the  materialistic  rites  which  crept  into  richer  and  more  lux- 
urious churches.  More  recently  they  had  hailed  the  doctrines  derived 
by  the  reformers  from  the  newly  opened  Bible,  as  agreeing  essentially 
with  their  own ;  and  this  connection  drew  upon  the  obscure  and  hitherto 
unnoticed  heretics  an  attention  which  they  might  otherwise  have  escaped. 

152.  On  the  first  day  of  the  year  1545,  the  king  of  France  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  parliament  of  Provence,  requiring  the  enforcement  of  its 
decree  passed  in  1540,  but  suspended  hitherto  by  the  intercession  of  the 
German  protestants.  This  atrocious  law  enacted  that  all  fathers  of 
families  persisting  in  heresy  should  be  burnt,  their  wives  and  children 
made  serfs,  their  property  confiscated  and  their  dwellings  destroyed. 
The  especial  object  of  persecution  was  a  colony  of  Vaudois  settled 
among  the  mountains  north  of  the  Durance  —  a  rugged  region  which 
their  patient  industry  had  converted  into  a  fruitful  garden.  The  Baron 
d'OppMe  was  the  worthy  instrument  of  the  work  of  desolation ;  and  his 
forces  had  been  trained  by  the  plundering  and  ravaging  campaigns  of 
the  French  in  Italy.  Bursting  into  the  Vaudois  country,  they  laid  waste 
vineyards,  orchards,  and  grain-fields,  and  massacred  the  people.     The  little 


BELIGIOVS  WAR  IN  GERMANY.  189 

town  of  Cabrieres  was  induced  to  surrender  by  a  promise  that  all  lives 
should  be  spared.  But  no  sooner  were  its  inhabitants  in  the  power  of 
the  conqueror,  than  they  were  put  to  death.  Those  who  had  fled  to  the 
higher  mountains  were  hunted  like  wild  beasts.  Some  of  the  strongest 
were  chained  in  the  royal  galleys ;  the  rest  were  destroyed.  This  per- 
secution of  the  Vaudois  sent  a  thrill  of  horror  through  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  but  the  French  clergy,  who  had  demanded  it  of  the  king, 
deliberately  avowed  and  sanctioned  the  atrocity.  The  flames  of  perse- 
cution spread  throughout  France,  and  persons  were  publicly  burnt  at 
Paris,  Meaux,  Sens,  and  Issoire.  Meaux  had  received  reformed  doctrines 
twenty  years  before,  from  its  good  bishop,  Briyonnet,  and  had  become  a 
chief  seat  of  the  French  reformation.  Among  its  martyrs  was  Stephen 
Dolet,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  author,  who  was  highly  esteemed  by 
the  literary  men  of  his  time. 

153.  The  prelates  and  theologians  had  not  long  been  in  session  at 
Trent,  when  it  became  evident  that  the  wounds  of  Germany  lay  too 
deep  for  them  to  heal.  The  emperor  was  vigorously,  though  as  secretly 
as  possible,  preparing  for  war  —  mustering  one  army  in  Italy,  another  in 
Austria,  and  a  third  in  the  Netherlands.  The  Pope  aided  him  not  only 
by  contributions  of  men  and  money,  but  by  authorizing  in  Spain  the  sale 
of  monastic  property  and  a  tax  upon  the  clergy.  The  protestant  princes 
and  cities,  though  late  in  discerning  the  cause  of  these  preparations,  acted 
promptly ;  and  their  army,  commanded  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse,  was  first  in  the  field.  Charles,  having  first  broken 
his  coronation-oath  by  bringing  foreign  troops  into  Germany,  violated 
the  constitution  of  the  Empire  by  pronouncing  its  ban  —  the  highest 
penalty  of  treason  —  against  the  leaders  of  the  Smalcaldic  forces  and 
all  their  followers.  This  sentence  could  only  be  legally  published  with 
the  consent  of  the  Diet ;  it  declared  the  princes  to  be  rebels  and  outlaws, 
absolved  their  subjects  from  allegiance,  and  confiscated  all  their  posses- 
sions. The  confederates  replied  by  a  declaration  of  war,  in  which  they 
renounced  all  obedience  to  "  Charles  of  Ghent,  pretended  Emperor,"  and 
the  army  of  the  city  of  Strasbourg  hastened  to  occupy  the  forts  of  Ehren- 
berg  and  Kufstein,  in  order  to  prevent  the  papal  forces  from  entering 
Bavaria  through  the  passes  of  the  Tyrol. 

154.  The  first  summer's  campaign  was  indecisive,  but  in  the  autumn 
the  execution  of  a  deeply  laid  plot  seemed  to  throw  all  advantage  on  the 
side  of  the  emperor.  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  (see  note,  page  185),  though 
a  protestant  in  belief,  had  withheld  himself  from  the  Smalcaldic  League, 
and  so  far  from  being  included  in  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  enjoyed  the 
secret  confidence  of  Charles.  He  had  been  intrusted  by  his  cousin,  now 
at  the  head  of  the  allies,  with  the  defense  and  administration  of  the 
Saxon  electorate,  but,  won  by  the  imperial   promises  and   flatteries,  he 


190  MODERN  HISTORY. 

betrayed  his  trust,  and,  aided  by  King  Ferdinand,  with  an  army  of 
Hungarians  and  Bohemians,  seized  the  territory  for  himself.  By  this 
unlooked  for  defection,  the  protestants  saw  their  cause  reduced  to  the 
verge  of  ruin.  Their  common  treasury  was  exhausted ;  many  of  their 
troops  deserted  for  want  of  pay,  and  their  army  was  forced  to  retreat 
from  Upper  Germany.  Most  of  the  towns  and  princes  in  that  region 
made  their  submission  to  the  emperor,  and  bouglit  peace  with  heavy  fines. 

155.  In  northern  Germany  the  case  was  different.  The  elector  John 
Frederic  advanced  with  an  army  into  his  confiscated  dominions,  and 
not  only  dispersed  the  troops  of  Maurice,  but  overran  the  Saxon  duchy, 
the  people  being  so  unanimously  on  his  side  as  against  the  treason  of 
their  duke,  that  the  latter  dared  not  levy  an  army  among  them.  King 
Ferdinand  had  no  greater  success  in  raising  troops  among  the  Bohemi- 
ans, whom  he  had  offended  by  attempting  to  change  their  elective 
monarchy  into  a  hereditary  possession  for  his  family.  The  deposed 
elector,  aided  by  subsidies  from  both  France  and  England,  might, 
apparently,  have  made  himself  emperor  of  the  protestant  part  of 
Germany  and,  perhaps,  king  of  Bohemia,  if  his  energy  in  action  had 
been  equal  to  his  general  excellence  of  character.  The  situation  was 
reversed  by  the  sudden  and  rapid  advance  of  Charles,  who,  with  a  fresh 

.  army,  came  upon  John   Frederic  at  Muhlberg  and  crossed 

the  Elbe  almost  under  his  eyes,  while  the  elector  still 
imagined  him  many  miles  away.  The  resistance  was  well  planned  and 
resolute;  but  the  elector  was  wounded  and  captured,  and  his  forces  put 
to  flight.  With  the  capitulation  of  Wittenberg,  his  capital,  all  his  elect- 
oral and  princely  rights  were  surrendered  to  the  emperor;  his  posses- 
sions, except  a  few  towns,  were  divided  between  King  Ferdinand  and 
Duke  Maurice.  John  Frederic  remained  in  captivity  at  the  imperial 
court,  while  his  children  became  pensioners  of  their  unfiiithful  kinsman. 
The  new  elector,  Maurice,  was  solemnly  invested  with  his  dignities  by 
the  emperor  himself,  while  the  deposed  and  captive  prince  looked  on 
the  ceremony  from  the  window  of  his  lodgings. 

156.  Duke  Eric  of  Brunswick,  with  an  imperial  army,  w^as  compelled, 
during  the  spring  of  1547,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Bremen,  and  was  totally 
defeated  near  Drachenburg ;  but  the  news  of  the  Wittenberg  capitulation 
paralyzed  the  arms  of  the  victorious  Leaguers,  and  Lower  Germany, 
with  the  exception  of  Magdeburg,  was  soon  subdued.  In  his  return  to 
the  south,  the  emperor  received  at  Halle  the  submission  of  the  land- 
grave, Philip  of  Hesse,  who,  begging  pardon  on  his  knees  in  the  presence 
of  the  court,  engaged  to  surrender  his  artillery,  demolish  all  his  fortresses 
but  one,  release  the  prisoners  whom  he  had  taken,  and  pay  a  considerable 
fine.  By  a  most  unworthy  evasion  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  he  was 
even  then  held  as  a  prisoner ;  and  the  captivity  of  two  great  princes  of 


LAST  YEARS  OF  CHARLES  V.  191 

the  Empire  only  increased  the  complaints  of  the  more  honest  part  of  the 
nation.  These  events  went  far,  however,  to  overawe  resistance  in  Bo- 
hemia, where  the  protestant  army  was  soon  dispersed :  the  nobles  has- 
tened to  join  King  Ferdinand,  and  Prague  itself,  after  a  short  resistance, 
was  surrendered.  The  result  of  the  rebellion  was  only  a  firmer  establish- 
ment in  Bohemia  and  throughout  Germany  of  the  power  of  the  House  of 
Austria. 

Francis  I.  allies  himself  with  the  emperor,  Henry  VIII.  with  the  Smalealdie  League. 
Venice  despoiled  by  the  Turks.  Spain  deprived  of  freedom,  and  her  nobles  of  power. 
Ghent  punished  for  rebellion  by  the  loss  of  all  its  privileges.  Establishment  of  the  Turks  in 
Hungary.  Failure  of  the  emperor's  attempt  upon  Algiers  occasions  a  new  league  against 
him  in  Europe  ;  but  the  great  eflbrts  of  the  French  Lave  little  result.  English  victory  at  Sol- 
way  Moss;  death  of  James  V.  and  accession  of  the  infant  Mary  as  "  Queen  of  Scots."  The 
Duke  of  Cleves  severely  punished  for  his  part  in  the  league.  The  Turks,  as  allies  of  the 
French,  ravage  the  Mediterranean  coast;  set  up  a  s!ave-market  at  Marseilles  and  a  mosque 
at  Toulon.  Invasion  of  France  by  imperial  and  English  forces,  ended  suddenly  by  the 
peace  of  Crespy.  Persecution  in  the  Netherlands.  First  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Proscription  and  massacre  of  the  Vaudois,  and  martyrdoms  in  northern  France.  Smalealdie 
war  in  Germany.  Treachery  of  Maurice  of  Saxony  transfers  the  electorate  to  his  branch 
of  the  family.  The  battle  of  Muhlberg  lost  by  the  rightful  elector,  and  Wittenberg  surren- 
dered. John  Frederic,  with  Philip  of  Hesse,  become  prisoners  of  the  emperor,  who  considers 
himself  "  for  the  first  time  lord  of  Germany." 


Last  Years  of  Chaeles  V. 

157.  Henry  VHI.  of  England  died  in  January  and  Francis  I.  of  France 
in  March  of  1547.  The  former  was  succeeded  by  his  youthful  son,  Edward 
VI.,  during  whose  minority  a  protestant  regency  established  the  English 
Church  in  nearly  the  same  doctrines  and  usages  which  it  still  maintains. 
Henry  II.,  the  young  king  of  France,  resembled  his  father  in  grace  and 
affability  of  manners  and  attractiveness  of  person ;  unhappily,  also,  in  the 
recklessness  with  which  he  abandoned  public  affairs  to  selfish  and  un- 
worthy favorites.  Disregarding  his  father's  dying  advice,  he  recalled  the 
constable  Montmorency  to  court,  and  raised  the  family  of  Guise  to  the 
highest  honors. 

158.  The  Guises,  who  surpassed  in  their  talents  for  intrigue  all  the 
members  of  the  new  court,  were  a  younger  branch  of  the  house  of  Lor- 
raine wiiich  owed  allegiance  only  to  the  Empire.  Claude,  the  first  Duke 
of  Guise,  had  married  a  French  princess,  and  his  daughter  became  the 
wife  —  soon  afterwards  the  widow  —  of  James  V.  of  Scotland.  During 
the  long  minority  and  absence  of  the  young  queen  (see  §  145),  who  was 
educated  in  France  as  the  afiianced  bride  of  the  Dauphin,  Mary  of  Guise 
was  the  center  of  French  influence  in  the  Scottish  court ;  and  both  in 
her  person  and  that  of  her  daughter,  the  beautiful   but  unhappy  Mary 


192  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Stuart,  the  Guises  may  be  said  to  have  ruled  Scotland.  They  claimed 
also  the  rights  of  the  House  of  Anjou  in  Provence  and  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  being  descended  from  old  King  Rene,  whose  daughter  Yolande  had 
married  a  duke  of  Lorraine. 

159.  Two  sons  of  Duke  Claude  of  Guise  held  important  places  in  the 
Council  of  Henry  H.  —  Francis,  Duke  d' Aumale,  and  Charles,  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims,  afterward  better  known  as  Cardinal  of  Lorraine.  At 
the  head  of  the  Council  were  Henry  d'Albret,  king  of  Navarre,  and  his 
son-in-law,  Antony  of  Bourbon,  first  prince  of  the  royal  blood.  For  a 
time,  however,  the  chief  ruler  of  the  court  was  Diana  de  Poitiers,  soon 
created  duchess  of  Valentinois,  who  possessed  the  keys  of  the  public 
treasury  by  causing  one  of  her  confidants  to  be  appointed  to  high  fiscal 
office.  All  ecclesiastical  appointments  in  the  kingdom  were  in  her  gift, 
and  holders  of  rich  benefices  were  undoubtedly  in  some  instances  removed 
by  poison,  in  order  that  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  might  be  the  sooner  in 
her  hands.  The  realm  which  Henry  II.  had  solemnly  sworn  to  administer 
in  the  fear  of  God,  was  thus  left  a  prey  to  unchecked  robbery.  A  court 
so  occupied  gave  no  uneasiness  to  the  other  powers  of  Europe  ;  and  the 
emperor  was  able  to  pursue  his  dealings  with  the  Pope  and  the  princes, 
unembarrassed  as  formerly  by  the  intrigues  of  France. 

160.  Paul  III.,  too  late  alarmed  by  the  growing  power  of  the  emperor, 
had  withdrawn  his  troops  from  Germany,  and,  by  favoring  a  sedition  in 
Genoa,  sought  to  substitute  French  for  imperial  influence  in  that  city. 
The  death  of  the  chief  conspirator,  just  when  his  presence  would  have 
given  success  to  his  party,  thwarted  the  plan,  and  the  Dorias  remained  in 
power.  The  dissension  between  the  temporal  and  spiritual  sovereigns 
was  still  more  embittered  by  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  a  son 
of  the  Pope,  and  an  Italian  tyrant  of  the  most  odious  type.  The  em- 
peror, instead  of  punishing  the  crime,  seemed  almost  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  it,  by  occupying  Placentia,  where  it  had  occurred, 
with  his  own  troops,  and  refusing  to  invest  the  son  of  the  murdered 
duke,  who  was  his  own  son-in-law,  with  the  duchy  of  Parma. 

161.  The  Pope  had  already  ordered  the  removal  of  the  Council  from 
Trent  to  Bologna,  where  it  might  be  under  his  own  control.  The  Spanish 
and  Neapolitan  prelates,  obeying  their  temporal  sovereign,  remained  at 
Trent;  the  other  thirty-four  passed  into  Italy;  and  the  two  Councils, 
instead  of  restoring  peace  and  unity  to  Christendom,  opened  a  war  of 
words  between  themselves.  The  emperor  resolved  to  settle  the  religious 
differences  of  Germany  by  his  own  authority.  Three  divines,  belonging 
respectively  to  the  old  and  new  Catholic  and  the  Lutheran  parties,  were 
appointed  to  draw  up  a  Confession  of  Faith  which  should  reconcile  all 
differences,  at  least  until  a  more  generally  acceptable  Council  could  be 
convened.      In   allusion  to    its   provisional   and    temporary   nature,    this 


LAST  YEARS  OF  CHARLES  V.  193 

paper   was   called   the   "Interim."     In   aiming  to   please   all   parties,   it 
naturally   contented    none,    and    was   attacked    with    equal    violence   at 
Magdeburg,  at  Geneva,  and   at  Kome.      It  was  presented,  however,  to 
the  Diet  at  Augsburg,  not  for  discussion  but  acceptance ; 
and  the  Elector  of  Meutz,  immediately  rising,  thanked  the  '^^' 

emperor  for  his  efforts  to  restore  peace  to  the  Church,  and  declared  the 
articles  to  be  fully  approved  by  the  Diet.  This  unauthorized  assumption 
was  allowed  on  that  occasion  to  pass  unchallenged ;  but  protests  were 
soon  entered,  both  by  the  actual  and  the  deposed  Elector  of  Saxony,  as 
well  as  by  several  imperial  cities.  Magdeburg  and  Constance  were  the 
chief  centers  of  opposition.  Both  were  placed  under  the  ban  of  the 
Empire ;  the  latter  was  captured  by  the  army  of  King  Ferdinand,  and,  in 
defiance  of  its  ancient  privileges,  annexed  to  the  dominions  of  the  House 
of  Austria.  Magdeburg  sustained  a  longer  resistance,  and  became  the 
stronghold  of  the  protestant  faith. 

162.  Having,  as  he  hoped,  suppressed  religious  innovations  by  means 
of  the  Interim,  the  emperor  proceeded  to  reform  the  Catholic  party  by 
a  special  edict  characterized  by  great  wisdom  and  moderation.  At  the 
same  Diet,  the  seventeen  provinces  of  the  Netherlands*  were  incorpor- 
ated with  the  Empire  under  the  name  of  the  circle  of  Burgundy. 

The  French  king  was  now  in  Italy  stirring  up  plots  against  the  im- 
perial interests  in  Parma,  Genoa,  and  Naples;  but  he  was  recalled  by  a 
revolt  excited  by  his  tax-gatherers  among  the  peasantry  in  Guienne. 
Fifty  thousand  rebels  were  in  arms.  They  were  easily  put  down  by  the 
disciplined  troops  of  Montmorency  and  the  Duke  d'Aumale,  and  the 
vengeance  inflicted  by  the  former  upon  the  citizens  of  Bordeaux  was 
too  frightful  to  be  recorded. 

163.  The  Guises,  for  their  own  interests,  lost  no  opportunity  to  promote 
hostilities  between  England  and  Scotland,  and  especially  to  oppose  the 
marriage-treaty  which  might  so  happily  have  united  those  two  nations.  The 
Scottish  reformers  and  protestants  were  naturally  in  favor  of  the  English 
alliance,  while  the  Catholic  party  found  its  support  in  France.  Its  leader 
was  Cardinal  Beaton,  a  man  of  savage  and  bigoted  character,  whose  over- 
bearing insolence  at  length  provoked  his  assassination.  The  150  conspira- 
tors, who  had  accomplished  his  death,  held  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews 
against  the  Queen-mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  until  the  arrival  of  a  French 
fleet  and  army  to  her  aid.  The  regent  Arran  was  soon  after  defeated  by 
the  English  protector  Somerset.  French  forces  were  constantly  engaged 
in  these  actions,  and  in  1549  war  was  openly  declared  between  France 


*  The  Low  Countries  belonging  to  Charles  V.  either  hy  inheritance  or  conquest  comprised 

the  four  duchies  of  Brabant,  Limburg,  Luxembourg,  and  Guelders ;  the  Heven  counties  of 

Artois,  Flanders,  Hainault,  Namur,  Zutphen,  Holland,  and   Zealand ;  the  margravate  of 

Antwerp ;  and  the  five  baronies  of  Mechlin,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  and  Groningen. 

H.  M.-13. 


194  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  England.  The  young  queen  of  the  Scots,  now  six  years  of  age,  was 
sent  into  France,  where  she  remained  until  after  her  marriage  and  widow- 
hood. Somerset  was  soon  overthrown  by  civil  dissensions  in  England, 
and  the  Earl  of  Warwick  coming  into  power  signed  a  peace  with  France. 

164.  The  French  protestants  lost,  about  this  time,  an  invaluable  friend 
and  protectress  in  Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre,  who  died  Dec.  21,  1549. 
The  ambition  of  the  Guises,  the  cruelty  of  Montmorency,  the  rapacity 
of  all  the  courtiers,  and  especially  the  resentment  of  Diana  of  Poitiers, 
whose  iniquities  had  been  plainly  dealt  with  by  an  honest  reformer,  all 
combined  to  fan  the  flames  of  persecution.  Four  Lutherans  were  burnt 
to  heighten  the  festivities  attending  the  coronation  of  the  French  queen, 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  in  every  province  heretics  were  hunted  like 
wild  beasts. 

165.  Paul  III.  dying,  Nov.,  1549,  the  cardinal  Del  Monte  became  pope 
under  the  name  of  Julius  III.  He  sought  favor  with  the  emperor  by 
reopening  the  Council  at  Trent;  and  Charles  summoned  a  new  Diet  at 
Augsburg  to  devise  means  of  compelling  the  protestant  party  to  submit 
to  its  decrees.  As  the  emperor  grew  older  and  his  constitutional  melan- 
choly settled  more  heavily  over  his  mind,  he  became  more  willingly  a 
persecutor.  In  the  Netherlands  he  had  just  established  the  Spanish  In- 
quisition ;  and  his  cruel  Edict  of  Brussels  denounced  the  death-penalty 
against  all  who  should  buy,  sell,  or  possess  any  protestant  book,  meet  for 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  or  speak  against  any  of  the  Romish  doc- 
trines. Men  thus  offending  were  beheaded,  women  were  either  burnt  or 
buried  alive. 

166.  By  a  vote  of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  Maurice  of  Saxony  was  in- 
trusted with  an  imperial  army  for  the  siege  of  Magdeburg.  But  Maurice 
had  now  gained  from  the  emperor  all  that  his  ambition  could  demand ; 
he  was  alarmed  by  the  stretch  of  prerogative  which  seemed  to  threaten 
his  own  princely  rights,  and,  offended  by  the  continued  captivity  of  his 
father-in-law,  Philip  of  Hesse,  he  resolved  to  retreat  from  his  irksome 
and  disgraceful  position  and  resume  his  true  place  at  the  head  of  the 
protestant  party.  It  was  not  easy  to  win  back  the  confidence  he  had 
forfeited;   but,  while  actually  conducting  the  siege  of  Magdeburg   to  a 

successful  termination,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  France 
Jan.,  1552. 

for  combined  war  against  the  emperor.     Among  the  articles 

was  one  engaging  the  French  king  to  seize  the  towns  of  Metz,  Toul, 
Verdun,  and  Cambray,  and  hold  them  as  imperial  vicar  —  an  engage- 
ment under  which  the  government  of  France,  to  a  very  recent  date, 
claimed  possession  of  these  towns.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  the  Castle 
of  Chambord,  near  Blois,  by  Henry  II.  and  Albert  of  Brandenburg. 

167.  The  emperor,  not  alarmed  by  rumors  of  this  event,  had  sent  large 
detachments  from  his  army  to  Italy  and  Hungary,  and  had  posted  him- 


PEACE  OF  PASS  A  U,  195 

self  with  a  mere  guard  at  Innsbruck  to  watch  the  proceedings  at  Trent. 
Maurice  published  a  manifesto  in  which  he  announced  his  determination 
to  maintain  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  Empire,  to  protect  the  re- 
formed worship,  and  to  liberate  the  landgrave  Philip.  He  then  advanced 
upon  Augsburg,  which  opened  its  gates  to  him  without  a  blow.  A  small 
force  which  the  emperor  had  collected  upon  the  borders  of  the  Tyrol 
was  put  to  flight ;  the  pass  and  castle  of  Ehrenberg  were  taken  by  storm ; 
and  Charles  himself  escaped  by  a  hasty  flight  from  Innsbruck  through  the 
cold  and  darkness  of  a  rainy  night,  being  carried  in  a  litter  over  the  snow- 
covered  mountain  roads  into  Carinthia.  Maurice  might  probably  have 
captured  him,  but  desisted  because  he  "had  no  cage  big  enough  for  such 
a  bird."  The  Council  of  Trent  made  a  no  less  sudden  retreat,  and  only 
met  again  ten  years  later  —  in  1562. 

168.  The  French  forces  had,  meanwhile,  seized  Toul  and  gained  posses- 
sion, by  stratagem,  of  the  free  imperial  city  of  Metz.  The  same  plan 
failed  at  Strasbourg,  where  the  citizens  were  on  their  guard.  Returning 
through  Lorraine,  Henry  II.  occupied  Verdun  ;  then,  invading  Luxem- 
bourg, captured  several  towns  and  bestowed  their  plunder  upon  his  court- 
iers and  high  officers,  to  the  equal  discontent  of  the  soldiers  and  the 
defrauded  inhabitants. 

169.  The  treaty  of  Passau  ended  the  first  religious  war  in  Germany. 
It  was  willingly  signed  by  King  Ferdinand  and  the  Catholic 

princes,  who  perceived  that  the  emperor's  schemes  were  not 
less  hostile  to  the  civil  than  to  the  spiritual  rights  of  the  members  of  the 
Empire.  It  was  now  agreed  that  both  parties  should  enjoy  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  and  should  be  equally  admitted  to  the  Imperial 
Chamber.  The  deposed  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
were  set  at  liberty.  The  forces  of  the  Smalcaldic  League  were  either 
disbanded  or  enlisted  in  the  war  against  the  Turks. 

170.  This  had  broken  out  afresh  in  Hungary,  through  a  fancied  slight 
received  by  Martinuzzi,  Bishop  of  Waradin  and  guardian  of  the  infant 
Zapolya,  from  the  Sultan  Solyman.  The  restless  and  warlike  bishop 
offered  to  betray  the  interests  of  his  ward  by  securing  the  province  of 
Transylvania  and  the  crown  of  Hungary  to  King  Ferdinand,  on  condi- 
tion of  receiving  for  himself  a  cardinal's  hat  and  the  governorship  of  the 
province.  The  Turkish  army,  which  immediately  entered  Transylvania, 
was  opposed  by  the  combined  forces  of  Martinuzzi  and  Castaldo,  the  gen- 
eral of  Ferdinand ;  but  the  arrogance  of  the  cardinal  became  unbearable ; 
the  general  accused  him  of  a  secret  understanding  with  the  Turks,  and, 
with  the  consent  of  King  Ferdinand,  procured  his  assassination.  The 
memory  of  this  king  is  stained  with  many  similar  crimes  of  too  little 
importance  to  our  general  purpose  to  be  recorded. 

171.  The  Turks  now  overran  all  southern  Hungary;  Temesvar  and  the 


196  MODERN  HISTORY. 

other  fortresses  of  the  Banat  fell  into  their  possession,  and  their  customs, 
both  of  government  and  worship,  remained  established  there  until  1716. 
The  approach  of  the  elector  Maurice,  after  the  Peace  of  Passau,  com- 
pelled them  to  retire  from  Erlau,  a  little  town  in  the  north  which  had 
withstood  three  furious  assaults,  and  so  held  them  at  bay  until  succor 
could  arrive. 

172.  The  emperor,  with  100,000  men,  undertook  the  recapture  of  Metz, 
which  was  defended  by  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  all  the  chivalry  of  France. 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who  had  hitherto  refused  to  accede  to  the  peace 
of  Passau,  and  had  been  ravaging  western  Germany  as  an  ally  of  the 
French  king,  now  suddenly  changed  sides,  defeated  and  captured  the 
Duke  d'Aumale,  and  made  his  peace  with  the  emperor.  The  siege  of 
Metz,  though  conducted  with  grim  determination,  made  no  progress, 
owing  to  the  diseases  and  hardships  incident  to  the  severity  of  the 
winter,  and  the  skill  of  the  defense.  The  Spanish  and  Italian  troops 
suffered  most  of  all  from  the  cold  and  from  the  heavy  rains  which  made 
their  camp  uninhabitable.  At  length,  in  January,  1553,  Charles,  with 
tears  of  mortification,  abandoned  the  enterprise.  Metz  became  wholly 
French  ;  Lutheran  books  were  burnt  and  the  reformed  worship  suppressed. 

173.  All  this  time  the  Turkish  corsair  Draghut  was  ravaging  the 
Mediterranean  coasts.  From  every  cliff  and  castle  along  the  shores  of 
Italy  an  anxious  lookout  was  kept  for  the  sails  of  this  marauder,  and 
columns  of  smoke  too  frequently  signaled  his  approach  to  the  terrified 
inhabitants  of  the  villages.  Not  only  were  richly  laden  merchantmen 
captured  upon  the  sea,  but  the  pirates  often  penetrated  inland,  carrying 
into  slavery  all  the  people  whom  they  could  seize.  The  island  of  Corsica, 
then  belonging  to  Genoa,  was  attacked  and  several  places  taken  ;  but  here 
the  Turks  quarreled  with  their  Christian  allies,  the  French,  and  seized  not 
only  all  the  Corsicans  who  were  fit  to  row  in  their  galleys,  but  several 
French  nobles,  whom  they  detained  for  ransom. 

174.  In  Germany  the  restless  temper  of  Albert  of  Brandenburg  involved 
him  in  a  war  with  a  new  league  of  princes.  In  the  long  and  obstinate 
battle  of  Sievershausen,  victory  at  length  decided  for  the  league,  but  its 
general,  the  elector  Maurice,  received  a  mortal  wound.  He  died  two  days 
later,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age.  His  brother  Augustus  suc- 
ceeded to  the  electorate,  which,  down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Empire  in 
1806,  and  subsequently  as  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  has  remained  in  the 
Albertine  branch  of  the  family.  Prince  Albert  of  Brandenburg  was  again 
defeated  near  Brunswick,  and  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  as  a 
dependent  upon  the  court  of  France,  or  upon  his  brother-in-law,  the  Duke 
of  Baden.  Germany  enjoyed  a  long  interval  of  respose,  during  Avliich  it 
had  little  part  in  the  general  affairs  of  Europe. 

175.  On   the  side  of  the  Netherlands,  Terouenne   was   taken  by  an 


PHILIP  A  ND  MAR  Y  IN  ENG  LAND.  197 

imperial  army,  and  so  completely  destroyed  that  it  ceased  to  be  a  town. 
Hesdin  was  also  taken,  and  it  was  during  its  siege  that 
Emmanuel  Philibert,  eldest  son  of  the  exiled  Duke  of 
Savoy,  displayed  those  surprising  talents  which  regained  for  him  in  due 
time  his  father's  dominions.  The  duke  died  a  few  months  later  at  Ver- 
celli,  which  was  seized  and  plundered  by  the  French  almost  immediately 
upon  his  decease. 

176.  During  the  same  summer,  the  young  king,  Edward  VI.,  died  in 
England,  and  his  sister  Mary  —  daughter  of  the  deposed  Queen  Catha- 
rine, and  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  party  in  church  and  state  which  had 
dethroned  her  mother  —  came  to  the  throne.  The  ambitious  scheme  of 
the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  to  obtain  the  crown  for  his  daughter-in- 
law,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  a  grandniece  of  Henry  VIII.,  led  to  her  destruc- 
tion and  his  own.  Mary  took  immediate  steps  to  abdicate  her  supremacy 
in  the  Church,  and  submit  her  kingdom  again  to  the  control  of  the  Pope. 
The  latter  wept  tears  of  joy  on  the  news  of  her  accession,  and  dispatched 
Cardinal  de  la  Pole  —  a  member  of  the  English  House  of  York,  and, 
therefore,  a  near  relative  of  the  queen  —  to  complete  the  religious  revo- 
lution. 

177.  The  emperor,  too,  had  his  eyes  upon  England,  and,  with  a  view 
to  extend  his  power  in  that  direction,  soon  secured  the  marriage  of 
Mary  with  his  son  Philip,  whom  he  invested  with  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
that  his  rank  might  equal  that  of  his  bride.  The  marriage  took  place 
July  25,  1554.  So  unpopular  was  it  in  England  that  three  insurrections 
broke  out  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  though  Philip  made  liberal 
use  of  Spanish  gold  in  attaching  nobles  and  people  to  his  interests. 

178.  The  queen  and  her  husband  were  perfectly  agreed  in  the  desire 
to  extirpate  the  reformed  faith  and  worship  in  England.  Four  months 
after  the  marriage  an  act  of  Parliament  restored  the  nation  to  its  obedi- 
ence to  Kome.  The  embassadors  who  were  sent  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Julius  III.,  heard,  on  their  way,  of  the  death  both  of  that 
pontiff  and  of  his  successor,  Marcellus  II.,  and  finally  fulfilled  their 
mission  to  Paul  IV. 

John  Peter  Caraffa,  who  assumed  this  name,  had  been  distinguished 
hitherto  for  piety,  learning,  and  a  simple  and  blameless  life.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Oratory  of  Divine  Love,  instituted  during  the  reign  of 
Leo  X.,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Theatins.  At  the  age  of 
seventy-nine  he  suddenly  took  on  a  new  character,  that  of  worldly  ambi- 
tion and  overbearing  tyranny.  He  appeared  in  public  only  in  magnifi- 
cent array  of  velvet  and  gold,  and  his  daily  life  in  the  palace  was  ordered 
with  princely  pomp  and  ceremony.  His  ruling  passion  was  hatred  of 
the  Emperor  Charles,  to  whose  jealousy  of  the  popes  he  chose  to  ascribe 
the  alienation  of  the  Germans  from  the  ancient  Church.      Paul,  accord- 


198  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ingly  hastened  to  make  a  close  alliance   with  France,  and  to  magnify 
all  his  causes  of  disagreement  with  the  emperor. 

179.  Charles  was  not  long,  however,  to  stand  in  the  way  of  the  papal 
schemes.  For  years  the  desire  had  grown  upon  him  to  throw  off  the 
burden  of  public  affairs.  His  health  had  failed;  the  high  hopes  with 
which  he  had  begun  his  reign  were  further  than  ever  from  their  fulfill- 
ment ;  the  Turks  held  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  and  his  heretical 
subjects  in  Germany,  so  far  from  being  reduced  to  submission,  had  first 
put  him  to  a  disgraceful  flight  and  then  dictated  their  own  terms  of 
peace.  The  recent  death  of  Queen  Joanna,  whom  the  Spaniards  had 
always  persisted  in  regarding  as  their  sovereign,  rendered  it  possible  for 
Charles  to  dispose  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and  Aragon.  In  hours  of 
prayer  he  fancied  that  he  heard  his  mother's  voice  calling  him  away; 
and  he  resolved  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  retirement. 

180.  In  pursuance  of  this  design,  he  called  Philip  from  England  and 
first  invested  him  at  Brussels  with  the  Grand  Mastership  of  the  Order  of 
the  Golden  Fleece.     Then,  in  the  presence  of  all  the  estates  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, the  emperor  conferred  upon  his  son  the  sovereignty 

Oct.  Zo^  looo. 

of  the  seventeen  provinces ;  reviewed  the  events  of  his  own 
reign,  and  begged  the  assembly  to  pardon  all  the  errors  which  he  might 
have  committed ;  charged  Philip  to  defend  the  Catholic  faith,  to  do  justice 
and  to  love  his  people.  Queen  Mary  of  Hungary,  at  the  same  time,  laid 
down  the  regency  which  she  had  held  twenty-five  years,  and  the  new  sov- 
ereign of  the  Netherlands  appointed  the  Duke  of  Savoy  to  succeed  her. 

181.  A  fev/  weeks  later  all  the  Spanish  nobles  then  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries were  assembled  in  the  same  hall  to  witness  the  abdication  of  the 
croAvn  of  Spain  and  its  dominions  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  The 
resignation  of  the  imperial  crown  in  favor  of  King  Ferdinand,  though 
addressed  to  the  electors,  princes,  and  estates  of  Germany  in  the  autumn 
of  1556,  was  not  accepted  until  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  in  1558;  but  the 
emperor  sailed  from  Flushing  immediately  after  he  had  committed  that 
document  to  his  trusted  friends,  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  Chancellor 
Seld,  and,  accompanied  by  his  two  sisters,  the  dowager  queens  of  Hun- 
gary and  France,  proceeded  to  Spain.  Yuste,  in  Estremadura,  was  his 
chosen  retreat,  where  for  his  accommodation  apartments  had  been  added 
to  a  monastery  of  the  order  of  St.  Jerome.  Here  it  was  his  delight  to 
join  in  the  musical  services  of  the  monks,  or  in  fine  weather  to  cultivate 
his  garden  and  orchard  with  his  own  hands.  He  spent  many  hours  with 
the  Italian  mechanician,  Torriano,  in  making  clocks  and  watches  or  other 
delicate  machinery.  Still  he  followed  with  eager  interest  the  movements 
of  public  affairs,  and  by  his  counsels  constantly  aided  his  daughter,  who, 
during  her  brother's  absence,  was  regent  of  Spain. 

182.  He  was  visited  by  two  young  princes  who  were  destined  to  widely 


DEATH  OF  CHARLES  V.  199 

different  parts  in  the  great  drama  of  European  affairs :  his  own  son,  John 
of  Austria,  and  the  unfortunate  Carlos,  son  of  Philip  and  heir  of  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands.  Two  years  after  his  retirement,  the  ex-emperor 
felt  his  end  approaching,  and  was  seized  with  a  fancy  for  celebrating 
his  own  funeral.  Clothed  as  a  monk,  he  joined  in  the  mournful  chants 
of  the  brotherhood  around  an  empty  coffin  which  was  placed  in  the 
convent  chapel.  Within  a  month  the  solemn  farce  was  turned  into 
reality.  On  the  21st  of  September,  1558,  the  great  sovereign  expired, 
worn  out  more  by  toils  of  state  than  by  years. 

183.  The  reign  of  Charles  V.  comprised  one  of  the  most  momentous 
periods  in  the  world's  history.  Eeligious  beliefs  and  principles,  especially 
in  northern  and  central  Europe,  had  undergone  a  remarkable  transfor- 
mation ;  but,  beneath  the  outward  and  visible  changes  already  described,  a 
counter-revolution  had  begun,  w^hich  not  only  arrested  the  progress  of 
the  reformation,  but  apparently  neutralized  its  results  in  Austria,  Hun- 
gary, Bohemia,  Italy,  and  Spain ;  in  a  word,  in  all  the  countries  subject 
to  either  branch  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  In  part  this  was  due  to 
the  strong  moral  reaction  felt  almost  equally  within  and  without  the 
Eoman  Church  against  the  old-time  venality  and  corruption  of  the 
clergy.  A  number  of  virtuous  prelates,  among  whom  the-  greatest  and 
best  was  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  restored  the  respecta- 
bility of  the  Church;  and  for  more  than  three  hundred  years  no  pope 
has  desecrated  his  office  by  the  flagrant  iniquities  of  an  Alexander  VI., 
or  the  refined  voluptuousness  of  a  Leo  X.  The  amendments  desired  by 
Wicliffe,  Huss,  and  the  later  reformers  being  thus  apparently  accom- 
plished, the  need  for  separation  from  the  ancient  communion  became 
less  strongly  felt. 

184.  But  the  principal  agency  in  the  restoration  of  papal  power  was 
the  Society  of  Jesuits,  whose  active  and  peculiar  part  in  European  affairs 
throughout  this  and  the  following  period  entitles  it  to  a  more  detailed 
account.  Its  founder  was  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spanish  gentleman,  who 
was  wounded  during  the  siege  of  Pampeluna  in  1521.  The  serious  reflec- 
tions excited  in  him  by  a  tedious  convalescence  formed  themselves  into 
a  scheme  which  would  appear  as  visionary  as  the  wildest  dreams  of 
romance,  had  not  its  main  features  been  realized  through  the  consummate 
ability  of  the  followers  of  Loyola  and  its  fitness  for  the  emergency  at 
which  it  w^as  presented  to  the  world. 

185.  So  ignorant  was  the  founder  of  this  great  and  learned  society, 
that  he  had  to  begin  his  elementary  education  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
three;  but,  while  pursuing  his  studies  at  Paris,  he  made  disciples  of  six 
of  his  fellow-students,  wdio  bound   themselves  bv  a  solemn  .    t^  -.r^n 

'  -  A.  D.  1540. 

oath  to  attempt  the  conversion  of  the  Turks.     The  society 

was  formally  recognized  and  established  by  Paul  III.,  with  a  constitution 


200  MODERN  HISTORY. 

differing  in  several  important  respects  from  those  of  the  other  religious 
orders.  Instead  of  wasting  themselves  in  austerities,  the  Jesuits  were 
encouraged  to  cultivate  all  their  talents  by  the  liberal  pursuits  of  art, 
science,  and  general  literature.  Thus  becoming  the  most  accomplished 
instructors  of  youth,  they  acquired  a  controlling  influence  over  the  princes 
and  leading  minds  in  Europe  at  the  most  impressible  period  of  life,  and 
this  influence  is  clearly  to  be  discerned  in  the  later  policy  of  the  House 
of  Austria. 

18G.  The  General  of  the  Order  had  unlimited  authority  in  assigning  to 
every  member  a  sphere  of  duty  adapted  to  his  character  and  ability. 
While  the  superior  talents  of  some  found  exercise  in  the  subtle  diplomacy 
of  European  courts,  the  pious  zeal  of  others  was  employed  in  the  most 
toilsome  and  self-denying  missions  among  the  forests  of  America,  or  the 
crowded  cities  of  China  and  Japan.  Jesuits  were  pioneers  in  the  explora- 
tion of  the  great  lakes  of  our  northern  frontier.  In  Paraguay  they  even 
obtained  the  civil  government  of  the  country,  where  they  introduced 
agriculture,  building,  and  the  arts  of  social  life,  and  taught  the  natives  to 
exclude  all  other  foreign  influences. 


Death  of  the  two  chief  rivals  of  Charles  V.;  accession  of  Edward  VI.  in  England  and  of 
Henry  II.  in  France.  Ascendency  of  the  Guises  in  France  and  Scotland.  Dissensions  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  the  Pope ;  removal  of  the  Council  from  Trent  to  Bologna ;  publica- 
tion of  the  Interim  in  Germany.  Annexation  of  the  Low  Countries  to  the  Empire.  Violent 
opposition  to  religious  reform  in  Scotland,  France,  and  the  Netherlands.  Maurice  of  Saxony 
abandons  the  service,  and  nearly  captures  the  person  of  the  emperor.  First  religious  war 
ended  by  Peace  of  Passau.  Conquest  of  southern  Hungary  by  the  Turks.  Failure  of 
Charles  in  the  siege  of  Metz.  Death  of  Maurice  at  Sievershauscn.  Accession  of  iMary  in 
England  ;  her  marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain,  and  submission  of  her  kingdom  to  the  Pope. 
Abdication,  retirement,  and  death  of  Charles  V.  Counter-reformation  in  Europe  and  rise 
of  the  Jesuits. 


Affairs  of  France  and  Spain. 

187.  The  accession  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  was  welcomed  by  the 
German  princes  and  recognized  by  every  European  sovereign  except  the 
Pope.  Paul  IV.  declared  that  as  he  alone  had  the  power  to  crown  and 
depose  emperors,  so  he  only  could  sanction  their  abdication  ;  and  ordered 
Ferdinand  to  resign  his  scepter,  do  penance  for  his  presumption,  and  sub- 
missively await  the  pleasure  of  St.  Peter's  successor.  These  pretensions, 
which  had  been  heard  without  surprise,  though  not  without  resistance, 
from  the  lips  of  Hildebrand  or  Innocent  III.,  only  excited  ridicule  in  the 
greater  part  of  Christendom,  and  the  emperors  thenceforth  dispensed  with 
the  ceremony  of  a  papal  coronation. 

188.  In  pursuance  of  his  unrelenting  hostility  toward  Charles  and  his 


AFFAIRS  OF  FRANCE  AND  SPAIN,  201 

son,  Paul  persuaded  the  French  king  to  break  his  solemn  engagements 
with  the  former  in  the  truce  of  Vaucelles,  1556.  He  himself  imprisoned 
the  Spanish  embassador  and  even  laid  Spain  under  an  interdict.  This 
excessive  severity  was  deeply  felt  by  Philip  II.,  whose  religious  scruples 
were  more  intense  than  those  of  Paul.  The  latter  was  even  making  an 
alliance  with  the  Turks,  while  Philip  was  wearying  all  his  theologians 
for  arguments  to  justify  him  in  resisting  the  Pope.  At  length  the  Duke 
of  Alva  set  his  army  in  motion,  and,  overrunning  the  Campagna,  appeared 
before  the  gates  of  Rome.  Reverence  forbade  him  to  enter  that  holy  city 
in  arms ;  but  no  scruple  of  humanity  prevented  his  putting  to  the  sword 
the  innocent  inhabitants  of  the  captured  villages. 

189.  The  following  winter  the  Duke  of  Guise  entered  Italy  with  a 
numerous  French  army.  Lombardy  and  Tuscany  might  easily  have  been 
conquered  for  France,  but  his  own  interests  drew  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
persuaded  Paul  to  create  ten  new  cardinals,  in  order  to  improve  the  pros- 
pects of  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine.  The  movements  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  armies  resembled  a  stately  minuet  rather  than  actual  war.  They 
advanced  and  retreated,  marched  and  countermarched,  to  tlie  infinite  dis- 
comfort of  the  poor  people  whose  fields  were  wasted  and  whose  homes 
desecrated  by  the  brutal  soldiery,  but  with  no  gain  to  either  sovereign. 
At  length  Guise  was  recalled  into  France  to  meet  a  more  pressing  danger 
on  the  side  of  the  Netherlands;  and  the  Pope  dismissed  him  with  the 
following  benediction :  "  Begone,  then  !  you  have  done  little  for  your  king, 
less  for  the  Church  —  nothing  for  your  own  honor!" 

Peace  was  now  necessary  to  the  Pope;  and  Philip  was  glad  to  desist 
from  what  seemed  to  him  an  impious  warfare.  The  Duke  of  Alva,  in  his 
own  name  and  that  of  his  sovereign,  did  penance  and  received  absolution 
for  the  crime  of  invading  the  papal  states.  The  territories  belonging  to 
Florence  and  Siena  were  united  to  form  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany, 
which  was  ultimately  conferred  upon  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  and  continued  in 
his  family  until  1737,  when  his  last  descendant  expired. 

190.  In  the  Netherlands,  Philip  had  mustered  an  army  of  50,000  men, 
among  whom  were  10,000  English  sent  by  Queen  Mary  against  the  resist- 
ance of  the  Parliament  and  the  murmurs  of  the  nation.  With  these 
forces,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the  French  near 
St.  Quentin,  and  almost  annihilated  their  army.  Paris  was  only  saved 
from  capture  by  the  obstinacy  of  Philip  himself,  who,  joining  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  forbade  him  to  move  farther  until  the  town  of  St.  Quentin  and 
some  insignificant  places  in  the  neighborhood  had  been  taken.  The 
French  admiral  Coligny,  with  his  little  garrison,  held  out  bravely  three 
weeks,  and  though  the  town  was  ultimately  taken,  as  well  as  Ham, 
Noyon,  and  Chauni,  the  tide  of  success  had  meanwhile  turned.  The 
English,  never  cordial,  insisted  on  going  home,  and   the  Germans  muti- 


202  .  MODERN  HISTORY. 

nied  for  want  of  pay.  While  the  ex-emperor,  in  his  retreat,  was  calcula- 
ting that  his  son  must  be  in  Paris,  Philip  had  in  fact  retired  to  Brussels, 
disbanded  part  of  his  army  and  sent  the  rest  into  winter-quarters. 

191.  At  this  crisis  the  Duke  of  Guise  returned  from  Italy  and  was 
invested  by  the  French  king  with  extraordinary  powers.  After  a  feigned 
movement  toward  Luxembourg,  he  suddenly  appeared  with  his  whole 
army  before  Calais.  This  last  stronghold  of  the  English  in  France  was 
negligently  guarded,  as  the  surrounding  marshes,  always  overflowed  in 
winter,  were  believed  to  constitute  an  effectual  defense.  Its  two  forts 
were  taken  in  the  first  day's  attack,  and  after  three  bombardments,  the 
town  itself  was  carried  by  assault.  Guines  was  taken  two  weeks  later, 
and  the  English,  after  possession  since  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  more 
than  two  hundred  years,  were  driven  from  their  foothold  on  the  conti- 
nent. The  discontent  universally  felt  in  England  with  the  needless  war 
was  heightened  into  indignation  by  this  unexpected  loss;  and  the  poor 
queen's  death  was  hastened  by  her  remorse  and  disappointment. 

192.  During  the  captivity  of  Montmorency,  who  had  been  taken  at 
St.  Quentin,  the  Guises  ruled  France.  The  duke  was  lieutenant-general, 
the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  was  minister  of  the  interior  and  of  finance,  a 
third  brother  commanded  the  fleet,  and  a  fourth  the  army  in  Piedmont. 
Their  power  was  increased  by  the  marriage  of  their  niece,  the  young 
queen  of  Scotland,  with  the  dauphin  Francis  in  April,  1558.  The  con- 
stable was  now  permitted  to  open   negotiations  with   his  captors.      Two 

,     .,     .  „  treaties    were    signed    at    Cateau    Cambresis,    one   between 

April,  1559.  °  ' 

France  and  Spain,  the  other  between  France,  England,  and 

Scotland.     Queen  Mary  of  England  had  died  during  the  conferences,  and 

Philip   engaged    to    marry   Elizabeth,    eldest   daughter   of  the    King  of 

France ;   while  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  reinstated  in  his  paternal  dominions, 

espoused  Margaret,  sister  of  the  same  king.     Most  of  the  conquests  made 

by  either  French  or  Spaniards  were   restored.      The   bishoprics  of  Metz, 

Toul,   and   Verdun  —  each,    in    fact,    a    principality  —  remained    to    the 

French,  the  emperor  Ferdinand  being  too  weak  to  reclaim  them. 

193.  The  treaty  of  Cateau  Cambresis  is  important  as  making  a  new 
division  of  the  powers  of  Europe.  National  jealousies  were  forgotten  in 
religious  enmity.  The  kings  of  France  and  Spain  ended  their  long  con- 
test in  order  that  both  might  be  free  to  destroy  heresy  in  their  respective 
dominions.  England,  under  the  firm  and  prudent  rule  of  Elizabeth  —  or 
rather,  perhaps,  of  her  great  ministers  —  assumed  her  place  as  the  head  of 
the  Protestant  states  and  the  protectress  of  religious  freedom  in  all  the 
nations  of  Europe.  Spain  became  equally  the  champion  of  papal  claims, 
and  in  every  nation  the  ruler  who  M'ished  to  cocirce  the  consciences  of  his 
people,  looked  to  Philip  for  aid.  The  invincible  infantry  and  the  reputed 
wealth  of  Spain  made  her  unquestionably  the  greatest  power  in  Europe  at 


AFFAIRS  OF  FEANCE  AND  SPAIN.  203 

this  period,  though  unwise  and  unjust  restrictions  upon  commerce  had 
already  cast  a  blight  upon  her  prosperity,  and  her  decline,  tliough  yet  un- 
suspected, was  begun. 

104.  The  Reformed  Church  of  France  had  organized  itself  at  Paris 
during  the  month  following  the  treaty  of  Cateau  Cambresis.  Its  doctrines 
were  derived  from  Calvin,  whose  rescripts,  dated  at  Geneva,  were  received 
throughout  protestant  France  with  as  much  reverence  as  those  of  the  Pope 
himself  commanded  from  the  adherents  of  the  ancient  Church.  His  dis- 
ciples were  numerous  among  the  more  intelligent  classes,  and  included 
even  bishops,  clergy,  and  members  of  the  monastic  orders.  The  parlia- 
ment of  Paris  had  refused  to  register  an  edict  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition  in  France ;  but  proceedings  in  matters  of  faith  were  intrusted 
to  two  divisions  or  committees  of  the  parliament  itself,  one  of  which  was 
called  the  Burning  Chamber,  from  the  multitude  of  victims  whom  it  had 
consigned  to  the  flames.  Its  rigors  were  condemned  by  the  parliament  of 
1559,  but  Henry  II.  personally  interfered  in  the  discussion,  and  ordered 
the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  seven  members  who  advocated  a  more 
merciful  policy.  To  the  remonstrances  of  the  reformed  synod,  he  replied 
that  he  would  witness  with  his  own  eyes  the  burning  of  one  of  these 
prisoners. 

195.  He  was  mistaken,  for  one  month  after  his  visit  to  the  parliament, 
he  died  by  accident  in  the  prime  of  his  life.  The  marriages  of  the  two 
princesses  were  celebrated  with  great  festivities  and  rejoicings;  and  among 
the  ceremonies  was  a  grand  tournament  held  in  the  space  between  the 
royal  hotel  and  the  tower  of  the  Bastile,  where  the  members  of  parlia- 
ment were  confined.  The  king  of  France  challenged  the  captain  of  his 
guard,  a  Scottish  nobleman,  to  a  tilt.  In  vain  the  queen  protested,  and 
Montgomery  tried  to  excuse  himself  from  the  encounter.  They  met,  and 
both  lances  were  shivered;  but  that  of  the  Scot  entered  the  king's  eye 
between  the  bars  of  his  helmet.  Henry  sank  into  the  arms  of  his  son, 
and  expired  amid  the  alarm  and  confusion  of  the  court. 

196.  The  Guises  for  a  year  ruled  both  France  and  Scotland,  and  in  both 
kingdoms  their  violent  adherence  to  the  policy  of  Eome  compelled  those  of 
the  reformed  faith  to  organize  themselves  more  closely  in  defense  of  their 
rights.  The  league  of  reformers  in  Scotland  was  called  the  Congrega- 
tion. In  France  the  name  of  Huguenots  was  now  first  applied.  The  young 
king,  Francis  II.,  was  but  sixteen  years  of  age,  of  feeble  health,  and  slight 
mental  endowments.  Antony  of  Bourbon,  King  of  Navarre,  and  first 
prince  of  the  blot)d-royal  of  France,  was  equally  destitute  of  character; 
his  younger  brother,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  was  regarded  as  the  head  of 
the  protestant  party,  but  he  had  purposely  been  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
Brussels.  Even  the  queen-mother  could  not  yet  assume  the  power  which 
she  afterward  wielded. 


204  MODERN  HISTORY, 

197.  The  kingdom  was  divided  no  less  by  political  than  religious  diifer- 
ences.  On  the  side  of  the  Huguenots  were  the  old  feudal  nobility  of 
France  and  the  highest  princes  of  the  royal  blood.  Opposed  to  them  were 
the  Guises,  still  regarded  as  foreigners  by  most  of  the  nation,  the  queen- 
mother,  an  Italian,  and  the  strong  influence  of  the  Pope  and  of  Philip  of 
Spain.  The  national  party,  therefore,  favored  reform  or  at  least  general 
toleration  in  matters  of  faith ;  and  resented  the  persecuting  policy  of  their 
opponents,  not  only  for  its  inhumanity,  but  as  the  impertinent  interfer- 
ence of  foreigners.  An  assembling  of  the  States-General  was  urgently 
demanded ;  the  government  refused,  and  the  Huguenots  retaliated  by 
the  "conspiracy  of  Amboise,"  whose  main  objects  were  to  get  possession 
of  the  young  king,  to  make  Antony  of  Bourbon  regent,  to  try  the  Guises 
for  their  mal-administration,  and  to  summon  the  States.  This  plot  was 
betrayed,  and  its  only  effect  was  to  strengthen  the  opposite  party. 

108.  Paul  IV.,  before  his  death,  gave  the  world  a  new  surprise  by 
suddenly  entering  on  plans  of  reform.  He  dismissed  his  nephews,  whose 
robberies,  murders,  and  midnight  riots  had  been  the  scandal  of  his  court ; 
introduced  order  and  economy  into  his  finances ;  and,  to  guard  against 
injustice  in  his  ministers,  caused  a  chest  to  be  put  in  a  public  place,  with 
an  opening  into  which  every  man  might  cast  his  petitions  or  complaints, 
the  Pope  himself  having  the  only  key.  His  reforms,  however,  were  almost 
harder  to  bear  than  his  previous  extravagance  ;  for  his  zeal  took  the  direc- 
tion of  persecution,  and  his  last  days  were  spent  in  listening  to  the  tales 
of  the  basest  informers,  and  ordering  arrefets.  He  died  in  August,  1559, 
and  the  people  instantly  broke  open  the  prisons  and  released  his  captives. 
His  statue  was  thrown  down,  and  its  head,  wearing  the  triple  crown,  was 
cast  into  the  Tiber. 

199.  A  diiferent  character  was  elevated  to  the  papacy  in  Gian  Angelo 
IMedecino,  who  took  the  name  of  Pius  IV.  He  was  an  active  old  man,  of 
affable  manners  and  amiable  temper,  himself  no  persecutor,  but  allowing 
the  inquisitors  to  proceed  in  their  dreadful  work  unmolested.  His  only 
near  relative,  his  nephew,  Charles  Borromeo,  was  a  clear  and  striking  con- 
trast to  the  nephews  of  other  popes  who  have  made  nepotism  notorious. 
Promoted  to  the  see  of  Milan,  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  self-denying 
purity  of  his  life,  his  toilsome  and  frequent  visits  to  the  humblest  and  re- 
motest mountain  recesses  of  his  diocese,  and  his  ministrations  to  the  poor 
during  a  terrible  visitation  of  the  plague.  Pius  IV.  differed  from  his 
predecessor  in  being  a  friend  to  the  House  of  Austria ;  he  therefore  rec- 
ognized the  imperial  title  of  Ferdinand  L,  and  consented  to  the  reassem- 
bling of  the  Council  at  Trent  in  1562. 

200.  Philip  II.,  meanwhile,  had  been  recalled  into  Spain  by  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation  in  that  country.  Bibles  in  the  Castilian  language  were 
commonly  possessed  by  the  middle  and  higher  classes,  and  the  constant 


AFFAIRS  OF  FRANCE  AND  SPAIN.  205 

intercourse  with  Germany  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  had  afforded 
free  entrance  to  the  Lutheran  doctrines.  The  rigorous  edicts  of  Philip 
were  only  too  effective  in  suppressing  the  "spirit  of  inquiry.  The  fires  of 
the  Inquisition,  formerly  lit  only  for  Jews  and  Moors,  were  now  kept  blaz- 
ing for  loyal  and  blameless  Spaniards.  With  the  last  vestiges  of  free 
thought,  the  prosperity  of  Spain  vanished.  More  printing-presses  existed 
in  that  kingdom  in  1550  than  in  1850 ;  a  fact  which  can  surely  be  paral- 
leled by  no  other  country  in  Europe. 

201.  The  dominion  of  the  Guises  in  Scotland  was  overthrown  in  the 

summer  of  1560,  by  the  surrender  of  Leith  to  a  combined  army  of  Scots 

and  English,  after  a  long  and  severe  siege,  during  which  the  queen-regent 

had  died.     The  French,  in  fulfillment  of  their  treaty,  evacuated  Scotland, 

and  Mary  Stuart  and  her  husband  were  compelled  to  drop  the  arms  and 

title  which   they   had   hitherto   assumed  as  sovereigns  of  England.     Six 

months  later  the  supremacy  of  the  Guises  in  France  was  shaken  by  the 

death  of  Francis  IL,    just  as   their  deeply   laid    plot  for 

,       ^  ^  Dec,  15C0. 

destroying  the  Bourbon  princes  approached  its  fulfillment. 

Catherine  de'  Medici,  now  ruling  in  the  name  of  her  second  son,  Charles 

IX.,  spared  the  lives  of  the  Bourbons,  that  by  playing  off  one  party  against 

the  other  she  might  maintain  her  own  ascendency. 

202.  The  States-General  met  Dec.  13;  but,  startled  by  the  enormity  of 
the  public  debt,  declared  that  they  could  do  nothing,  and  were  dissolved 
in  January,  1561.  The  Edict  of  Orleans  the  same  day  granted  most  of 
the  reforms  which  had  been  demanded ;  and,  for  a  while,  the  queen, 
offended  by  the  overbearing  conduct  of  the  Guises,  courted  the  favor  of 
the  Huguenots.  The  constable  Montmorency,  always  a  friend  of  Spain, 
and  a  firm  adherent  of  the  old  Church,  now  joined  the  Duke  of  Guise 
and  the  marshal  St.  Andre  in  what  was  called  the  Triumvirate,  for  the 
suppression  of  heresy.  But  the  j^resent  drift  of  affairs  was  against  them, 
and  they  retired  from  the  court.  The  States-General  met  again  in  Aug., 
1561,  after  a  new  election  in  which  the  reformed  party  was  victorious. 
They  confirmed  the  disposition  already  made  of  the  government  during 
the  king's  minority,  but  insisted  that  no  cardinal  should  be  admitted  to 
the  Council  of  Regency,  because  he  was  subject  to  a  foreign  sovereign, 
the  Pope ;  no  bishop,  because  the  law  required  him  to  reside  in  his 
diocese  ;  and  no  foreigner,  which  term  was  held  to  include  the  whole 
family  of  Lorraine. 

203.  An  important  conference  of  divines  took  place  at  Poissy,  Sept., 
1561,  in  the  presence  of  the  king,  the  queen-mother,  the  king  and  queen 
of  Navarre,  and  many  prelates  and  theologians.  Theodore  Beza  of  Geneva 
made  so  favorable  an  impression  upon  the  court  by  his  eloquence,  fear- 
lessness, and  noble  bearing,  that  he  was  requested  by  Queen  Catherine 
to  remain  in  France,  in  the  hope  that  his  presence  might  contribute  to 


206  MODERN  HISTORY. 

peace  and  a  better  understanding  between  the  parties.  The  following 
January  an  Edict  of  Toleration,  prepared  by  the  Presidents 
and  Councilors  of  the  several  parliaments  of  France,  offi- 
cially recognized  the  Reformed  Church  and  permitted  the  Huguenots  to 
meet  unarmed  by  daylight  for  worship  in  the  suburbs  of  towns,  though 
not  within  the  walls. 

204.  The  Triumvirate  resolved  to  oppose  the  edict  by  force;  and 
Philip  of  Spain  wrote  his  mother-in-law  that  she  must  cleanse  her  king- 
dom with  fire  and  sword,  or  the  pestilence  of  heresy  would  overspread 
Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  The  weak-minded  King  of  Navarre  was 
drawn  over  to  the  same  side  by  promises  of  the  island  of  Sardinia  or  of 
a  marriage  with  the  widowed  queen  of  Scotland.  Hostilities  were  begun 
by  an  attack  of  the  Duke  of  Guise's  retainers  upon  a  congregation  of 
Huguenots  who  were  assembled  on  a  Sunday  morning  for  worship  in  a 
barn.  A  frightful  massacre  ensued,  which  was  the  signal  for  similar 
scenes  all  over  France.  Beza  hastened  to  the  court  to  remonstrate.  The 
king  of  Navarre  was  present  and  threw  all  the  blame  upon  the  Huguenots. 
The  reformer  replied  in  memorable  words :  "  I  admit.  Sire,  that  it  is  the 
part  of  God's  Church,  in  whose  name  I  speak,  to  endure  rather  than 
inflict  blows;  but  may  it  please  you  to  remember  that  it  is  an  anvil 
which  has  worn  out  many  a  hammer." 

205.  Both  parties  sought  foreign  aid  in  the  war  which  both  foresaw ; 
but  while  the  Prince  of  Conde  and  the  Huguenots  wore  the  colors  of 
the  king  and  declared  their  purpose  to  deliver  him  from  captivity,  the 
Triumvirate  and  their  followers  assumed  the  red  scarf  of  Spain.  Philip 
offered  36,000  men,  but  the  Catholic  leaders,  alarmed  by  the  scandal 
which  such  an  invasion  would  bring  upon  their  cause,  besought  money 
instead.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  led  his  own  troops,  and  the  Pope  contrib- 
uted 100,000  crowns.  Elizabeth  of  England  sent  an  equal  sum  of  money 
to  hire  German  mercenaries  for  the  Huguenots,  and  added  6,000  of  her 
own  subjects  to  their  armies.  Havre  was  given  up  to  her  officers  as 
security  for  the  restitution  of  Calais. 

206.  Many  of  the  chief  towns  in  France  declared  for  the  Huguenots. 
Orleans  became  their  capital  and  was  blockaded  by  the  other  party.  The 
King  of  Navarre  received  a  mortal  wound  during  the  siege  of  Rouen;  in 
a  battle  near  Dreux  —  the  first  of  any  magnitude  in  these  unhappy  wars 
—  the  leaders  on  either  side,  Conde  and  Montmorency,  were  taken  pris- 
oners. Coligny  became  leader  of  the  Huguenots,  and  the  Duke  of  Guise 
was  alone  at  the  head  of  the  Catholic  party.  The  latter  even  dreamed 
of  succeeding  to  the  throne  of  France,  but  his  ambitious  schemes  were 
ended  by  assassination,  Feb.,  1563.  The  queen-mother  was  the  chief 
gainer  by  his  death,  for  her  real  reign  now  began.  Peace  was  made 
with  the  Huguenots,  and  the  Edict  of  Amboise  secured  freedom  of  wor- 


PEACE  OF  ST.  GEBMAINS.  207 

ship  to  nobles  and  great  vassals  of  the  crown,  with  their  retainers  and 
subjects  —  a  signal  illustration  of  the  aristocratic  character  of  the  reforma- 
tion in  France. 

207.  The  Council  of  Trent  held  its  last  session  Dec.  4,  1563.  Instead 
of  healing  the  schism  in  the  Christian  world,  it  had  excluded  nearly 
half  the  body  of  believers  from  the  communion  of  the  Church ;  but,  by 
the  reformatory  measures  adopted  during  its  later  sittings,  it  gave  new 
vigor  to  that  venerable  body,  and  apparently  set  a  bound  to  the  protestant 
movement  in  Europe.      A  few   months  after  its  close  the 

emperor  Ferdinand  I.  died.     His. son,  Maximilian   II.,  had  Jul5M564. 

already  been  crowned  King  of  the  Eomans,  as  well  as  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.  He  succeeded  peaceably  to  the  imperial  crown,  and  his  justice 
and  liberality  long  delayed  the  wars  of  religion  which  were  destined  in 
the  next  century  to  bathe  Germany  in  blood. 

208.  The  next  year  Pope  Pius  IV.  also  died  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Grand  Inquisitor  Ghislieri,  who  took  the  name  of  Pius  V.  His  austere 
piety  and  unyielding  will  well  qualified  him  to  continue  the  reformation  of 
the  Church.  Certain  of  his  own  rectitude,  he  was  equally  sure  of  the  un- 
pardonable wickedness  of  all  who  differed  from  him.  New  prisons  were  built 
to  contain  the  multitudes  of  his  victims,  and  blood  flowed,  or  the  smoke 
of  his  executions  ascended,  every  day.  He  sent  money  and  troops  into 
France,  with  orders  for  the  instant  death  of  all  heretics  who  could  be  taken. 

209.  The  details  of  the  civil  and  religious  wars  in  France  can  not  be 
fully  recorded  here.  The  queen-mother,  personally  indifferent  to  all  re- 
ligion, courted  either  party  which  for  the  moment  seemed  best  adapted 
to  serve  her  ends.  In  a  battle  near  Paris,  Nov.,  1567,  the  veteran  consta- 
ble Montmorency  was  killed,  though  the  Huguenots  were  defeated.  By 
the  battle  of  Jarnac,  March,  1569,  the  Huguenots  lost  a  hundred  nobles, 
among  whom  must  be  reckoned  the  Prince  of  Conde.  His  son  Henry, 
then  very  young,  became  afterward  one  of  the  most  illustrious  leaders 
in  France.  Henry  of  Navarre,  his  cousin,  though  but  fifteen  years  of 
age,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  reformed  party,  while  Coligny,  his 
instructor  in  war,  was  in  command  of  their  armies. 

210.  A  more  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Moncontour,  Oct.  3,  1569 ; 
the  Huguenots  suffered  a  terrible  reverse,  with  the  loss  of  12,000  men. 
But  the  interests  of  Catherine  now  required  peace,  for  she  hoped  to  marry 
her  third  and  favorite  son,  Henry,  Duke  of  Anjou,  to  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land. The  masterly  generalship  of  Coligny  also  threatened  the  capital ; 
and  in  these  circumstances  the  treaty  of  St.  Germains  was  signed,  Aug.  8, 
1570.  The  Huguenots  were  guaranteed  the  free  and  public  exercise  of 
their  religion,  with  the  restoration  of  all  their  goods  and  offices ;  and  as 
security  for  the  execution  of  this  treaty,  four  cities — La  Eochelle,  Mon- 
tauban.  Cognac,  and  La  Charite  —  were  assigned  to  them  for  two  years. 


208  MODERN  HISTORY. 


Paul  IV.  opposes  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  I.,  and  malces  war  upon  Philip  of  Spain. 
Alva  ravages  the  Campagna  and  carries  on  a  semblance  of  hostilities  with  the  French 
forces  of  the  Dulie  of  Guise.  Spaniards  victorious  at  St.  Quentin,  but  the  English  lose 
(Calais.  Peace  of  Cateau  Cambresis  recombines  the  powers  of  Europe  according  to  their 
religious  affinities.  England  becomes  the  head  of  protestant,  Spain  of  Catholic  powers. 
Organization  of  Reformed  Church  of  France.  Attempt  of  Henry  II.  to  suppress  discus- 
sion in  the  parliament  is  shortly  followed  by  his  death.  Ascendency  of  the  Guises  in 
France  and  Scotland  ended  only  by  the  death  of  King  Francis  II,  and  of  Mary  of  Guise. 
Foreign  influences  in  France  arrayed  against  the  national  or  reform  party.  I'aul  IV.  under- 
takes persecutions  and  reforms.  Pius  IV  recogniz.es  Ferdinand  I.  and  reassembles  the  Coun- 
cil at  Trent.  Philip  II.  crushes  the  reformation  in  Spain.  Tolerant  Edict  of  Orleans  op- 
posed by  the  French  "  Triumvirate."  Reformed  party  predominant  for  a  time  in  France. 
War  begun  ;  the  Huguenots  aided  by  England  and  protestant  Germany,  the  Triumvirate  by 
Spain  and  the  Pope.  Death  of  Antony  of  Bourbon,  the  Duke  of  Guise,  I\Iontmorency,  and 
the  Prince  of  Conde.  Henry  of  Navarre  becomes  leader  of  the  Huguenots.  Close  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Accession  of  Emperor  Maximilian  II.  and  Pope  Pius  V.,  the  former  a 
peace-maker,  the  latter  a  persecutor.  Defeat  of  the  Huguenots  at  Moncontour  followed  by 
Peace  of  St.  Germains. 


Wars  of  Religion. 

211.  King  Philip  of  Spain  had,  meanwhile,  been  carrying  on  a  barba- 
rous crusade  against  the  Moriscoes,  or  nominally  Christian  Moors  of  the 
Alpujarras.  By  his  edict  of  1566,  these  people  were  forbidden  the  use  of 
their  native  language,  their  Moorish  names,  or  any  of  their  most  innocent 
nationijl  customs;  and  all  their  children  between  the  ages  of  three  and 
fifteen  were  ordered  to  be  sent  to  Spanish  schools.  After  a  year  of  secret 
preparation,  the  people  flew  to  arms,  murdered  the  Christian  inhabitants 

of  that  region  with  every  circumstance  of  barbarity,  besought 
aid  from  the  Sultan  Selim  and  their  brethren  in  Africa; 
and  chose  for  their  sovereign  a  descendant  of  the  Ommyad  caliphs  of 
Cordova.  The  war  raged  three  years,  with  all  the  violence  of  vengeance 
on  one  side  and  desperation  on  the  other.  The  fugitive  people  were 
hunted  like  wild  beasts  among  their  mountains,  but  at  length  their 
spirit  was  broken  by  a  series  of  inhuman  massacres,  and  in  1571  the  last 
symptoms  of  revolt  were  extinguished. 

212.  A  more  important  maritime  war  was  still  in  progress  with  the 
Turks  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  1565  they  had  besieged  Malta  in  great 
force,  and  the  defense  of  that  island  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  was  one 
of  the  most  valiant  operations  known  to  history.  The  fort  St.  Elmo  was 
taken,  but  that  of  St.  Michael,  commanded  by  the  Grand  Master  La  Va- 
lette,  held  out,  until  the  Turks,  exhausted  by  a  series  of  desperate  attacks, 
gave  up  their  enterprise  and  sailed  away  to  Constantinople.  All  the  sov- 
ereigns in  Europe  rivaled  each  other  in  showering  praises  and  gifts  upon 
the  Grand  Master,  and  Valetta,  the  new  capital  of  Malta,  has  ever  since 


WARS  WITH  THE  TURKS.  209 

borne  liis  name.  Solyman  was  overwhelmed  with  rage  and  regret,  which 
were  hardly  assuaged  by  his  capture  the  next  year  of  the  far  more  fertile 
and  valuable  island  of  Chios. 

213.  The  Sultan  was  that  year  making  war  in  Hungary,  under  pretense 
of  supporting  the  claims  of  John  Sigismund,  son  of  Zapolya,  against  Maxi- 
milian II.  The  fortress  of  Szigeth  was  at  length  taken  by  his  forces ;  but 
the  noxious  air  of  the  surrounding  marshes  proved  fatal  to  Solyman  him- 
self, who  died  in  September,  1566.  His  two  elder  sons  had  been  put  to 
death  through  the  intrigues  of  Eoxolana,  his  Eussian  wife,  who  thus  pre- 
pared the  accession  of  her  own  son,  Selim  II.  The  new  sultan  was  weak 
and  profligate,  and  only  secured  the  allegiance  of  the  Janizaries  by  largely 
increasing  the  donative,  which,  like  the  praetorian  guards  of  Eome,  they 
demanded  at  every  change  of  masters.  Making  a  truce  with  Maximilian, 
Selim  turned  his  attention  to  the  conquest  of  Cyprus.  This  island  had 
been  for  eighty  years  a  dependency  of  the  Venetian  Republic,  whose  power 
was  now  declining,  while  the  severity  of  its  rule  made  the  Cypriots  look 
even  to  the  Turks  as  deliverers. 

214.  In  the  summer  of  1570,  a  Turkish  army  of  50,000  was  landed  on  the 
island,  and  the  Venetians,  abandoning  the  open  country,  shut  themselves 
up  in  the  two  towns  of  Famagusta  and  Nicosia.  The  latter  was  taken  in 
about  two  months,  the  former  not  until  August,  1571.  Pius  V.,  always 
an  ardent  foe  of  the  Moslem  power,  was  now  roused  to  the  most  strenuous 
exertions ;  and  the  Holy  League,  consisting  of  himself,  the  king  of  Spain, 
and  the  Republic  of  Venice,  had  soon  in  the  Mediterranean  a  fleet  of 
300  vessels.  The  command  was  given  to  Don  John  of  x\ustria,  half-brother 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  the  most  accomplished  knight,  and  soon  to  become 
the  most  famous  general,  of  his  time. 

215.  The  Turkish  fleet,  whose  number  somewhat  exceeded  that  of  the 
Christians,  had  taken  its  position  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  when  the  allies 
came  in  sight.  The  battle  which  followed  was  the  most  memorable  naval 
conflict  in  modern  times.  The  Turks  not  only  lost  224  ships  and  80,000 
men,  but  the  fame  of  their  invincible  bravery  and  fortune,  which  had 
reached  its  height  during  the  career  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  ceased 
to  be  a  terror  to  the  nations  of  Europe.  The  decline  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  is  dated  from  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  If  the  Christians  by  a 
closer  union  could  have  followed  up  their  victory,  Greece  might  have 
been  delivered.  But  rival  interests  divided  their  forces,  and  the  death 
of  Pius  V.  for  a  time  interrupted  their  movements.  In  1573,  Venice 
made  a  separate  peace  with  the  Turks,  surrendering  Cyprus  and  even 
consenting  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  Selim  died  the  next  year,  but  not 
until  the  first  collision  of  his  empire  with  Russia  had  begun  that  long 
series  of  contests  for  the  possession  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  is  not  yet 
ended. 

M.  H.— 14 


210  MODERN  HISTORY. 

216.  In  western  Europe  religious  divisions  were  still  producing  either 
open  or  secret  hostilities.  A  bull  of  Pius  V.  in  1570  excommumcated 
Elizabeth  of  England  and  released  all  her  subjects  from  allegiance.  The 
favorite  plan  of  the  Pope  and  the  king  of  Spain  was  to  place  the  queen 
of  Scotland  upon  the  English  throne ;  but  Mary  was  at  this  time  the 
prisoner  of  Elizabeth,  owing  to  a  train  of  circumstances  which  can  only 
be  briefly  indicated. 

The  pupil,  though  of  late  years  the  rival  of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  Mary 
Stuart  had  returned  to  her  inherited  kingdom  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
with  a  character  singularly  unprepared  to  encounter  the  stern  spirits 
which  now  surrounded  the  Scottish  throne.  Beautiful,  and  endowed  with 
wonderful  fascination  of  manner,  she  had  been  trained  at  a  court  where 
pleasure  was  the  chief  end  of  life,  and  the  pursuit  of  selfish  interest  the 
only  wisdom.  The  Scotch  reformers  did  not  adorn  their  solid  virtues 
with  the  graces  or  even  the  common  charities  of  the  Christian  life;  in 
their  eyes  the  gaieties  of  the  queen's  household  were  heinous  sins,  and  the 
religion  in  which  she  had  been  educated  from  her  cradle  was  an  idolatry 
to  be  resisted  even  unto  death.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how  much  of  the 
subsequent  calamities  sprang  from  crime,  how  much  from  the  weakness  of 
the  queen,  or  how  much  from  the  inevitable  hostility  between  herself  and 
her  circumstances;  but  the  suspicion  which  attributed  to  her  an  active 
share  in  the  murder  of  her  second  husband,  Henry  Darnley,  was  only  con- 
firmed by  her  speedy  marriage  with  his  murderer,  the  Earl  of  Bothwell. 

217.  She  was  imprisoned  by  her  nobles  in  Lochleven  Castle,  escaped 
the  following  year,  mustered  an  army,  risked  and  lost  the  battle  of  Lang- 
side  near  Glasgow,  and  took  refuge  in  England.  The  regent  of  Scotland 
for  the  young  king  James  YL,  came  with  a  retinue  to  York,  where  the 
cause  between  the  rebellious  subjects  and  their  queen  was  tried  before  the 
commissioners  of  Elizabeth  in  October,  1568.  Mary  was  neither  convicted 
nor  acquitted  of  the  murder  of  Darnley;  but  she  was  detained  nineteen 
years  in  England,  the  occasion  of  innumerable  plots  against  the  govern- 
ment and  life  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  finally  beheaded  in  1587. 

218.  In  the  meantime  a  startling  event  had  destroyed  the  balance  of 
religious  parties  in  France.  For  two  years  after  the  Peace  of  St.  Ger- 
mains  (see  §  210),  the  court  favored  the  Huguenots.  The  death  of  the 
queen  of  Spain  dissolved  for  a  time  the  cordial  relations  between  her  hus- 
band and  her  brother,  the  king  of  France.  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands 
against  the  tyranny  and  persecution  of  Philip  II.  also  tempted  Charles 
IX.  to  annex  the  Walloon  provinces,  formerly  fiefs  of  France,  and  thus 
extend  his  kingdom  to  the  Scheldt.  Though  this  secret  scheme  never  led 
to  open  hostilities  with  Spain,  yet  Charles  gave  his  security  to  a  loan 
negotiated  by  Coligny  and  Louis  of  Nassau  for  the  insurgents  in  the 
Netherlands. 


ST.  BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY.  211 

219.  La  Roclielle  was  the  capital  of  the  Huguenots ;  there  Queen  Jeanne 
of  Navarre  held  her  court  and  the  reformed  church  its  synods,  unmolested 
by  the  Guises  or  the  government.  The  good-will  of  the  latter  was  still 
further  indicated  by  the  proposal  to  marry  the  princess  Margaret,  third 
sister  of  Charles  IX.,  to  Prince  Henry,  heir  of  Navarre.  Coligny  was  in- 
vited to  court  and  loaded  with  wealth,  honors,  and  assurances  of  the 
affectionate  confidence  of  the  king.  He  used  the  power  thus  intrusted 
to  him  by  striving  to  consolidate  all  sects  and  parties  in  France  against 
the  overbearing  influence  of  the  king  of  Spain.  He  promoted  naval 
enterprise  and  colonization  in  America.  The  first  settlement  within 
the  present  limits  of  the  United  States  —  near  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
John  in  Florida  —  was  under  his  patronage;  but  the  colony  was  ex- 
terminated—men, women,  and  children  being  massacred  by  Spaniards 
from  the  more  recent  plantation  of  St.  Augustine. 

220.  Shortly  before  the  time  appointed  for  the  marriage  of  Henry  of 
Navarre,  his  mother,  Queen  Jeanne,  died  at  Paris,  June,  1572.  The  mar- 
riage was  celebrated  Aug.  18.  Four  days  later,  Coligny  was  shot  in  the 
street,  but  not  killed,  by  a  man  hired  for  the  purpose  by  the  Duke  of 
Guise.  .The  king  and  his  mother  visited  the  admiral  in  his  sick-room, 
expressing  great  indignation  and  desire  to  punish  the  assassin ;  but  mean- 
while a  greater  crime  was  secretly  but  swiftly  preparing.  The  Guises 
were  summoned  to  court,  and  the  several  quarters  of  Paris  were  assigned 
to  them  for  the  general  massacre  of  the  Huguenots,  which  was  now  re- 
solved upon.  Word  was  passed  through  the  city ;  at  the  sound  of  a  great 
bell  all  ''good  Catholics"  were  to  be  in  the  streets,  distinguished  by  a 
white  badge  on  the  left  arm  and  a  white  cross  on  the  hat. 

.       .  .  Aug.  24, 1572. 

A  little  after   midnight,  in   the  early   morning  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Day,  the  dreadful  signal  was  given,  and   instantly,  as  if  a 
myriad  of  wild  beasts  had  been  let  loose,  the  yells  of  the  murderers  and 
the  despairing  cries  of  their  victims  resounded  through  the  streets. 

221.  The  massacre  went  on  eight  days  and  nights  in  Paris,  and  spread 
in  six  weeks  through  all  France.  As  usual,  private  interest  or  revenge 
asserted  itself  under  cover  of  the  reigning  excitement.  Office-seekers 
murdered  those  whose  places  they  coveted,  suitors  their  opponents,  heirs- 
at-law  their  nearest  relatives.  The  lowest  number  of  lives  thus  sacrificed 
in  France,  as  stated  by  historians,  is  20,000. 

222.  This  outbreak  of  savage  atrocity  filled  all  Europe  with  surprise, 
but  excited  very  different  emotions  at  the  several  courts.  Philip  of  Spain 
is  said  to  have  laughed  for  the  first  time  in  his  life.  His  cousin,  the 
emperor  Maximilian,  wept  over  the  crime.  Elizabeth  of  England  received 
the  French  embassador  in  a  hall  draped  with  funereal  black.  No  word 
was  spoken,  but  the  discomfited  nobleman,  having  advanced  through 
silent  rows  of  black-robed   figures,  had   to  depart  as  he   came,  without 


212  MODERN  HISTORY. 

permission  to  offer  his  explanations.  The  Pope  (now  Gregory  XIII., 
who  had  succeeded  Pius  V.  in  May  of  this  year),  celebrated  the  event 
as  a  Roman  victory,  and  caused  the  Hall  of  Kings  in  the  Vatican  to  be 
adorned  with  a  fresco  representing  the  massacre.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  24th  of  August  was  appointed  at  Geneva  to  be  annually  observed  as 
a  solemn  fast. 

223.  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  and  the  rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic 
—  a  series  of  events  among  the  most  remarkable  in  modern  times  —  have 
hardly  been  alluded  to,  in  order  that  their  history  might  now  be  given 
without  interruption.  These  rich  and  thriving  countries — called  in  vari- 
ous languages  the  Low,  Nether-  or  Hollow-lands  of  Europe  —  had  been  in 
great  part  reclaimed  from  the  sea,  and  owed  their  wealth  wholly  to  the 
industry  of  their  people.  The  seventeen  provinces  (see  note,  page  193), 
differed  from  each  other  in  language,  customs,  and  laws,  and  though  gov- 
erned in  common  by  the  king  of  Spain,  were  only  united  by  the  occasional 
meeting  of  their  deputies  in  the  States-General.  The  four  Walloon  prov- 
inces which  bordered  France  spoke  its  language,  though  in  a  dialect  of 
their  own.  The  people  of  the  midland  countries  spoke  Flemish,  the 
northern,  Dutch  —  both  languages  being  a  greater  or  less  variation  from 
the  German.  The  Netherlands,  as  a  whole,  were  not  only  the  most  pros- 
perous, but  the  most  generally  enlightened  portion  of  Europe ;  for  it  was 
rare  to  find  even  a  peasant  who  could  not  read  and  write.  Agriculture 
was  carried  on  by  the  most  careful  and  intelligent  methods ;  manufactures 
employed  multitudes  of  skillful  and  industrious  artisans ;  and  the  com- 
merce of  the  East  and  West  Indies  had  raised  Antwerp,  Amsterdam,  and 
Rotterdam  to  a  rank  among  the  richest  European  cities. 

224.  These  free  and  intelligent  people  had  given  an  early  and  extensive 
reception  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther  and  Calvin,  which  Charles  V.,  by 
eleven  successive  edicts  and  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition,  had 
vainly  endeavored  to  suppress.  The  Flemish  Inquisition  was  far  more 
restrained  and  mitigated  by  the  secular  government  than  the  Spanish; 
but  during  the  reign  of  Charles  several  thousands  of  the  people  had  been 
required  to  seal  their  faith  with  their  blood. 

225.  In  leaving  the  Netherlands  for  Spain  in  1559,  Philip  II.  had  com- 
mitted the  regency  to  his  half-sister,  the  Duchess  of  Parma.  Her  cabinet 
consisted  of  three  Councilors:  Granvelle,  Bishop  of  Arras  —  afterward 
Archbishop  of  Mechlin  and  cardinal;  Viglius,  an  experienced  lawyer  and 
statesman ;  and  Count  Barlaimont,  an  honest  and  loyal  Flemish  noble. 
The  most  important  man  in  the  Netherlands  v/as  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  a  favorite  of  Charles  Y.,  but  at  that  period  little  known  except 
for  his  vast  wealth  and  powerful  connections.  The  House  of  Nassau,  to 
which  he  belonged,  had  been  for  five  centuries  of  princely  rank  in  Ger- 
many, to  which  it  had  given  one  emperor ;  and  was  of  older  standing  in 


REVOLT  OF  THE  liETHERLANDS.  213 

the  Netherlands  than  that  of  Philip  himself.  The  principality  of  Orange 
had  been  lost  in  the  French  wars,  but  restored  to  William  by  the  peace 
of  Cateau  Cambresis.  Before  the  conclusion  of  that  peace,  the  prince 
was  a  hostage  in  Paris,  where  Henry  II.  made  known  to  him  in  confidence 
the  secret  agreement  between  himself  and  the  king  of  Spain  to  extirpate 
heresy  in  their  respective  dominions.  William  was  then  an  adherent  of 
the  Roman  Church,  but  his  just  soul  revolted  from  the  plot,  and  he  was 
thus  opportunely  put  upon  his  guard. 

226.  The  creation  of  a  great  number  of  new  bishoprics  was  the  first 
step  after  Philip's  accession  which  alarmed  the  more  liberal  party. 
Count  Egmont,  a  Flemish  nobleman  of  the  highest  distinction,  was  sent 
to  Spain  that  he  might  represent  to  Philip  in  person  the  growing  dis- 
contents of  the  Netherlands  and  ask  redress.  The  count's  head  was 
turned,  however,  by  the  king's  flatteries  and  gifts,  and  he  returned  to 
his  anxious  friends  with  golden  opinions  of  the  just  intentions  of  the 
Spanish  court.  He  was  soon  followed  by  letters  of  the  king  command- 
ing the  Inquisition  to  proceed  without  delay,  and  declaring  that  Philip 
would  rather  lose  a  hundred  thousand  lives,  were  they  all  his  own,  than 
permit  the  smallest  deviation  from  the  ancient  standards  of  faith.  The 
Prince  of  Orange,  as  governor  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  together  with 
several  other  governors  of  provinces,  refused  to  consent  to  the  burning  of 
his  countrymen.  Wise  Flemings  took  the  alarm  and  sought  shelter  under 
better  governments ;  30,000  of  them  settled  in  England  alone,  and  con- 
tributed their  capital  and  skill  in  fine  manufactures  to  the  growing  pros- 
perity of  that  country. 

227.  Two  thousand  persons,  including  members  of  all  sects  and  parties, 
now  united  for  mutual  defense.  While  denouncing  the  Inquisition,  they 
reasserted  their  loyalty  to  the  king,  and  their  determination  to  keep  down 
all  tumult  and  rebellion.  A  list  of  demands  was  presented  to  the  regent, 
who  —  alarmed  by  the  number  and  powerful  array  of  her  petitioners  — 
was  reassured  by  one  of  her  Councilors'  branding  them  as  "only  a  pack 
of  beggars."  The  opprobrious  term  was  seized  by  the  petitioners  as  a 
party  watchword  ;  it  was  adopted  the  next  day  at  a  great  banquet,  where 
Count  Brederode  appeared  carrying  a  wallet  and  a  wooden  bowl,  which 
were  passed  around  the  table  amid  jovial  shouts  of  "  Long  live  the 
Beggars! " 

228.  The  government  replied  to  the  petition  by  an  edict  which  it  called 
the  Moderation,  but  as  the  only  concession  was  in  permitting  heretics  to 
be  hung  instead  of  burned,  the  people  nicknamed  the  document  the 
"  Murderation."  The  excitement  increased  ;  thousands  began  to  assemble, 
first  in  the  woods  and  by  night,  but  at  length  in  daylight  and  upon  the 
open  plains,  to  listen  to  preachers  who  descanted  upon  the  miseries  of  the 
country.     As  they  grew  bolder,  cathedrals  and  churches  were  pillaged  and 


214  MODERN  HISTORY. 

images  were  thrown  down.  At  length  the  regent,  a  prisoner  in  her  own 
capital,  was  compelled  to  sign  a  permission  for  protestants  to  meet  for 
worship,  so  long  as  they  met  unarmed  and  did  not  molest  those  of  a 
different  faith.     A.  D.  1566. 

229.  Secret  intelligence  from  Spain  indicated  that  war  must  soon  break 
out.  A  battle  was  fought  near  Antwerp  (March,  1567),  in  which  1,500  of 
the  "Beggars"  were  slain,  and  300  more  were  afterward  murdered.  The 
Prince  of  Orange,  after  vainly  trying  to  mediate  between  the  parties, 
withdrew  into  Germany.  The  subjugation  of  the  Netherlands  was  now 
committed  by  Philip  to  stronger  and  sterner  hands  than  those  of  his 
sister.     The  Duke  of  Alva,  a  man  of  iron  will  and  -cruel  inflexibility  of 

-  purpose,    arrived    with   a   Spanish    army  at  Brussels.      He 

treacherously  seized  counts  Egmont  and  Horn   and  threw 

them  into  a  dungeon  at  Ghent,  then   proceeded  to  organize  in  his  own 

house  and  by  his  own  authority  an  infamous  tribunal  which  soon  justified 

its  name,  the  "  Council  of  Blood." 

230.  The  Prince  of  Orange  and  the  nobles  with  him  in  Germany  were 
summoned  before  this  tribunal;  they  replied  by  denying  its  authority. 
Count  Buren,  the  eldest  son  of  the  prince,  was  thereupon  torn  from  his 
studies  at  the  university  of  Louvain  and  sent  into  Spain.  The  Duchess 
of  Parma,  thus  superseded  in  command,  retired  into  Italy,  and  Alva,  add- 
ing her  powers  to  his  own,  became  Governor-General  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  calamities  which  followed  seem  rather  the  work  of  a  madman  than 
of  a  rational  and  responsible  being.  The  entire  population  of  the  Nether- 
lands, with  a  few  exceptions  specially  stated,  were  sentenced 
to  death  by  a  decree  of  the  Inquisition,  confirmed  ten  days 

later  by  a  royal  edict.  The  very  extravagance  of  this  decree  showed  that 
it  was  not  meant  to  be  literally  executed  ;  but  it  was  made  the  warrant  for 
innumerable  atrocities.  Common  criminals  were  hanged,  nobles  beheaded, 
obstinate  heretics  burnt.  At  first  the  government  derived  a  revenue  from 
the  confiscated  property  of  its  victims,  but  this  was  soon  exhausted,  and  an 
arbitrary  tax  of  one  per  cent  upon  all  property,  real  or  personal,  five  per 
cent  upon  all  transfers  of  real  estate,  and  ten  upon  all  other  articles  sold, 
aroused  the  wrath  even  of  the  classes  whom  the  persecutions  had  spared. 

231.  Commerce  ceased;  towns  were  deserted;  people  near  the  coast 
took  refuge  upon  or  beyond  the  sea,  many  in  the  interior  fled  to  the 
forests  and  became  the  terror  of  travelers  and  of  the  neighboring  vil- 
lages. Many  of  the  sea-farers  obtained  letters  of  marque  from  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  and  under  their  assumed  name,  "  Beggars  of  the  Sea,"  waged 
piratical  warfare  against  the  Spanish  marine.  The  outlaws  of  the  woods 
were  called  "  Wild  Beggars."  The  emperor  Maximilian  remonstrated 
with  his  cousin,  and  claimed  the  "  Circle  of  Burgundy  "  as  under  his  own 
protection ;  but  Philip  replied  that  he  would  rather  not  reign  at  all  than 


RISE  OF  THE  DUTCH  REPUBLIC.  215 

reign  over  heretics,  and  that  he  would  persevere  in  his  present  policy 
though  the  sky  should  fall.  The  Prince  of  Orange  now  mustered  three 
armies  from  his  own  resources  and  the  contributions  of  the  Dutch  and 
Flemish  cities,  and  planned  a  threefold  attack  upon  the  provinces  of 
Alva.  Before  taking  up  arms  he  published  a  "  Justification,"  in  which 
he  denounced  the  Council  of  Blood  and  all  the  atrocious  acts  of  the 
Governor-General,  and  charged  King  Philip  with  having  forgotten  not 
only  the  services  of  the  prince  and  his  ancestors,  but  all  his  own  royal 
oaths  as  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands.  Two  of  the  armies  were  defeated, 
but  C6unt  Louis  of  Nassau  gained  a  decided  victory  over  the  Spaniards 
near  Groningen.  Adolph  of  Nassau,  a  younger  brother  of  the  prince,  fell 
in  the  battle,  and  so  did  the  Spanish  commander  D'Aremberg. 

282.  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn  were  hastily  tried  by  Alva^s  Council, 
and  sent  to  execution.  Both  were  Knights  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and 
had  a  right  to  be  tried  only  by  the  statutes  of  their  order.  Egmont  might 
also  claim  the  privileges  of  his  native  country,  Brabant,  solemnly  guaran- 
teed by  the  king  of  Spain  at  his  accession,  while  Horn,  as  a  German  count, 
was  subject  only  to  trial  by  the  electors  and  princes  of  the  Empire.  But 
law  and  equity  were  now  disregarded.  Both  noblemen  were  beheaded  in 
the  great  square  at  Brussels  on  the  5th  of  June,  1568.  Two  years  later 
the  baron  Montigny,  brother  of  Count  Horn,  who  had  gone  on  an  embassy 
to  Spain  in  1566,  was  privately  garroted  in  the  prison  to  which  he  had 
been  illegally  consigned. 

233.  After  the  executions  of  Egmont  and  Horn,  Alva  marched  against 
Louis  of  Nassau,  who  suffered  a  defeat,  with  the  entire  loss  of  his  army,  at 
Emden,  and  escaped  without  followers  into  Germany.  His  brother,  the 
prince,  was  soon  afterward  compelled  to  disband  his  troops,  and  both  pro- 
ceeded, with  a  few  hundreds  of  horsemen,  to  the  aid  of  the  Huguenots  in 
France,  while  waiting  for  a  brighter  day  to  dawn  upon  their  own  dis- 
tracted country. 

234.  For  four  years  the  Sea-Beggars  had  carried  their  prizes  into  Eng- 
lish ports,  where  they  obtained  water  and  provisions,  though  the  country 
was  nominally  at  peace  with  Spain.  Elizabeth  secretly  supplied  money 
to  the  Flemish  patriots,  while  Philip  sent  gold,  spies,  and  even  assassins 
into  England  to  foment  plots  against  the  queen.  At  length,  however, 
the  English  sovereign,  unwilling  to  declare  war,  and  unable  to  continue 
her  aid  to  the  rebels  without  it,  forbade  her  subjects  to  sell  food  to  the 
Beggars  of  the  Sea.  De  la  Marck,  one  of  the  Flemish  captains,  there- 
upon sailed  from  England,  with  twenty-four  vessels,  to  the  northernmost 
island  of  Zealand,  and  seizing  upon  Briel,  its  capital,  made  it  the  strong- 
hold of  the  privateers.  Walcheren,  Enckhuisen,  and  a  multitude  of  towns 
in  the  northern  provinces,  hastened  to  throw  off  the  despotic  yoke  of  Alva. 
Deputies  from  the  nobles  and  cities  met  at  Dort,  July  15,  1572,  and  de- 


216  MODERN  HISTORY. 

clared  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  be  the  lawful  Stadtholder  of  Holland, 
Zealand,  Friesland,  and  Utrecht,  during  the  absence  of  Philip  II.  Thus 
Queen  Elizabeth's  order  in  council  led  indirectly  to  the  rise  of  the  Dutch 
Eepublic. 

235.  Alva  was  for  the  moment  in  despair.  "  The  French  court  seemed  to 
have  turned  protestant  and  to  be  bent  upon  espousing  the  cause  of  the 
heretics  in  the  Netherlands.  Louis  of  Nassau  was  besieged  in  Mons,  but 
his  brother  the  prince,  advancing  with  a  German  army,  had  captured 
Ruremond,  Mechlin,  Dendermonde,  and  Oudenarde,  and  was  on  the  point 
of  relieving  him,  when  news  of  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacres  in  France 
completely  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  A  band  of  Huguenot  soldiers, 
paid  by  Charles  IX.  to  cooperate  in  the  defense  of  Mons,  were  betrayed, 
and  by  their  king's  own  recommendation  to  Alva,  were  slaughtered  in 
cold  blood  after  they  were  made  prisoners.  Mons  surrendered  upon  hon- 
orable terms.  All  the  towns  of  Brabant  and  Flanders  were  compelled  to 
submit  to  Alva.  Mechlin  was  abandoned  to  three  days'  pillage  and  mas- 
sacre. The  revolution  in  the  southern  provinces  was  ended  in  defeat,  but 
in  the  northern  it  was  triumphant,  and  the  Prince  of  Orange  returning  to 
Holland  was  put  in  possession  of  the  government. 

23G.  During  the  winter  of  1572-73,  the  Dutch  fleet  was  frozen  up  in  the 
harbor  of  Amsterdam.  The  Spaniards  marched  across  the  ice  to  attack  it, 
but  a  troop  of  Dutch  musketeers  on  skates  made  a  successful  defense.  The 
siege  of  Haarlem  was  among  the  most  obstinate  actions  of  the  war.  Sev- 
eral hundreds  of  the  most  honorable  women  enrolled  and  armed  them- 
selves for  the  defense  of  their  native  city,  and  took  part  in  several  battles. 
Thousands  of  Spaniards  perished  from  cold,  hunger,  and  sickness ;  but  the 
tow^n  surrendered  at  last,  and  between  two  and  three  thousand  citizens 
were  put  to  death.  Alkmaar,  warned  by  this  example,  made  so  resolute 
a  resistance  that  the  Spanish  commander  had  to  raise  the  siege.  Alva  was 
soon  after  superseded  by  Don  Louis  de  Requesens,  whose  just  and  lib- 
eral character  was  a  pledge  of  a  more  conciliatory  policy.  Wholesale  rob- 
bery and  murder  were  now  suppressed,  but  the  oppressive  taxes  continued 
to  be  levied,  and  the  Council  of  Blood  maintained  its  sittings.  The 
patriots  were  every-where  victorious  at  sea,  but  on  land  the  invincible 
Spanish  infantry  kept  its  ancient  renown.  Louis  of  Nassau,  marching 
with  some  German  recruits  to  join  his  brother,  was  defeated  and  slain 
near  Nimeguen,  Feb.,  1574. 

237.  The  siege  of  Leyden,  interrupted  by  his  invasion,  was  soon  re- 
sumed, and  its  heroic  defense  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  events  of  the 
century.  The  garrison  was  small,  but  the  resistance  was  mainly  kept  up 
A  D  1^74  ^^  *^^®  valor  and  constancy  of  the  citizens.     Famine  began 

to  be  felt  in  June,  and  it  was  the  3d  of  October  before  the 
city  could  be  relieved.     The  Prince  of  Orange,  anxiously  watching  the 


RELIEF  OF  LEYDEN.  217 

enemy  from  his  head-quarters  at  Delft  and  Rotterdam,  could  not  approach 
with  his  fleet  without  breaking  the  dykes  on  the  Meuse  and  Yssel,  and 
thus  laying  the  country  under  water.  The  young  grain  was  in  the  field; 
but  the  States  consented  to  the  sacrifice,  and  under  the  prince's  direc- 
tion, the  dykes  were  cut.  The  starving  citizens  of  Leyden  watched  from 
their  towers  the  rising  of  the  flood  which  was  to  bear  them  relief.  A 
provision  fleet  of  200  vessels  sailed  from  Delft ;  but  twice  the  waters 
were  driven  back  by  an  east  wind,  and  it  lay  helplessly  stranded,  while 
the  more  feeble  and  desperate  citizens  were  crowding  around  the  burgo- 
master in  Leyden,  clamoring  for  either  food  or  surrender.  The  magistrate 
replied ;  "  I  have  taken  an  oath  never  to  put  myself  or  my  fellow-citizens 
in  the  power  of  the  false  and  cruel  Spaniards;  and  I  will  rather  die 
than  break  it.  But  here  is  my  sword;  plunge  it,  if  you  will,  into  my 
breast,  and  devour  my  flesh,  if  that  will  relieve  your  hunger." 

238.  The  people  were  roused  to  new  courage,  and  at  length  their  pa- 
tience was  rewarded.  A  north-westerly  gale  set  in  on  the  1st  of  October ; 
the  waters  of  the  German  Ocean  came  pouring  in  over  the  ruined  dykes. 
The  fleet,  now  fairly  afloat,  had  a  singular  midnight  combat  with  that  of 
the  Spaniards  amid  the  boughs  of  orchards  and  the  chimneys  of  sub- 
merged houses;  but  the  determination  of  the  enemy  was  at  length  worn 
out  by  the  amazing  constancy  of  the  besieged,  in  whose  cause  the  ele- 
ments of  wind  and  water  seemed  enlisted.  Even  the  fall  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  walls  of  Leyden,  undermined  by  the  waters,  only  fright- 
ened the  besiegers,  who,  hastily  abandoning  their  two  forts,  sought  safety 
in  retreat.  The  Dutch  fleet  sailed  up  the  Channel,  distributing  loaves  of 
bread  all  the  way  into  the  eager  hands  of  the  crowd  which  lined  the 
banks.  As  soon  as  the  pangs  of  hunger  w^re  relieved,  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  the  city  walked  in  joyful  procession  to  the  principal  church, 
where  thanks  were  rendered  for  the  great  deliverance.  The  next  day  a 
north-easterly  gale  swept  away  the  invading  waters,  and  the  dykes  were 
soon  repaired.  Leyden  was  rewarded  by  the  institution  of  a  ten  days' 
annual  fair,  and  by  the  foundation  of  a  university  which  has  given  many 
illustrious  men  to  Europe. 

239.  Philip  XL,  defeated  in  war  and  ruined  in  finance,  at  length  con- 
sented to  the  mediation  of  the  emperor  which  he  had  before  so  arro- 
gantly refused.  To  this  end,  a  three  months'  congress  was  held  at  Buda 
in  1575.  The  king,  however,  would  make  no  concession,  and  the  States, 
in  any  case,  had  no  reason  to  believe  his  word,  so  that  the  war  broke  out 
again  more  furiously  than  ever.  The  death  of  Requesens  in  March, 
1576,  threw  the  country  into  yet  greater  confusion,  for  the  unpaid 
soldiery,  now  in  open  mutiny,  marched  through  the  provinces,  plunder- 
ing and  destroying  at  their  own  savage  will.  Alost,  Ghent,  Utrecht, 
Valenciennes,  and  Maestricht  successively  fell  into  their  hands;    and  at 


218  MODERN  HISTORY. 

last  Antwerp,  the  richest  city  of  the  Netherlands,  and  then  the  financial 
center  of  all  Europe,  was  subjected  to  a  three  days'  pillage.  A  thousand 
houses  were  burnt  and  eight  thousand  citizens  murdered. 

240.  In  this  disastrous  condition  of  the  southern  provinces,  the  Prince 
of  Orange  persuaded  the  authorities  at  Brussels  to  summon  the  States- 
General  ;  and  when  these  were  assembled,  he  complied  with  their  request 
by  sending  several  thousand  troops  to  expel  the  Spaniards  from  Ghent. 
An  alliance  was  now  formed  between  the  northern  and  the  southern  Neth- 
erlands, under  the  name  of  the  Pacification  of  Ghent.  It 
ov.  ,  0/  .  ^^^^  agreed  to  summon  the  Estates  of  all  the  provinces  to 
an  assembly  similar  to  that  which  had  received  the  abdication  of  Charles 
V. ;  to  expel  all  Spanish  troops  from  the  country  and  to  provide  for  peace 
and  toleration  in  matters  of  religion. 

Subjugation  of  the  Moriscoes  in  Spain.  Gallant  defense  of  Malta  by  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.  Death  of  Solyman  during  his  wars  in  Hungary.  Capture  of  Cyprus  by  Selim  II. 
John  of  Austria,  in  command  of  the  allied  forces,  gains  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks  at 
Lepanto.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland,  imprisoned  at  Lochleven,  abdicates  in  favor  of  her  son. 
Becomes  the  prisoner  of  Elizabeth  of  England,  to  whose  throne  she  has  a  claim  ;  is  behead- 
ed after  nineteen  years'  captivity.  Brief  ascendency  of  the  Huguenots  in  France.  Murder 
of  Coligny  and  general  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day.  Prosperity  of  the  Netherlands; 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  under  Charles  V.  Regency  of  Margaret  of  Parma.  Popu- 
larity of  William  of  Orange.  ^lission  of  Count  Egmont  to  Spain.  Persecuting  edicts  of 
Philip  II.  Remonstrances  of  the  "  Beggars."  Arrival  of  the  Duke  of  Alva  as  Governor-Gen- 
eral. Establishment  of  the  Council  of  Blood  ;  death-sentence  of  the  entire  people  ;  restric- 
tions upon  commerce.  Prince  of  Orange  publishes  his  Justification  and  takes  up  arms. 
Illegal  execution  of  counts  Egmont  and  Horn.  Louis  of  Nassau  victorious  near  Groningen, 
but  defeated  at  Emden,  joins  the  Huguenots  in  France,  surrenders  Mons  upon  receiving 
news  of  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacres;  is  afterward  defeated  and  slain  at  Nimeguen. 
Capture  of  Briel  by  the  Sea-Beggars,  union  of  four  provinces  under  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
forming  the  germ  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  Fall  of  Haarlem ;  successful  resistance  of  Alk- 
maar.  Requesens  replaces  Alva  as  Governor-General.  Siege  of  Leyden  ;  its  brave  defense, 
and  relief  by  the  arrival  of  the  fleet.  Failure  of  Congress  of  Buda  to  restore  peace  to  the 
Netherlands.  "Spanish  fury"  at  Antwerp  and  other  places.  Northern  and  southern  prov- 
inces briefly  united  by  the  Pacification  of  Ghent. 


Wars  of  Eeligion. — Continued. 

241.  The  same  year  died  the  emperor  Maximilian,  the  first  European 
sovereign  who  recognized  the  duty  of  universal  toleration.  In  Austria 
and  Bohemia,  his  hereditary  dominions,  he  relaxed  all  religious  despot- 
ism, though  his  policy  was  in  some  degree  thwarted  by  his  near  con- 
nection with  the  Spanish  branch  of  his  house ;  for  he  had  married  a  sister 
of  Philip  II.,  whose  fourth  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Maximilian.  The  em- 
press Mary  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Jesuits,  to  whose  arts  the 
emperor  opposed  an  inflexible  resistance.  By  treaty  with  John  Sigis- 
mund  of  Hungary,  all  that  kingdom,  except  Transylvania,  was  secured  to 


WABS  OF  RELIGION.  219 

Maximilian,  and  he  was  about  contesting  the  elective  crown  of  Poland 
with  Stephen  Bathori,  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  49.  The  imperial  dig- 
nities were  conferred  upon  his  son  Rudolph  II.,  who  had  already  received 
the  title  King  of  the  Romans  and  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 

242.  Charles  IX.  of  France  survived  the  crime  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
less  than  two  years;    and  his  early  death — for  he  was  only  twenty-three 
years  of  age  —  was  apparently  due  rather  to  torments  of  con- 
science preying  upon  a  feeble  nervous  constitution  than  to 

mere  bodily  disease.  His  brother  Henry,  now  heir  to  the  crown,  was 
in  Poland,  having  been  elected  king  of  that  country  a  year  before  the 
death  of  Charles ;  but  he  had  departed  most  unwillingly  from  Paris  and 
gladly  obeyed  the  summons  to  return.  He  quitted  Poland  like  a  thief, 
carrying  with  him  the  crown  jewels,  and  was  pursued  sixty  miles  on 
horseback  by  a  large  number  of  the  Polish  nobility,  who  desired  to  secure 
the  kingdom  from  the  anarchy  too  certain  to  follow  so  sudden  an  abdi- 
cation. The  fugitive  king  had  not  concerned  himself  to  make  any  dis- 
position of  the  government;  but  after  more  than  a  year  of  confusion, 
Stephen  Bathori  received  the  votes  of  the  nobles.     A.  D.  1575. 

243.  The  condition  of  France  would  have  taxed  greater  talents  and 
energies  than  those  of  Henry  III.  The  Huguenots,  in  spite  of  the  efforts 
of  the  court,  had  been  rather  strengthened  than  defeated  by  the  events 
of  1573.  The  middle  party,  consisting  of  just  and  moderate  Catholics, 
led  by  the  Montmorencies,  were  shocked  by  the  crimes  and  alarmed  by 
the  foreign  alliances  of  the  Guises.  The  consolidated  monarchy  so  cau- 
tiously built  up  by  Louis  XL,  seemed  ready  to  resolve  itself  again  into 
its  feudal  elements.  La  Rochelle,  Nismes,  and  Montauban  were  like  inde- 
pendent republics;  the  provinces  of  Languedoc,  Guienne,  Poitou,  and 
others  in  the  south-west,  united  themselves  in  a  confederacy,  which  raised 
taxes,  administered  justice,  and  ordered  military  movements  like  a  sover- 
eign state.  All  over  France,  governors  of  provinces,  and  even  comman- 
dants of  towns  and  castles,  acted  independently  of  the  crown. 

244.  The  points  now  in  dispute  were  rather  political  than  religious ; 
for  of  the  original  leaders  of  the  Huguenots  the  greater  number  were 
either  dead,  exiled,  or  apostate.  Even  the  King  of  Navarre  and  the 
Prince  of  Conde  reconciled  themselves,  though  insincerely,  the  year  after 
the  massacre,  with  the  Roman  Church.  The  Duke  of  Alengon,  the  king's 
only  remaining  brother,  declared  himself  the  protector  of  the  Huguenots, 
and  joined  their  army  in  Poitou.  The  prince-palatine,  John  Casimir, 
also  their  ally,  led  an  army  of  18,000  men  into  France.  No  important 
battle  was  fought,  but  the  result  of  the  movement  was  the  most  favora- 
ble treaty  that  the  Huguenots  had  ever  obtained  from  the  ^  . 
court.     It  was  called  la  paix  cle  Monsieur,  this  being  already 

the  conventional  title  of  the   kin2;'s  eldest  brother.      Perfect  freedom  of 


220  MODERN  HISTO'BY. 

worship  was  conceded  throughout  France,  except  at  Paris  and  in  the  im- 
mediate precincts  of  the  court,  wherever  it  might  be.  The  Duke  of 
Alenjon  received  Touraine,  Berri,  and  Anjou  in  full  sovereignty,  and 
bore  thenceforth  the  title  of  the  latter  duchy.  Having  gained  all  that 
he  expected  from  his  alliance  with  the  Huguenots,  he  now  deserted  them, 
and  subsequently  commanded  an  army  against  them.  The  King  of  Na- 
varre was  restored  to  his  government  of  Guienne,  the  Prince  of  Conde 
received  that  of  Picardy,  and  all  the  leaders  were  reinstated  in  their 
offices  and  pensions. 

245.  The  Guise  party  alone  derived  no  advantage  from  the  treaty,  and 
their  discontent  led  to  the  coalition  of  Catholic  nobles  known  in  history 
by  preeminence  as  The  League.  The  formula  signed  by  all  its  members 
promised  "unlimited  obedience  to  its  head  without  respect  of  persons" 
and  without  reservation  of  the  royal  supremacy.  The  treasonable  nature 
of  the  organization  was  only  made  apparent  at  a  later  day  when  it  placed 
itself  under  the  protection  of  a  foreign  sovereign,  Philip  H.  of  Spain.  A 
plot  was,  however,  already  formed  at  Rome  to  seize  and  arraign  the  Duke 
of  Anjou,  exterminate  the  Huguenots,  shut  up  the  incompetent  king  in 
prison  like  the  rois  faineants  of  the  Merovingian  line,  and  place  the  Duke 
of  Guise  himself,  as  a  descendant  of  Charlemagne,  upon  the  throne  of 
France.  This  plan  was  discovered  among  the  papers  of  a  lawyer  named 
David,  who  died  at  Lyons  on  his  return  to  Rome ;  but  it  was  regarded 
as  a  malicious  fabrication  of  the  Huguenots  until  another  copy,  obtained 
from  King  Philip,  was  forwarded  from  Spain  by  the  French  embassador 
to  that  country. 

246.  Henry  III.,  alarmed  by  this  commentary  on  the  real  purposes  of 
the  League,  knew  of  no  better  way  to  avert  its  enmity  than  to  place 
himself  at  its  head.  The  States-General  were  already  summoned  to  meet 
at  Blois  early  in  the  winter  of  1577.  The  manifesto  of  the  League,  first 
cleared  of  all  expressions  which  seemed  to  limit  or  contest  the  royal  pre- 
rogative, was  laid  before  the  assembly  for  acceptance.  Some  of  the 
deputies  signed  it;  others  refused.  All  were  offended  by  the  false  and 
undignified  position  in  which  the  king's  cowardice  had  placed  him,  and 
they  declined  to  vote  supplies  for  a  continuance  of  the  war.  The  condi- 
tions of  the  "  Peace  of  Monsieur  "  were  in  truth  too  favorable  to  have 
been  sincerely  guaranteed,  and  the  Huguenots,  even  during  the  sitting  of 
the  States,  had  been  pushing  their  conquests  in  the  south-west. 

247.  A  new  peace  was  now 'concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Bergerac,  and 

the  king,  forgetful  of  the  perils  which  still  beset  his  throne, 
Sept.,  1577.  ,  ,  .  1     p  .      1 

plunged   more   deeply   than    ever    into   base   and   frivolous 

amusements.     The  orgies  of  the  court  could  only  have  been  paralleled  in 

the   deepest  degradation  of  the   Roman  emperors.      Violence,  as  well  as 

luxury,  ran  riot,  and  murders  were  the  unmarked  occurrences  of  almost 


AFFAIRS  OF  PORTUGAL.  221 

every  day.  The  hostility  of  the  Guises  made  it  necessary  for  the  court 
to  remain  at  peace  with  the  Huguenots.  In  the  summer  of  1578,  Catherine 
de'  Medici,  accompanied  by  her  daughter.  Queen  Margaret,  and  a  "flying 
squadron  "  of  court-beauties,  visited  the  King  of  Navarre  in  liis  capital, 
and  spent  more  than  a  year  in  the  south,  using  all  her  Italian  arts  to 
pacify  and  conciliate  his  party.  The  treaty  of  Nerac  (Feb.,  1579)  secretly 
assured  to  the  protestants  greater  favors  than  had  been  promised  in  that 
of  Bergerac.  One  wearies  of  detailing  the  alternations  of  faithless  peace 
with  indecisive  wars.  In  the  spring  of  1580,  upon  the  slightest  possible 
pretext,  hostilities  recommenced.  This  time  the  affair  was  called  the 
"  War  of  the  Lovers,"  from  its  whimsical  origin.  It  was  the  seventh  in 
the  series  of  what  are  commonly,  but  to  a  great  extent  inappropriately, 
called  Wars  of  Keligion.  Peace  was  mediated  by  the  Duke  of  Anjou, 
who  was  now  desirous  to  assume  the  protectorate  offered  him  by  the  in- 
surgents in  the  Netherlands ;  while  the  court  saw  reason  for  breaking  its 
friendly  relations  wdth  the  king  of  Spain  in  the  sudden  and  alarming 
increase  of  his  power  by  the  conquest  of  Portugal. 

248.  King  Sebastian  succeeded  his  grandfather,  John  III.,  at  the  in- 
fantile age  of  three  years.  His  long  minority  was  ruled  by  Jesuits,  who 
instilled  into  his  mind  romantic  dreams  of  conquest  over  infidels;  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty  he  set  forth  with  high  hopes  to  wage  war  against 
the  Moors  of  Africa.     Little  was  accomplished  by  this  first 

attempt;  but,  four  years  later,  he  renewed  the  enterprise  in 
aid  of  the  fugitive  king,  Muley  Mohammed,  who  had  been  driven  from 
his  throne  by  his  uncle.  In  the  battle  of  Alcazarquivir,  Sebastian  was 
defeated  and  slain,  and  his  army,  including  most  of  the  nobles  and  prel- 
ates of  his  realm,  was  nearly  annihilated.  The  king  was  succeeded  by 
his  uncle,  Cardinal  Henry  of  Braga,  who,  however,  reigned  but  two 
years,  and  tlie  crown  was  then  contested  by  several  claimants  more  or 
less  related  to  his  family. 

249.  The  most  powerful,  and  therefore  the  successful,  candklate  was 
Philip  of  Spain,  who  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva  into  Portugal,  with  24,000 
Italian  and  Spanish  veterans,  wdthin.  a  few  months  after  King  Henry's 
death.  Don  Antonio,  nephew  of  the  late  king,  had  been  crowned  at 
Lisbon  in  June,  1580,  but  he  was  defeated  and  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Alcantara,  and  finding  resistance  hopeless,  escaped,  after  some  months, 
into  France.  Alva  set  up  in  Portugal  a  similar  reign  of  terror  to  that 
which  he  had  conducted  in  the  Netherlands,  but,  instead  of  heretics,  his 
victims  were  now  monks.  The  conquest  being  completed,  Philip  entered 
the  country  to  receive  the  homage  of  the  Estates,  and  spent  two  years  in 
arranging  the  affairs  of  Portugal. 

250.  The  other  powers  of  Europe  had  been  too  much  absorbed  in  their 
own  affairs  to  interfere  with  the  progress  of  Philip.     France  and  England 


222  MODERN  HISTORY. 

suddenly  became  conscious  of  the  extension  of  the  Spanish  dominion,  not 
only  throughout  the  Iberian  peninsula,  but  over  the  rich  and  undevel- 
oped possessions  of  Portugal  in  Brazil,  Africa,  and  the  Indies.  The  French 
court  sent  two  naval  expeditions  to  the  Azores,  which  had  declared  for 
Don  Antonio.  These  islands  were  of  the  greatest  importance  as  a  refit- 
ing  and  watering  station  for  vessels  bound  either  for  the  East  or  West 
Indies;  and  a  fierce  combat  for  their  possession  was  fought  between  the 
French  and  Spanish  fleels.  It  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  former, 
and  all  the  French  prisoners  were  put  to  death  as  pirates.  The  power 
of  Philip  was  firmly  established  in  the  islands. 

251.  The  interference  of  France  was  avenged  by  a  still  closer  alliance 
of  the  king  of  Spain  with  the  Guises,  who  in  his  interest  had  watched  and 
attempted  to  thwart  the  expedition  to  the  Azores.  This  failing,  Philip 
tried  the  other  party,  and  repeatedly  offered  money  to  the  King  of  Na- 
varre to  renew  his  wars  against  Henry  III.     His  overtures  were  rejected, 

and  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou  only  drew  closer  the 
relations  between  the  two  French  princes,  for  Henry  of 
Navarre,  as  head  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  now  became  heir-presumptive 
to  the  throne  of  France.  The  same  event  occasioned  a  renewal  of  the 
League,  under  the  protection  of  Philip  of  Spain.  A  formal  treaty  was 
signed  by  the  heads  of  the  League  and  the  envoys  of  Philip,  in  December, 
1584,  in  which  the  "extirpation  of  all  protestant  and  heretical  sects  in 
the  Netherlands,  as  well  as  in  France,  and  the  exclusion  of  heretical 
princes  from  the  throne,"  were  prominent  articles. 

252.  Alarmed  by  the  movements  of  the  League,  but  not  daring  to  break 
with  the  king  of  Spain,  Henry  III.  refused  the  petition  of  the  States  of 
Holland  which  besought  his  protection,  and  by  the  Edict  of  Nemours 
yielded  all  the  points  demanded  in  the  manifesto  of  the  Guise  party. 
He  revoked  all  former  edicts  of  toleration,  and  warned  adherents  of  the 
reformed  doctrines  to  quit  his  kingdom  within  six  months. 


Accession  of  Henry  III.  in  France,  Stephen  Bathori  in  Poland,  and  Rudolph  II.  in  the 
Empire.  Feudal  elements  in  France  opposed  to  centralized  government.  The  Duke  of 
Alengon  protects  the  Huguenots  and  obtains  for  them  a  favorable  peace.  The  League  is 
organized  by  the  Guises;  Henry  III.  places  himself  at  its  head;  the  States-General  disap- 
prove. Treaties  of  Bergerac  and  Nerac.  War  of  the  Lovers  followed  by  a  peace  demanded 
by  the  foreign  relations  of  the  court. 

King  Sebastian  of  Portugal  perishes  in  a  vain  attempt  against  the  IMoors  of  Africa. 
Short  reign  of  King  Henry.  The  crown  successfully  claimed  by  Philip  of  Spain,  who  thus 
gains  the  rich  colonial  possessions,  as  well  as  the  European  territory,  of  Portugal.  Defeat 
of  a  French  fleet  sent  to  support  the  cause  of  Don  Antonio  in  the  Azores.  Death  of  the 
Duke  of  Anjou  and  Alen^on  makes  Henry  of  Navarre  heir  to  France.  Edict  of  Nemours 
revokes  all  acts  of  toleration. 


AFFAIRS  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS.  223 

Affairs  of  the  Netherlands. 

253.  We  go  back  eight  years  to  take  up  the  eventful  history  of  the 
Netherlands.  Shortly  before  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  John  of  Austria, 
the  hero  of  Lepanto,  was  intrusted  by  his  brother  Philip  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  these  rebellious  states;  but  so  united  were  the  people  in  their 
resistance,  that  he  was  compelled  to  enter  even  Luxem- 
bourg —  the  only  province  which  had  refused  to  join  the 

Union  —  in  the  disguise  of  a  Moorish  slave.  Unprovided  with  either  money 
or  troops,  he  had  no  choice  but  to  yield  all  the  points  demanded  by  the  in- 
surgents, and  swear  to  observe  all  the  charters  and  customs  of  the  country. 
These  concessions  w'ere  embodied  in  the  Perpetual  Edict,  a  name  which 
seems  intended  for  a  mockery,  when  we  learn  the  instructions  of  the  court 
of  Spain  to  the  regent,  recommending  him  to  promise  every  thing  but  per- 
form nothing.  Even  after  his  edict,  Don  John  was  refused  possession  of 
the  citadel  of  BruSvSels.  He  revenged  himself  by  treacherously  seizing 
the  fortress  of  Namur,  and  by  capturing  Charlemont  and  Marienburg. 
The  citadels  of  Ghent  and  Antwerp  were  destroyed  by  the  people  of  those 
places  to  prevent  their  falling  into  his  hands. 

254.  A  rival  to  John  of  Austria  was  now  set  up  by  the  Catholic  nobles, 
in  the  person  of  the  Archduke  Matthias,  brother  of  the  emperor.  The 
Prince  of  Orange  recognized  Matthias  as  Governor-General  of  the  Neth- 
erlands and  was  named  his  lieutenant.  A  new  Union  of  Brussels  —  a 
league  of  all  the  States  for  the  common  defense,  on  a  basis  of  perfect 
religious  toleration  —  drew  more  closely  the  ties  between  the  northern 
and  southern  provinces.  It  was  the  last  time  that  all  the  Low  Countries 
were  united,  until  the  present  century  (A.  D.  1814-1830). 

255.  Queen  Elizabeth,  about  this  time,  discovered  a  plot  of  Don  John 
to  depose  her,  marry  Mary  Stuart,  and  reign  over  England  —  the  plan 
being  favored  by  the  Pope  and  the  Guises,  but  regarded  with  unbroth- 
erly  jealousy  by  the  king  of  Spain.  Moved  by  this  state  of  aifairs,  she 
was  inclined  to  render  more  effective  aid  to  the  people  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  early  in  1578  her  contribution  of  6,000  men  joined  the  army 
of  the  States.  Philip  had  prepared  for  this  combination  by  sending 
his  nephew,  Alexander  Farnese,  with  reinforcements  of  Spanish  and 
Italian  veterans.  The  battle  of  Gemblours  resulted  in  the  sudden  rout 
and  almost  total  destruction  of  the  army  of  the  States ;  but  the  accession 
of  Amsterdam  a  week  later  to  the  Union  of  Brussels  more  than  consoled 
the  patriots  for  that  disaster.  The  following  August,  Don  John  was  de- 
feated at  Rymenants,  mainly  by  the  English  auxiliaries,  and  died  two 
months  later  from  disease.  He  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  of  Parma  — 
undoubtedly  the  greatest  general  of  the  age,  though  lacking  that  fascina- 
tion of  manner  which  occasioned  the  unbounded  popularity  of  his  prede- 
cessor. 


224  MODERN  HISTORY. 

256.  Meanwhile  the,  paf  ty  which <liad  set  up  the  Archduke  Matthias 
.^^dtoG^v*?©!*  that  he  was  a   useless  puppet,  and  virtually  deposed  him  by 

calling  in  the  Duke  of  Anjou  (see  above,  §  245).  Anjou  was  a  weak  and 
insignificant  character,  capable  of  being  flattered  by  the  high  sounding 
title,  "  Defender  of  the  Liberties  of  the  Netherlands."  He  hoped  to  ob- 
tain a  crown  by  marriage  with  the  queen  of  England,  a  hope  which  the 
subtle  or  wavering  policy  of  Elizabeth  neither  indulged  nor  denied.  En- 
tering Hainault  with  a  French  army  in  September,  1578,  he  took  several 
towns;  then  feigning  submission  to  the  will  of  Elizabeth,  he  retired  into 
France.  The  queen's  firm  persuasion  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  made 
her  averse  to  the  independence  of  the  Netherlands,  though  she  desired 
that  their  hereditary  sovereign  should  be  compelled  to  respect  their 
ancient  rights.  Her  council,  on  the  other  hand,  desired  to  see  them 
severed  from  the  Spanish  crown  even  at  the  price  of  their  becoming 
dependencies  of  France^.  .  r  »*,  .  ^ 

257.  The' union'  of  the  seventeen  states  was  overthrown  at  last,  not 
by  foreign  despotism,  but  by  the  riotous  conduct  of  the  popular  party. 
Two  noblemen,,  of  radical  principles  and  depraved  character,  excited  an 
insLirrecticn  at  Ghent,  against  the  terms  of  the  religious  peace.  They 
imprisoned  its  governor  and  set  up  a  democracy  in  which  the  law-mak- 
ing power  was  intrusted  to  the  deans  of  the  guilds  and  the  captains  of 
militia,  while  the  executive  was  vested  in  a  council  of  eighteen  citizens. 
Many  other  towns  followed  the  example.  The  Archduke  Matthias  and 
the  prince-palatine,  John  Casimir,  were  allies  of  the  democracy,  and  the 
division  between  the  reputed  friends  of  freedom  proved  fatal  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  country.  The  arms  which  were  needed  against  the  com- 
mon enemy  were  turned  against  each  other ;  the  Walloon  provinces  were 
devastated  by  a  Huguenot  force,  while  the  Walloons,  aided  by  the  French, 
ravaged  the  country  up  to  the  gates  of  Ghent. 

258.  These  disorders,  in  which  the  destructive  elements  were  mixed  up 
with  the  Huguenot  cause,  efiectually  severed  the  Catholic  provinces  from 
the  Union  of  Brussels.  The  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  vainly  interfered 
to  suppress  the  revolutionary  movements  by  protecting  the  interests  of 
the  Romish  priests  and  people,  only  succeeded  in  forming  a  perpetual 
confederation  of  the  seven  protestant  countries*  by  a  document  called 
the  Union  of  Utrecht.  Nominal  allegiance  was  still  rendered  to  Philip 
n.;  but  it  was  resolved  to  drive  all  foreigners  from  the  country,  and  to 
restore  in  each  province  its  ancient  and  peculiar  laws,  customs,  and  priv- 
ileges. A  congress  at  Cologne,  under  the  auspices  of  the  emperor  Rudolph 
n.,  and  attended  by  the  envoys  of  the  Netherlands,  France,  England,  sev- 
eral German  states,  Philip  and  the  Pope,  failed  to  procure  the  union  and 


'Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Guelders,  Overyssel,  Friesland,  and  Groningcn. 


AFFAIRS  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS.  225 

reconciliation  of  all  the  provinces,  for  though  seven  months  were  spent  in 
busy  diplomacy,  no  concession  could  be  extorted  from  either  side. 

259.  The  four  Walloon  provinces  resumed  their  obedience  to  Philip  II. 
on  condition  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Spanish  troops;  and  the  Nether- 
lands were  thus  divided  into  three  parts :  the  protestant  United  States  of 
the  north;  the  middle  or  Flemish  provinces,  whose  people  belonged  almost 
equally  to  the  two  communions;  and  the  wholly  Catholic  Walloon  prov- 
inces of  the  south.  Maestricht,  after  three  months'  siege  by  Farnese, 
yielded  at  the  end  of  June,  and  was  given  up  to  the  brutal  rage  of  the 
Spanish  troops.  The  Prince  of  Orange  restored  order  to  Ghent  and  ex- 
acted a  just  restitution  of  property  which  had  been  plundered  during  the 
riots. 

260.  Cardinal  Granvelle  had  now  returned  to  power,  and  it  was  by  his 
advice  that  Philip  II.  published  his  royal  ban  against  the  prince.  The 
crimes  of  Cain  and  Judas  were  denounced  against  that  illustrious  and 
blameless  patriot ;  a  price  of  25,000  gold  crowns  was  set  upon  his  head, 
and  the  murderer  was  moreover  promised  pardon  for  all  crimes,  however 
heinous,  which  he  might  have  committed,  and  promotion  into  the  proud 
ranks  of  Spanish  nobility.  W^illiam  replied  by  one  of  his  most  remarka- 
ble state-papers,  in  which  he  treated  the  royal  denunciation  with  the  scorn 
which  it  deserved.  He  declared  that  all  Philip's  hereditary  claims  upon 
the  Netherlands  were  canceled  by  the  violation  of  his  solemn  oaths  and 
the  charters  of  those  states,  "  not  once  only,  but  a  million  of  times;''  and 
indignantly  flung  back  the  charge  of  having  fomented  discord  in  those 
countries  upon  the  king  himself,  whose  atrocious  cruelty  had  made  his 
most  loyal  and  peaceful  subjects  the  victims  of  robbery  and  massacre. 
Kidiculing  the  attempt  to  terrify  him  by  setting  a  price  upon  his  head, 
he  inquired  whether  Philip  could  suppose  him  ignorant  of  the  many 
previous  undertakings  of  paid  poisoners  and  assassins.  And  affixing  his 
name  and  seal,  bearing  the  characteristic  motto,  "I  will  maintain,"  he 
sent  the  document  to  most  of  the  European  sovereigns. 

261.  Negotiations  were  now  renewed  with  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and  the 
Archduke  Matthias  was  permitted  to  retire  on  a  pension.  The  French 
prince  signed  an  agreement  to  reside  constantly  in  the  Netherlands ;  to 
assemble  the  States-General  once  a  year,  and  strictly  to  observe  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  provinces.  In  return  he  was  invested  with  full  sov- 
ereignty in  all  the  provinces,  except  Holland  and  Zealand,  which  were 
reserved  for  the  Prince  of  Orange.  On  the  26th  of  July,  1581,  the  States- 
General  at  the  Hague  cast  off  their  allegiance  to  Philip  II.  by  a  solemn 
Act  of  Abjuration,  and  proclaimed  Francis  of  Valois  as  sovereign  lord  of 
the  Netherlands.  The  paper  was  drawn  up  by  Sainte  Aldegonde,  a  friend 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  is  the  first  distinct  assertion  of  the  natural 
right  of  a  people  to  depose  an  unjust  sovereign.     It  declares  that  princes 

M.  H.— 15. 


226  MODERN  HISTORY. 

are  appointed  of  God  to  rule  for  the  good  of  their  subjects,  and  that  if 
they  neglect  their  sacred  duty  —  oppressing  instead  of  protecting  their 
people— the  latter  are  no  longer  bound  in  law  or  reason  to  recognize  their 
authority.  It  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  charters  of  political  freedom, 
which  were  only  reenacted  by  our  own  Declaration  of  Independence. 

262.  Leading  an  army  of  17,000  men  into  the  Netherlands,  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  compelled  Alexander  of  Parma  to  raise  the  siege  of  Cambray, 
and  entered  that  city  in  triumph.  A  few  months  later  he  made  his 
Joyous  Entry  into  Antwerp,  where  he  was  invested  by  the  Prince  of 
Orange  with  the  ducal  cap  and  mantle,  and  duly  proclaimed  ''  Duke 
of  Brabant,  and  Margrave  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire."  Other  prov- 
inces successively  installed  him  in  their  respective  sovereignties.  But 
he  was  ill  content  with  the  limited  power  thus  conferred,  bitterly 
jealous  of  the  superior  influence  of  the  Prince  of  Orange ;  and  was 
already  plotting  with  his  worthless  favorites  to  overthrow  the  liberties 
which  he  had  solemnly  sworn  to  maintain.  He  was  never  trusted  by  the 
Flemings,  and  when,  under  pretense  of  a  review,  he  brought  his  army  to 
take  military  possession  of  Antwerp,  the  people  flew  to 
arms,  secured  their  streets  with  chains  and  barricades, 
and  made  so  valorous  a  resistance  that  only  half  the  French  troops 
left  the  city  alive.  The  "  French  Fury  "  of  1583  was  less  destructive  to 
Antwerp  than  the  "  Spanish  Fury "  of  1576,  chiefly  because  the  soldiers 
of  Anjou  began  to  plunder  before  they  killed,  while  the  more  method- 
ical Spaniards  first  murdered  and  then  took  easy  possession  of  the  prop- 
erty of  their  victims.  Baffled  in  his  design,  the  new  sovereign  mounted 
his  horse  and  fled  toward  Dendermonde.  A  dyke  was  opened  upon  his 
route,  and  a  thousand  of  his  followers  were  drowned.  Having  ceased  by 
his  own  act  to  be  the  Protector  of  the  Netherlands,  Anjou  retired  to 
Dunkirk,  and  though  a  treaty  of  reconciliation  was  signed  in  March,  he 
soon  quitted  the  country  never  to  return. 

2G3.  The  wars  in  Portugal  were  now  ended,  and  with  fresh  reinforce- 
ments, the  Prince  of  Parma  was  able  to  resume  active  operations.  Before 
the  autumn  of  1584,  only  three  Flemish  towns  remained  to  the  patriot 
party.  But  in  July  of  that  year  the  Netherlands  sustained  a  far  severer 
loss  in  the  assassination  of  their  brave  and  faithful  leader,  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  Within  two  years  five  attempts  upon  his  life  had  been  made  by 
agents  of  Philip  of  Spain.  The  first  was  so  nearly  fatal  as  to  occasion 
indirectly  the  death  of  the  princess,  through  her  anxiety  and  suspense. 
The  successful  murderer  was  one  Balthazar  Gerard,  a  Burgundian,  who, 
under  pretense  of  obtaining  a  passport,  gained  admission  to  the  house- 
hold of  the  Prince.  He  was  seized  immediately  after  the  fatal  deed  and 
put  to  death  with  a  refinement  of  cruelty  which  has  been  well  described 
as  "  a  crime  against  the  memory  of  the  great  man  whom  it  professed  to 


DEATH  OF  WILLIAM  THE  SILENT,  227 

avenge."  His  parents  received  the  promised  reward  from  the  estates  of 
his  victim ;  and  three  lordships  in  Franche  Comte,  with  a  title  among 
the  landed  aristocracy  of  Burgundy,  were  the  lasting  badges  of  their 
shame. 

264.  To  the  self-denying  and  steadfast  energy  of  William  of  Orange 
the  Dutch  Republic  owed  its  existence,  though  he  was  not  permitted  to 
see  its  freedom  established.  The  greatest  statesman  of  his  time,  he  pos- 
sessed in  singular  measure  the  art  of  reading  the  purposes  of  others  and 
concealing  his  own,  and  to  this  last  accomplishment,  rather  than  to  un- 
social taciturnity  of  manner,  he  owed  his  surname,  the  Silent.  His  im- 
mense fortune  had  been  spent  in  the  service  of  his  country ;  and  he  had 
repeatedly  refused  the  most  magnificent  offers  of  wealth  and  dominion, 
by  which  the  king  of  Spain  had  sought  to  detach  him  from  the  cause 
Avhich  he  had  embraced.  His  imprisoned  son  should  be  restored ;  cities, 
estates,  and  sovereignties  in  Germany  should  be  conferred;  in  short,  he 
had  only  to  name  his  terms  for  abandoning  the  often  apparently  hopeless 
scheme  of  reestablishing  the  Netherlands  in  their  ancient  rights.  "They 
well  knew,"  afterward  said  the  Prince,  "that  I  would  not  for  property 
nor  for  life,  for  wife  nor  for  children,  mix  in  my  cup  a  single  drop  of 
the  poison  of  treason." 

265.  The  Count  de  Buren  (see  §  230)  was  still  a  prisoner  in  Spain  — 
an  alien  not  less  from  the  faith  and  patriotism  than  from  the  home  of 
his  father.  The  second  son,  Maurice,  though  only  eighteen  years  of 
age,  was  immediately  named  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and 
Utrecht,  and  High  Admiral  of  the  Union. 

The  siege  of  Antwerp,  continuing  nearly  a  year,  taxed  all  the  consum- 
mate genius  of  the  Prince  of  Parma,  while  its  defense  displayed  not  only 
the  ability  of  Sainte  Aldegonde,  but  the  extraordinary  valor  and  constancy 
of  the  citizens.  Half  a  year  was  spent  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  fortified  bridge  or  causeway  below  the  city  to  cut  off  its  con- 
nection with  the  maritime  provinces.  The  besieged  attempted  in  vain  to 
destroy  it  by  means  of  fire-ships,  and,  in  seeking  to  open  a  new  passage  to 
the  sea,  they  were  defeated  in  a  bloody  battle  fought  upon  the  dykes. 
The  city  surrendered;  its  fortress  was  rebuilt  from  the  ruins  of  private 
habitations;  and  with  the  entry  of  a  foreign  garrison  and  the  Jesuits, 
"civilization  and  commerce  departed."  Where  had  been  the  banking 
center  of  all  Europe,  grass  grew  and  cattle  fed  in  the  deserted  streets; 
while  thrift,  intelligence,  and  industry  sought  other  homes. 

266.  The  queen  of  England,  knowing  herself  to  be  the  subject  of  a 
similar  plot  to  that  which  had  proved  fatal  to  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
now  made  a  public  alliance  with  the  Hollanders,  and  sent  men  and  money 
to  their  aid,  justifying  her  conduct  to  the  world  by  a  state-paper  in  which 
she  recited  the  iniquities  of  the  Spanish  government  toward  the  Nether- 


228  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lands  and  its  secret  hostilities  against  herself.  The  States,  in  return, 
placed  Flushing  and  Briel  in  her  hands  as  security  for  the  moneys  ex- 
pended, and  conferred  upon  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  commander  of  the 
English  forces,  the  title  of  Governor-General.  The  queen,  who  had  her- 
self repeatedly  refused  the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands  when  urged 
upon  her  by  the  States,  was  thrown  into  a  tempest  of  wrath  by  the 
earl's  acceptance  of  that  dignity,  and  her  sharp  reprimand,  read  in  the 
presence  of  the  States-General,  went  far  to  undo  all  the  advantage  of  the 
alliance,  for  it  awakened  strong  suspicions — which,  indeed,  were  not 
groundless — that  she  was  secretly  in  correspondence  with  the  king  of 
Spain.  On  the  other  hand,  Philip  retaliated  the  queen's  manifesto  by 
seizing  all  English  persons  and  property  then  in  his  dominions;  and  the 
Prince  of  Parma  pressed  hostilities  in  the  Netherlands  with  redoubled 
vigor. 

267.  In  September,  Leicester  besieged  Zutphen,  and  in  a  skirmish  be- 
fore that  place,  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  the  most  accomplished  knight  and 
gentlest  spirit  of  his  age,  received  a  mortal  wound.  He  had  insisted  on 
lending  a  portion  of  his  armor  to  an  older  officer,  who  happened  to  be 
unprovided,  and  the  exposure  cost  him  his  life.  As  he  suffered  from  in- 
supportable thirst,  water  w^as  brought  him,  but  at  that  moment  he  saw 
a  wounded  soldier  carried  by  in  his  last  agonies,  who  cast  a  longing  eye 
upon  the  cup.  "Take  it,  my  friend,"  said  Sidney,  pushing  it  from  his 
lips;  "thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine."  He  died  three  weeks  later 
at  Arnheim.  Leicester,  finding  at  length  that  he  had  undertaken  a  task 
beyond  his  powers,  returned  to  England  at  the  end  of  the  year  1587. 
The  command-in-chief  devolved  upon  Prince  Maurice,  Lord  Willoughby 
having  control  only  of  the  English  troops. 

268.  One  of  the  greatest  of  the  popes,  Sixtus  V.,  had  now  succeeded  to 
Gregory  XIII.  Bred  in  a  Franciscan  convent,  Sixtus's  mind  had  never 
been  set  free  from  the  romantic  dreams  of  youth  by  actual  contact  with 
the  world;  and  he  cherished  designs  of  overthrowing  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire, conquering  Egypt,  opening  a  maritime  passage  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Red  Sea,  and  transporting  the  Holy  Sepulcher  into  Italy. 
Happily,  more  practicable  schemes  had  their  place  in  the  mind  of  Sixtus. 
He  improved  the  water  supply  of  Rome,  adorned  it  with  new  buildings, 
and  exterminated  the  banditti,  who,  during  the  inefficient  reign  of  his 
predecessor,  had  swarmed  in  the  papal  states.  The  number  of  cardinals, 
hitherto  fluctuating  with  the  avarice,  ambition,  or  revenge  of  successive 
popes,  was  fixed  by  him  at  seventy,  in  memory  of  the  ciders  who  aided 
Moses  with  their  counsels. 

260.  The  execution  of  Queen  Mary  of  Scotland  at  Fotheringay  Castle 
(Feb.,  1587)  inflamed  the  enmity  of  Philip  II.  and  the  Pope  against 
Elizabeth.     The  Spanish  king,  who  had  long  meditated  the  conquest  of 


THE  INVINCIBLE  AB3IADA.  229 

England  as  a  stepping-stone  to  Holland,  now  proclaimed  himself  heir  to 
the  House  of  Lancaster  and  rightful  sovereign  of  the  former  country. 
The  depredations  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  upon  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
America  only  heightened  his  resolution.  San  Domingo,  Porto  Eico,  San- 
tiago, Cartagena,  and  Florida  had  been  plundered  and  ravaged.  With 
his  fleet  of  forty  ships,  Drake  destroyed  about  a  hundred  Spanish  vessels 
laden  with  military  and  naval  stores  under  the  very  guns  of  Lisbon  and 
Cadiz ;  and  as  another  result  of  his  enterprise,  was  able  to  report  to  his 
queen  the  preparations  going  on  in  the  Spanish  ports. 

270.  In  May,  1588,  the  fleet  of  Philip,  proudly  called  the  Invincihle 
Armada,  sailed  from  Lisbon,  and  after  a  temporary  dispersion  in  a  storm, 
entered  the  English  Channel.  Her  eyes  once  opened  to  the  danger,  the 
queen  had  made  the  most  heroic  exertions,  and  her  spirit  animated  all 
her  people.  As  soon  as  the  appearance  of  the  Armada  was  made  known 
by  a  fishing-boat,  which  had  been  stationed  to  watch.  Lord  Howard  of 
Effingham  stood  forth  to  meet  it.  No  general  engagement  ensued,  but 
seven  days  were  spent  in  frequent  skirmishes,  in  which  the  lighter  Eng- 
lish vessels  had  usually  the  advantage  over  the  heavy  and  unmanageable 
Spaniards;  while  fire-ships  drifted  down  with  the  tide  into  the  midst  of 
the  Armada.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  who  had  prepared  a  powerful  fleet 
and  army  to  cooperate,  was  blockaded  in  the  Flemish  harbors  by  the 
Dutch.  Unable  to  retire  to  the  southward,  the  Armada  sailed  through 
the  German  Ocean,  designing  to  compass  Scotland  and  Ireland  and  re- 
turn by  the  Atlantic;  but  a  tempest  wrecked  it  among  the  Orkneys, 
and  when  the  shattered  remnants  of  his  fleet  had  all  arrived  in  Spain, 
Philip  could  count  less  than  half  the  gallant  armament  which  he  had 
sent  forth. 

271.  The  next  year  the  English  retaliated  by  an  invasion  of  Portugal, 
which,  though  it  did  not  restore  Don  Antonio  to  the  throne,  gained  pos- 
session of  the  suburbs  of  Lisbon,  and  of  sixty  Hanse  vessels  laden  with 
supplies  for  a  new  armada.  The  Spaniards  were  discouraged  from  a 
fresh  encounter  with  English  bravery.  In  the  Netherlands  their  move- 
ments were  paralyzed  by  an  exhausted  treasury,  for  the  soldiers  of  Parma 
were  not  only  unpaid,  but  nearly  starved,  and  the  duke  himself  was  soon 
ordered  by  Philip  to  lead  his  army  into  France,  where  a  new  state  of 
affiiirs  had  been  brought  about  by  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  Prince 
Maurice,  by  his  wise  and  victorious  generalship,  reunited  the  Seven 
Provinces,  overran  Flanders  and  Brabant,  and  established  himself  on  the 
left  banks  of  the  Meuse  and  Scheldt.  Alexander  of  Parma,  to  whose 
wonderful  genius  in  war  and  state-craft  Spain  owed  the  preservation  of 
the  Flemish  provinces,  died  in  December,  1592;  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  Governor-Generalship  by  the  Archduke  Ernest,  brother  of  Matthias 
and  son  of  Maximilian  II. 


230  MODERN  HISTORY. 


I2,E  C-A.:PITTJX.-A.TI03iT. 

John  of  Austria  attempts  to  pacify  the  Netherlands  by  a  "  Perpetual  Edict ;"  gains  Na- 
mur  by  treachery  and  other  fortitied  places  by  force.  The  States  choose  Matthias  as  their 
chief;  Wilham  of  Orange  his  lieutenant.  Brief  "Union  of  Brussels"  combines  the  seven- 
teen provinces.  English  troops  have  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Gemblours.  Alexander 
of  Parma  succeeds  Don  John  as  Governor-General.  Duke  of  Anjou  becomes  Protector  of 
the  liberties  of  the  Netherlands.  Democratic  riots  at  Ghent  infringe  the  religious  peace  and 
prevent  the  ultimate  union  of  all  the  States.  "  Union  of  Utrecht"  between  the  seven  prov- 
inces which  afterward  form  the  Dutch  Republic.  Fruitless  mediation  of  Rudolph  II.  Wal- 
loon provinces  return  to  their  allegiance,  the  Flemish  remain  in  dispute.  Ban  against  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  Abjuration  of  the  authority  of  Philip  II.  by  the  States.  Duke  of  Anjou 
inaugurated  as  lord  of  the  Netherlands;  his  treachery;  "French  Fury"  at  Antwerp;  his 
retirement  into  France.  Death  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Elizabeth  of  England  becomes 
protectress  of  the  Netherlands;  Leicester,  Governor-General.  Death  of  Sidney  at  Zutphen. 
Accession  of  Sixtus  V.  Execution  of  Mary  Stuart.  Ravages  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  among 
Spanish  colonies  and  marine.  "  Invincible  Armada"  defeated  by  battle  and  storm.  Eng- 
lish invade  Portugal.    Retirement  and  death  of  the  Duke  of  Parma. 


Wars  of  the  League. 

272.  In  France,  the  Eighth  Religious  War  broke  out  in  1585,  between 
the  forces  of  the  League  on  one  side,  and  those  of  the  King  of  Navarre, 
the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  the  Duke  of  Montmorency,  on  the  other.  Henry 
III.,  though  nominally  an  ally  of  the  League,  dreaded  its  success  even 
more  than  that  of  the  Huguenots.  The  shallowness  of  his  character  was 
more  than  ever  apparent;  while  his  kingdom  was  torn  with  fierce  dissen- 
sions, he  was  amusing  himself  with  his  dogs,  monkeys,  and  parrots,  or 
draining  his  already  exhausted  treasury  by  foolish  and  fantastic  entertain- 
ments. Meanwhile  Henry  of  Navarre  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
royal  troops  at  Coutras.  A  large  German  army  was  sent  into  France  by 
John  Casimir,  the  prince-palatine,  but  its  leaders  were  surprised  by  the 
Duke  of  Guise  in  Anneau,  and  multitudes  were  killed.  The  exasperated 
peasantry  joined  with  the  duke  in  harassing  their  retreat  and  murdering 
all  who  fell  into  their  hands. 

273.  The  chiefs  of  the  League  had  been  forbidden  to  enter  Paris. 
Guise  came,  nevertheless,  and  was  received  by  the  people  with  shouts  of 
welcome.  He  had  ever  been  the  idol  of  the  populace,  and  the  city  was 
now  divided  into  two  hostile  camps,  the  Hotel  de  Guise  being  guarded  by 
the  mob  as  constantly  as  the  Louvre  by  the  royal  troops.  The  advance 
of  several  thousands  of  Swiss  mercenaries  by  the  king's  order,  caused  a 
general  rising  in  the  city,  known  as  the  "  Day  of  the  Barricades."  The 
king  escaped  in  terror  to  Chartres,  and  Guise,  assuming  dictatorial  power, 
overawed  the  parliament,  filled  all  military  and  civic  appointments  with 
his  own  people,  and  seized  and  fortified  the  towns  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Paris  to  prevent  surprise.  The  revolutionary  government  thus  established 
in  the  capital  continued  six  years  in  force.     Henry  III.  was  compelled  to 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  VALOIS.  231 

sign,  at  Rouen,  an  Edict  of  Union,  in  which  he  granted  all  the  demands 
of  the  League  —  among  the  rest  an  assembly  of  the  States-General,  which 
the  duke  intended  should  legalize  his  usurpation  of  power  and  place  the 
king  under  his  control. 

274.  But  Henry  had  resolved  to  rid  himself  of  this  hated  guardianship. 
Guise  was  summoned  to  the  royal  bed-chamber,  and  mur- 
dered by  the  guards  in  an    anteroom.     In   the  apartment 

beneath,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  the  now  aged  queen-mother,  lay  dying. 
Henry  hastened  to  her  with  the  words,  "Now,  Madam,  I  am  a  king!" 
Startled  by  the  folly,  more,  probably,  than  by  the  wickedness  of  his  act, 
she  was  thrown  into  a  state  of  anxiety  which  hastened  her  end.  The 
Cardinal  of  Guise  was  murdered  two  days  after  his  brother. 

275.  Paris  was  in  an  uproar;  the  Sorbonne — the  great  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  the  kingdom  —  declared  the  people  released  from  their  alle- 
giance. The  parliament,  attempting  to  quiet  the  tumult,  was  impris- 
oned in  the  Bastile,  only  those  members  being  subsequently  released  who 
promised  to  be  the  obedient  tools  of  the  Council  of  Sixteen.  By  this 
fragment  of  a  parliament,  the  Duke  of  Mayenne,  a  brother  of  Guise,  was 
appointed  Lieuten ant-General  of  the  kingdom.  Between  the  Huguenots 
in  the  south  and  the  League  in  the  north,  the  wretched  king  possessed 
only  five  or  six  towns  on  the  Loire.  The  Guises  refused  to  treat  with 
him ;  the  Pope  summoned  him  to  Rome  to  answer  for  having  murdered  a 
prince  of  the  Church ;  his  only  refuge  was  in  a  treaty  with  Henry  of  Na- 
varre. After  a  personal  conference  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  the  two  kings 
joined  their  forces  for  a  siege  of  Paris.  Terror  increased  the  fanatical 
rage  of  the  Parisians ;  and  their  priests  declared  that  only  the  murder  of 
one  or  both  the  kings  could  save  religion.  In  this  state  of  feeling,  Jacques 
Clement,  a  Dominican  monk,  sought  the  camp  of  Henry  of  France,  ob- 
tained an  audience  and  stabbed  the  king.  The  assassin  was  immediately 
dispatched  by  the  guards;  his  victim  expired  the  following  morning. 
With  Henry  III.  ended  the  family  of  Valois,  which  had  ruled  France 
since  1328. 

276.  The  House  of  Bourbon,  descended  from  the  second  son  of  St 
Louis,  was  now  nearest  to  the  throne.  Its  elder  branch  had  been  extin- 
guished in  the  Constable  do  Bourbon,  who  died  before  Rome  in  1527 ;  the 
younger  was  represented  by  Henry  of  Navarre,  to  whom  Henry  III.,  in 
dying,  had  commended  his  army  and  his  people.  Five  years  of  civil  war 
preceded  the  establishment  of  Henry  IV.  in  his  kingdom.  The  obstacles 
to  his  accession  seemed,  indeed,  insurmountable.  He  was  a  Huguenot ; 
he  had  lately  been  allied  with  the  murderer  of  the  Duke  of  Guise,  whose 
brother  Mayenne  was  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  well-appointed  army. 
No  fewer  than  eight  claimants  disputed  the  crown,  of  whom  Philip  II., 
the  most  powerful,  possessed  the  ablest  general  and  the  most  effective 


232  MODERN  HISTORY. 

infantry  in  the  world.  He  demanded  to  be  named  Protector  of  France 
in  the  right  of  his  daughter,  Clara  Eugenia  Isabella,  who,  by  her  mother's 
side,  was  a  granddaughter  of  Henry  II.  To  this  end  he  recalled  the  Duke 
of  Parma  (§  271),  from  the  Netherlands  in  the  summer  of  1590  —  a  policy 
fatal  to  his  own  interests,  but  fortunate  for  the  United  Provinces,  which 
were  thus  enabled  to  establish  their  independence. 

277.  Henry  IV.  had  already  gained  two  brilliant  victories  at  Arques 
and  Ivry  over  the  Duke  of  Mayenne.  He  might  have  taken  Paris  by 
assault,  but  he  refused  to  sacrifice  the  lives  of  his  people.  The  king, 
who  had  already  been  twice  a  Catholic  and  twice  a  protestant,  and 
probably  had  no  very  deep  convictions  in  favor  of  either  side,  now  re- 
solved upon  a  change  of  his  ecclesiastical  relations,  which  promised 
to  restore  peace  and  harmony  to  his  kingdom.  He  caused  himself  to  be 
publicly  "  instructed "  in  the  Komish  faith ;  and  on  the  25th  of  July, 
1593,  he  abjured  protestantism  and  received  the  mass  before  a  great 
assemblage  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Denis.  Two  years  later  he  was  recon- 
ciled with  the  Pope.     Rheims  being  in  the  possession  of  the  League,  he  was 

crowned  at  Chartres,  and  was  admitted  into  Paris  the  follow- 
■'  "^   '  ing  month,  by  bribery  of   Brissac,  the  commandant.     He 

lightly  remarked  that  "so  fair  a  city  was  well  worth  a  mass! " 

278.  The  young  Duke  of  Guise  and  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  made  their 
peace,  and  in  January,  1596,  a  treaty  with  Mayenne  put  an  end  to  the 
League.  Henry  IV.  had  many  of  the  qualities  of  a  great  prince;  he 
could  forgive  and  forget  injuries,  and  his  generous  confidence  was  never 
narrowed  by  jealousy  and  resentment.  Consequently,  he  was  more  faith- 
fully served  by  men  who  had  been  his  bitterest  foes  than  are  many 
kings  by  their  life-long  favorites  and  dependents.  To  reassure  his  Hu- 
guenot subjects,  alarmed  by  his  defection  from  their  faith,  Henry  signed, 
in  April,  1598,  the  celebrated  Edict  of  Nantes,  by  which  he  guaranteed 
the  unobstructed  exercise  of  their  religion.  They  were  admitted,  equally 
with  Catholics,  to  all  colleges,  schools,  and  hospitals,  and  to  all  civil 
ofiices,  without  submitting  to  any  oath  or  ceremony  contrary  to  their 
consciences;  and  were  permitted  to  publish  religious  books  and  founc^ 
institutions  of  learning  for  their  own  exclusive  patronage. 

279.  War  was  declared  (Jan.,  1595)  between  France  and  Spain ;  and 
Spanish  armies  entered  France  both  from  the  north  and  the  south.  Cam- 
bray  was  surrendered,  Oct.  2,  and  Calais  taken  by  surprise  in  April,  1596. 
The  queen  of  England,  now  fearing  an  invasion  of  her  own  dominion, 
hastened  to  make  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  France,  in  which  the  Holland- 
ers were  included.  A  great  English  and  Dutch  armament  fought  an 
obstinate  battle  with  the  Spaniards  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  resulting  in 
victory  to  the  allies  and  the  destruction  of  thirty  or  forty  Spanish 
merchantmen.      The  city  and  all   its  wealth  was  abandoned  to  the  vie- 


PEACE  OF  VEBVINS.  233 

tors,  and  though  they  used  their  power  with  moderation,  the  fleet  re- 
turned home  with  great  spoil  on  board.  A  similar  expedition  the  next 
year  was  defeated  by  a  storm,  but  on  the  other  hand,  Philip  II.,  who 
had  raised  a  great  armada  for  a  second  invasion  of  England,  intending 
to  place  his  favorite  daughter  upon  the  throne  of  Elizabeth,  was  thwarted 
by  the  same  tempests.  The  English  fleet,  which  had  merely  been  driven 
back  to  port,  then  proceeded  to  the  Azores,  where  it  captured  Fayal, 
Graciosa,  and  Flores,  but  failed  to  encounter  the  treasure-laden  galleons 
from  Spanish  America,  which  had  been  the  object  of  the  enterprise. 

280.  The  same  year  Prince  Maurice  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Spaniards  at  Turnhout,  chiefly  by  the  then  novel  device  of  furnishing  his 
cavalry  with  fire-arms.  The  town  of  Amiens,  taken  soon  after  by  a 
stratagem  of  the  Archduke  Albert,  was  recaptured,  in  a  siege  of  sev- 
eral months,  by  the  forces  of  Henry  IV.  The  king  of  Spain,  now  drained 
of  resources,  aged  and  infirm,  consented  to  a  peace  with  France, 
which  the  Pope  had  long  been  desirous  of  mediating,  in  order  to  direct 
the  forces  of  Christendom  against  the  heretics  and  the  Turks.     A  treaty 

was  signed  at  Vervins,  by  which  the  Spaniards  restored  all 

May,  lo9o. 
their  conquests  except  the  fortress  of  Cambray.     In  August 

of  the  same  year  the  Infanta  Isabella  was  acknowledged  as  sovereign  of 

the  Netherlands  and  Franche  Comte.     Albert  of  Austria,  her  destined 

consort,  received  an  equal  share  in  the  government,  and,  to  render  their 

dignity  identical,  both  were  known  as  "  the  Archdukes." 

281.  Philip  II.  died  in  Spain,  Sept.  13,  1598,  closing  a  disastrous  reign 
of  forty-two  years.  No  prince  was  ever  born  to  more  magnificent  pros- 
pects. If  his  wisdom  and  justice  had  been  equal  to  his  diligence,  his 
vast  inheritance  would  have  made  him  by  far  the  greatest  monarch  in 
Christendom.  But  he  crushed  Spain,  ruined  Portugal,  lost  a  great  part 
of  the  Netherlands  and  drained  the  rest  of  their  prosperity,  and  finally, 
with  the  wealth  of  the  Indies  at  his  disposal,  died  a  bankrupt.  His  eldest 
son,  Carlos,  a  youth  of  unhappy  disposition,  was  driven  to  madness  by  his 
father's  severity,  and  died  in  imprisonment.  Philip  III.,  the  youngest 
and  (mly  surviving  son,  succeeded  to  the  government  of  Spain,  Portugal, 
the  Two  Sicilies  and  the  Duchy  of  Milan. 

282.  Few  events  had  taken  place  in  Germany  since  the  accession  of 
Rudolph  II.  In  consequence  of  his  Spanish  education  and  the  continued 
influence  of  the  Jesuits,  he  expelled  all  Lutherans  from  his  hereditary 
dominions;  and  in  Austria  and  Bavaria  there  ensued  a  strong  reaction 
toward  the  ancient  Church.  The  favorite  studies  of  Rudolph  were 
alchemy  and  astrology.  By  means  of  the  latter,  wiser  men  than  he 
were  encouraged  to  more  reasonable  researches ;  for  the  great  astron- 
omers, Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe,  were  successively  entrusted  with  the 
superintendence  of  his  observatory  at  Prague. 


234  MODERN  HISTORY. 

283.  A  singular  event,  which  promised  an  extension  of  protestantism 
in  Germany,  really  fixed  more  firmly  the  authority  of  Rome.  The  Arch- 
bishop elector  of  Cologne,  wishing  to  marry  the  beautiful  Agnes  of  Mans- 
feld,  renounced  the  spiritual  allegiance  to  which  he  owed  his  dignities,  and 
openly  adopted  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  He  intended  to  secularize 
his  province,  as  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  had  already 
done ;  but  Prince  Ernest  of  Bavaria,  his  former  rival  for  the  appointment, 
was  elected  to  succeed  him ;  the  protestant  princes  stood  aloof,  and  the 
deposed  elector  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  retirement  at  Strasbourg. 
For  nearly  two  centuries  the  important  see  of  Cologne  was  filled  by 
members  of  the  Bavarian  family. 

284.  War  between  the  Ottoman  and  German  empires  was  begun  by 
the  defeat  near  Sissek  of  the  Turkish  governor  of  Bosnia,  in  June,  1593. 
Amurath  III.  immediately  raised  a  great  army,  which  captured  Vesprim, 
but  was  in  turn  defeated  by  the  Austrians.    The  next  year  Moldavia,  Wal- 

.  lachia,  and  Transylvania  revolted  from  the  Turks,  and  allied  themselves 
with  the  emperor.     In  his  dismay,  Amurath  sent  to  Damascus  for  the  holy 
standard  which  was  supposed  to  insure  victory  over  unbeliev- 
an.,  o  o.  ^^^^  ^^^  j^^  ^.^^  without  having  experienced  its  miraculous 

aid.  His  son,  Mohammed  III.,  secured  his  own  succession  with  the  usual 
barbarity  of  his  race,  by  the  murder  of  nineteen  brothers.  The  campaign 
of  1595  was  disastrous  to  the  Turks.  The  Austrian  army  was  ably  com- 
manded by  Count  Mansfeld,  who  took  the  important  town  of  Gran  and 
received  the  submission  of  Wissegrad  and  Waitzen. 

285.  The  next  year  Mohammed  in  person  took  the  field.  He  captured 
Erlau,  and,  by  a  three  days'  battle  at  Keresztes,  defeated  the  Christians, 
who  lost  50,000  men,  beside  100  guns  and  all  their  treasure.  Terror  seized 
Vienna  and  spread  through  Europe.  But  the  Turks  neglected  to  reap  the 
fruits  of  their  victory,  and  though  the  war  continued  ten  years  longer,  its 
events  were  of  too  little  importance  to  require  detailed  narration.  The 
Ottoman  dominion,  though  still  among  the  most  extensive  that  the  world 
had  seen,  had  passed  the  zenith  of  its  power  and  had  begun  to  decline. 

The  Peace  of  Sitvatorok  was  remarkable  for  the  abatement 

Jan.  1, 1607.  . 

it  showed  in  the  extravagant  pretensions  of  the  Porte.  Ru- 
dolph II.  was  named  with  his  full  imperial  titles  instead  of  being  slight- 
ingly alluded  to  as  "  King  of  Vienna ;"  and,  in  consideration  of  a  large 
immediate  payment,  he  was  relieved  of  the  degrading  annual  tribute 
hitherto  exacted  by  the  Turks.  The  territorial  limits  of  the  two  empires 
remained  nearly  as  in  1597. 

286.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  France  was  the  greatest, 
richest,  and  most  populous  kingdom  in  Europe,  and  Paris  was,  with  the 
exception  of  Moscow,  the  largest  capital.  Venice  had,  even  then,  more 
inhabitants  than  London ;   but  both  Venice  and  Milan  had  for  four  cen- 


FIRST  OF  THE  BOVRBON  DYNASTY.  235 

turies  been  stationary,  if  not  declining.  Under  Elizabeth,  England  rose 
as  rapidly  in  the  scale  of  European  powers  as  Spain,  during  the  same 
period,  declined.  The  persecutions  in  the  Netherlands  added  almost  as 
much  to  the  wealth  of  Elizabeth's  dominions  as  they  detracted  from 
those  of  Philip  11.  Weavers  and  other  artisans  were  encouraged  to 
settle  in  her  cities  on  condition  of  taking  one  English  apprentice  ea'ch ; 
and  thus  fine  manufactures  became  permanently  implanted  in  the  coun- 
try. Commerce  was  opened  by  special  treaties  with  Turkey,  Eussia,  and 
through  the  latter  country  with  India,  Persia,  and  Cathay  or  China. 
The  Russia  Company  was  incorporated  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1566, 
the  Turkey  or  Levant  Company  in  1581,  and  the  far  more  important 
East  India  Company  on  the  last  day  of  1600. 

287.  The  Dutch  Eepublic  was  already  the  chief  maritime  nation  in 
Europe.  Its  prosperity  had  indeed  been  augmented  by  immigration 
from  the  still  oppressed  provinces  to  the  southward ;  so  that  new  towns 
had  to  be  built  or  new  streets  added  to  the  old  ones,  to  accommodate 
the  manufacturers  and  merchants  from  Brabant  and  Flanders.  In  the 
latter  countries  villages,  and  even  towns,  were  depopulated ;  foxes,  wolves, 
and  wild  boars  prowled  over  the  land  once  occupied  by  a  thriving 
population ;  and  during  one  year,  1586-7,  two  hundred  persons  were 
killed  by  wild  beasts  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Ghent.  As 
their  commercial  marine  increased,  the  Dutch  planted  trading  stations 
in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  world  —  along  the  Asiatic  coasts  from  Bas- 
sora  in  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Japan,  and  especially  upon  the  island  of  Java, 
where  Batavia  became  the  metropolis  of  their  eastern  possessions. 

Renewed  wars  of  the  League  in  France.  Duke  of  G\iise  in  possession  of  Paris.  His 
assassination  by  order  of  Henry  III.  Death  of  Catherine  de'  Medici.  Mayenne  lieutenant- 
general.  Murder  of  Henry  III.  and  extinction  of  the  Valois.  Opposition  to  Henry  IV. 
who,  nevertheless,  is  victorious  at  Arques  and  Ivry,  is  crowned  at  Chartres,  "  buys  Taris 
with  a  mass,"  and  puts  an  end  to  the  League.  Edict  of  Nantes  guarantees  the  rights  of 
the  Hug\ienots.  War  with  Spain;  victories  of  the  Dutch  and  English.  Peace  of  Vervins 
interrupts  the  long  series  of  Franco-Spanish  wars.  Establishment  of  the  "Archdukes"  in 
the  Spanish  Netherlands.  Death  of  Philip  II.  Superstitions  of  Rudolph  II.  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  renouncing  his  connection  with  Rome,  vainly  attempts  to  hold  his  province 
as  a  secular  principality.  War  Avith  the  Turks ;  the  Christians  mainly  victorious  during 
the  first  three  years ;  terribly  defeated  at  Keresztes,  but  favored  by  the  Peace  of  Sitva- 
torok.  Of  the  nations  of  Europe  at  close  of  IGth  century,  France  most  powerful ;  England 
rapidly  rising,  especially  in  commercial  importance;  Spain  declining;  Holland  already 
the  chief  maritime  power.  Desolation  of  the  Flemish  provinces;  increasing  prosperity 
of  the  Dutch. 

Reign  of  Henry  IV.  in  France. 

288.  During  the  unworthy  reign  of  the  last  of  the  Valois,  France  had 
almost  fiiUen  into  chaos.     Instead  of  the  ancient  feudal  chiefs,  a  new 


236  MODERN  HISTORY. 

class  of  nobles  rivaled  and  opposed  the  crown.  The  heads  of  the  League 
had  been  won  by  fortresses,  governments,  and  money,  and  often  assumed 
in  their  own  territories  powers  exceeding  those  of  the  king  himself. 
Multitudes  of  strong  castles  defied  the  royal  authority.  Manufactures 
had  decayed ;  roads  were  so  bad  that  merchandise  could  only  be  trans- 
ported by  long  and  circuitous  routes,  and  so  haunted  by  banditti  that 
fraudulent  debtors  could  always  elude  payment  by  pretending  to  have 
been  robbed.  Henry  IV.  and  his  wise  and  faithful  minister,  the  Duke 
of  Sully,  set  themselves  to  correct  the  abuses  and  to  restore  the  prosperity 
of  the  country.  The  king  in  his  own  dress  and  equipage  presented  an 
example  of  moderation,  and  to  avoid  the  extravagance  and  frivolous  ri- 
valries of  a  court,  the  nobles  were  recommended  to  live  upon  their  estates. 
Manufactures  were  liberally  fostered  by  the  government,  and  the  unri- 
valed fame  of  the  French  for  the  production  of  fine  and  curious  fabrics 
dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  The  revenues  of  the  kingdom  were 
doubled  during  the  twelve  years  following  his  accession,  while  the  public 
debt  was  diminished  one-third. 

289.  By  the  Pope's  dispensation,  Henry  dissolved  his  uncongenial  mar- 
riage with  Margaret  of  Valois,  and  married  Marie  de'  Medici,  daughter 
of  the  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany.  A  leading  motive  in  his  policy  was  hos- 
tility to  the  House  of  Austria;  and  the  compactness  of  his  dominion,  and 
the  consequent  availability  of  his  resources  made  him  a  formidable  foe  to 
the  enfeebled  power  of  Spain.  In  spite  of  the  treaty  of  Vervins,  which 
was  outwardly  observed,  large  sums  of  money  and  whole  regiments  of 
recruits  passed  from  France  to  Holland.  A  formidable  rebellion  of  the 
French  nobles,  fomented  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  the  king  of  Spain, 

broke  out  during  the  year  of  the  royal  marriage.     It  was 

A.  D.  1602.  b  J  .  o  ^ 

proposed  to  kill  the  king  and  make  of  France  an  elective 
monarchy  like  Germany,  each  of  the  great  nobles  becoming  a  sovereign 
prince  in  his  own  dominions.  The  chief  mover  was  Marechal  Biron,  the 
first  of  the  Catholic  peers  who  had  attached  himself  to  Henry  IV.,  but 
whose  ambition  had  not  been  satisfied  by  his  elevation  to  a  dukedom,  a 
marshal's  baton,  and  the  government  of  Burgundy. 

290.  Unconscious  of  the  conspiracy  at  home,  Henry  declared  war 
against  Savoy  and  intrusted  the  conquest  of  La  Bresse  to  the  treacher- 
ous Biron.  The  king  gained  a  speedy  victory,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  year  Charles  Emanuel  was  compelled  to  buy  peace  with  the  cession 
of  nearly  all  his  territories  west  of  the  Alps.  Biron,  dismayed  by  the 
humiliation  of  his  ally,  made  a  full  confession  of  his  treason.  The  king 
generously  pardoned  him,  and  even  intrusted  him  with  several  diplomatic 
missions ;  but  Biron  renewed  his  treasonable  practices,  was  convicted  and 
sentenced  by  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  beheaded,  July,  1602. 

The  recall  of  the  Jesuits  in  1603,  and  the  king's  evident  desire  to  stand 


REIGN  OF  HENRY  IV.  IN  FRANCE.  237 

well  with  the  Pope,  alienated  the  Huguenots.  Their  leader,  the  Duke  of 
Bouillon,  even  made  overtures  to  Spain.  His  capital,  Sedan,  was  there- 
upon seized  by  the  royal  forces  and  occupied  during  four  years.  The 
king,  however,  either  through  natural  leniency  or  the  fear  of  offending 
the  German  protestant  princes,  pardoned  the  duke  and  reinstated  him  in 
all  his  offices  and  honors. 

291.  A  favorite  scheme  of  Henry  IV.,  or  rather,  perhaps,  of  Sully,  was 
the  union  of  all  the  nations  of  Europe  into  a  great  Christian  common- 
wealth, where  minor  differences  of  faith  should  be  tolerated,  all  dis- 
putes settled  by  arbitration,  and  commerce  freed  from  those  vexatious 
restrictions  which  then  paralyzed  enterprise  in  the  southern  countries. 
This  great  confederation  was  to  consist  of  fifteen  states,  divided  into 
three  groups,  viz.:  (1)  Six  Elective  Monarchies,  comprising  the  Empire, 
the  States  of  the  Church,  Venice,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Poland ;  (2) 
Six  Hereditary  Kingdoms — France,  Spain,  Great  Britain,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Lombardy  —  the  latter  to  be  formed  of  the  two  duchies 
of  Savoy  and  Milan;  (3)  Three  Federal  Eepublics,  Switzerland,  the 
Netherlands,  and  a  confederation  of  Italian  states.  The  Czar  of  Mus- 
covy was  considered  as  belonging,  by  his  mode  of  government,  rather 
to  Asia  than  to  Europe,  but  he  was  to  be  admitted  to  the  commonwealth 
on  his  own  application.  If  this  scheme  appears  too  visionary  to  be  even 
detailed  at  such  length,  it  was  at  least  more  noble  than  the  plan  of  uni- 
versal monarchy  pursued  by  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II. — a  monarchy 
based  upon  the  suppression  of  all  freedom  of  thought  and  enterprise. 

292.  A  preliminary  object  with  Henry  was  the  humiliation  of  the 
House  of  Austria  in  all  its  branches.  To  this  end  he  aided  the  protest- 
ants  in  Germany  and  Holland,  recommended  the  Pope  to  add  the  two 
Sicilies  to  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  renouncing  the  French  claims 
upon  Italy,  aimed  to  deliver  the  peninsula  from  all  foreign  dominion.  He 
also  intrigued  with  the  oppressed  Moriscoes;  but  the  edict  of  Philip  III., 
exiling  them  from  Spain,  defeated  his  plan  of  cooperation  in  a  grand  re- 
volt. It  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  distress  attending  the  forced  emigra- 
tion of  an  entire  people.  The  export  of  gold  from  Spain  was  strictly 
prohibited,  so  that  the  greater  part  of  their  property  was  sacrificed  in  the 
removal.  Of  130,000  who  embarked  for  Africa,  three-fourths  perished 
of  hunger  and  exhaustion  ;  100,000  sought  refuge  in  France,  but  were 
permitted  to  remain  only  on  condition  of  their  professing  the  Catholic 
faith,  which  they  had  just  rejected  in  their  own  country.  While  waiting 
for  transportation,  so  many  died  and  were  thrown  into  the  sea  that  the 
fishes  were  supposed  to  be  poisoned.  Philip  III.  had  given  the  fatal  blow 
to  the  prosperity  of  his  dominions.  Leagues  of  fertile  fields,  once  rich  in 
the  olive  and  the  vine,  lay  waste  for  want  of  tillage,  and  Spain  never  re- 
covered the  loss  of  the  persecuted  Moriscoes. 


238  MODERN  HISTORY. 

293.  The  Dutch  Republic,  extending  and  confirming  its  power,  had,  in 
the  meantime,  been  able  to  inflict  severe  blows  upon  the  Spanish  domin- 
ion. Maurice  of  Nassau  defeated  the  army  of  the  "  Archdukes "  before 
Nieuport  and  captured  from  them  100  standards,  with  all  their  artillery 
and  baggage.  The  siege  of  Ostend  by  Albert  lasted  nearly 
four  years,  and  was  attended  by  all  the  remarkable  inci- 
dents of  warfare  in  that  amphibious  country.  A  formidable  assault  of 
the  Spaniards  was  defeated  by  the  opening  of  the  sluices  and  the  drown- 
ing of  a  multitude  of  the  assailants.  The  Spaniards  were  reinforced  in 
1602  by  the  celebrated  Genoese  general,  Ambrose  Spinola,  and  8,000  men; 
while  the  Hollanders  received  from  Queen  Elizabeth  6,000  men,  under  Sir 
Francis  Vere. 

The  great  queen  died  before  the  siege  was  concluded,  though  she  had 
lived  to  see  the  close  of  a  rebellion  in  Ireland,  which  the  Spaniards  had 
fomented  to  withdraw  her  attention  from  the  Netherlands.  Her  death 
was  a  severe  loss  to  the  protestants  of  Europe,  to  whom,  in  spite  of  her 
inconsistencies,  she  had  been  a  powerful  protectress.  Her  successor,  James 
I.,  held,  if  possible,  a  still  more  obstinate  belief  in  the  divine  right  of 
hereditary  monarchs,  which  made  him  look  upon  the  Dutch  as  traitors 
and  rebels.  The  siege  of  Ostend,  which  had  cost  the  lives  of  100,000  men, 
ended  Sept.  20,  1604,  with  the  surrender  of  the  city.  The  Hollanders  had 
partly  consoled  themselves  before  its  fall  by  capturing  Sluys  and  all  the 
ships  in  its  harbor. 

291.  A  large  party  in  Holland,  headed  by  the  Grand  Pensionary,  Olden 
Barneveldt,  now  desired  peace,  though  all  were  agreed  not  to  treat  with 
Spain  except  upon  a  basis  of  the  independence  of  the  United  Pjovinces. 
A  truce  of  eight  months  on  land  was  arranged  in  the  spring  of  1G07,  but 
the  Dutch  admiral  Heemskirk  was  sent  from  Amsterdam  with  a  formida- 
ble fleet  to  harass  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  protect  Dutch 
ships  returning  from  the  Indies.  He  gained  a  great  victory  in  the  Bay 
of  Gibraltar  and  destroyed  almost  the  entire  Spanish  fleet.  Both  com- 
manders were  slain,  but  the  Dutch  fleet  was  scarcely  injured,  and  was 
speedily  able  to  intercept  the  treasure-ships  and  merchantmen  from  Amer- 
ica. The  king  of  Spain  was  compelled  to  beg  a  truce  from  the  "  Beg- 
gars of  the  Sea,"  but  he  refused  to  treat  with  them  except  as  his  sub- 
jects, and  signed  his  agreement,  "I,  the  king."  without  the  Great  Seal, 
which  was  indispensable  in  all  treaties  with  foreign  powers. 

295.  At  length,  by  the  mediation  of  France  and  England,  a  twelve 

years'  truce  was  signed  at  Bergen-op-Zoom,  ending  forty  years'  war  for 

.  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces.     The  possession 

of  the    Moluccas   and   the   privilege    of   trade    with    both 

Indies  was  secured  to  the  Dutch.     Their  home-boundaries  were  enlarged 

by   the   addition   of   all    Dutch    Flanders,   of   several   important   towns 


WAR  FOB  THE  CLEVE  DUCHIES,  239 

on  the  frontiers  of  Brabant,  and  by  forts  which  gave  them  the  com- 
mand of  the  Scheldt.  Forty  years  more  elapsed  before  their  independ- 
ence was  acknowledged  by  Spain,  but  it  was  virtually  secured  by  the 
long  struggle  already  so  bravely  maintained. 

296.  The  emperor  Rudolph  II.  had  alienated  most  of  his  subjects  by 
his  gloomy  bigotry.  Bohemia  was  full  of  discontent;  Moravia  was  in 
open  revolt.  Hungary  and  Austria  were  already  under  the  government 
of  Matthias,  the  heir-presumptive  of  his  brother's  dominions,  who,  by  his 
German  education,  was  more  acceptable  than  Eudolph  to  the  vast  major- ^ 
ity  of  the  people.  A  revolutionary  act  signed  in  April,  1606,  by  the 
emperor's  three  brothers,  Matthias,  Albert,  and  Maximilian,  and  their 
cousins,  Ferdinand  and  Leopold  of  Styria,  declared  Matthias  to  be  the 
head  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  in  consequence  of  the  alleged  insanity 
of  Rudolph.  Two  years  were  spent  in  fruitless  negotiations  before  the 
brothers  appealed  to  arms.  Matthias  marched  a  body  of  troops  into 
Bohemia,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  near  Prague  which  made  him  king 
of  Hungary  in  full  sovereignty  and  immediate  possession ;  while,  by 
the  consent  of  the  Bohemian  estates,  he  was  entitled  King-elect  of  that 
country.  The  parliaments  of  both  countries  asserted  their  religious 
rights  with  great  boldness,  and  in  spite  of  long  opposition,  both  sov- 
ereigns, Rudolph  in  Bohemia  and  Matthias  in  Hungary,  were  compelled 
to  sign  charters  of  complete  and  universal  toleration. 

297.  In  Styria  and  Bavaria,  meanwhile,  the  counter-reformation  was 
proceeding  with  great  energy  under  Archduke  Ferdinand  and  Duke 
Maximilian.  They  were  cousins,  had  been  educated  together  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  were  yet  to  be  more  conspicuously  associated  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War — that  great  contest  which  filled  nearly  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century  with  blood  and  desolation.  The  aggression  of  Maxi- 
milian upon  Donauwerth  —  a  free  imperial  city,  but  anciently  claimed  by 
the  dukes  of  Bavaria  —  led  to  an  Act  of  Union  between  the  ^   ^ 

A.  D,  1G08. 

chief  protestant  princes,  joined  eventually  by  fifteen  cities 
and  strengthened  by  an  alliance  with  France  in  the  Treaty  of  Halle,  1610. 
It  was  retaliated  by  the  Holy  League,  which  included  the  Catholic  princes 
of  the  Circles  of  Bavaria  and  Suabia,  and  the  three  archbishop  electors, 
subsequently  aided  by  the  Pope  and  the  king  of  Spain. 

298.  The  death,  in  1609,  of  the  Duke  of  Jiiliers,  Cleves,  and  Berg,  who 
had  no  heir,  precipitated  the  contest  between  the  two  religious  parties. 
The  emperor  bestowed  the  reversion  of  the  duchies  on  Christian  II.  of 
Saxony,  but  placed  them  under  the  immediate  control  of  his  cousin,  Leo- 
pold of  Styria.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Count-palatine  of 
Neuburg,  each  of  whom  had  married  a  sister  of  the  deceased  duke,  took 
joint  possession  of  the  territories  with  the  encouragement  and  aid  of  the 
king  of  France.      The  Dutch  entered  warmly   into  the  affair,  hoping  to 


240  MODERN  HISTORY. 

secure  the  ten  remaining  provinces  of  the  Netherlands ;  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land and  Denmark  declared  themselves  allies  of  the  protestant  princes. 

299.  The  French  king  and  his  minister  desired  above  all  to  wrest  the 
imperial  scepter  from  the  House  of  Austria.  Great  preparations  were 
made;  Henry  IV.  was  ready  to  march  into  the  Netherlands  at  the  head 

of  30,000  men.     But  on  the  eve  of  his  intended  departure, 
^^'       *  he  was  assassinated  by  a  frantic  Jesuit  in  a  street  of  Paris. 

His  queen,  Marie  de'  Medici,  was  made  regent,  in  the  name  and  during 
the  minority  of  her  son,  Louis  XIII.  The  opposition  of  the  nearest 
princes  of  the  blood,  Conde  and  his  two  uncles,  was  bought  off  for  a  time 
with  the  ample  treasures  collected  by  the  murdered  king  for  his  wars. 
The  Duke  of  Sully,  though  called  to  the  Council-board  by  the  queen- 
regent,  encountered  such  resistance  from  the  rapacious  courtiers  who 
hated  his  thrifty  policy,  that  he  retired  in  1611,  never  to  return  to  court. 
His  remaining  thirty  years  were  spent  upon  his  estates,  and  he  lived  to 
see  some  of  his  far-reaching  plans  executed  by  Eichelieu,  the  famous 
cardinal  and  minister  of  Louis  XIII. 

300.  The  treaty  of  Halle  was  maintained  by  the  new  Council,  and  the 
lieutenant  of  the  Archduke  Leopold,  after  holding  out  several  months  in 
hope  of  profiting  by  the  death  of  Henry  IV.,  surrendered  the  city  of 
Jiiliers,  Sept.  4,  1610.  The  princes  of  Neuberg  and  Brandenburg  held 
the  disputed  territories  at  first  in  common  —  the  one  holding  court  at 
Diisseldorf,  the  other  at  Cleves;  but  dissensions  naturally  arising  from 
this  double  government,  war  broke  out  in  1621,  during  which  the  Span- 
iards on  one  side,  and  the  Dutch  on  the  other,  made  these  lands  their 
battle-field.  Though  two  partition-treaties  were  signed,  the  question  of 
ownership  was  not  finally  set  at  rest  until  1815,  when  the  "Cleve-Duch- 
ies"  were  secured  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to  the  House  of  Branden- 
burg, and  became  the  nucleus  of  West  Prussia.  The  elector-palatine, 
Frederic  IV.,  died  during  the  same  month  with  the  surrender  of  Juliers, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  minor  son,  Frederic  V.,  a  prince  who  is  cele- 
brated in  German  history  chiefly  for  his  misfortunes.  He  was  educated 
at  Sedan,  the  capital  of  the  Duke  of  Bouillon  —  then,  next  to  Geneva, 
the  main  stronghold  of  Calvinism.  The  Duke  of  Zweibriicken,  his 
guardian,  became  a  director  of  the  Protestant  Union. 

301.  In  France  the  establishment  of  the  new  government  was  followed 
by  a  complete  change  of  politics  and  a  close  alliance  with  Spain.  Tire 
young  king  was  married  to  Anne  of  Austria,  Infanta  of  Spain,  and  his 
eldest  sister  to  Philip,  the  heir  of  that  monarchy.  This  alliance  of  the 
leading  Catholic  powers  occasioned  a  closer  consolidation  of  the  protest- 
ant influence,  and  thus  hastened  the  impending  conflict.  The  policy  of 
the  court  was  to  intimidate  the  Huguenots,  who  were  too  numerous  to 
be  won  by  gifts  and  pensions.     They  possessed  200  fortified  places,  num- 


BEIGN  OF  LOUIS  XIII.  IN  FRANCE.  241 

bered  4,000  of  the  nobility  in  their  ranks,  and  could  bring  into  the  field 
an  army  of  25,000  men. 

The  queen-regent  granted  one  demand  of  the  Prince  of  Conde  by 
summoning  the  States-General  at  Paris,  A.  D.  1614.  This  assembly  was 
marked  by  the  first  appearance  of  Eichelieu,  the  young  Bishop  of  Lugon, 
as  deputy  from  the  clergy  of  Poitou,  Fontenay,  and  Niort ;  and  his  elo- 
quent speech  in  the  interest  of  his  order  hiid  the  foundation  of  his  future 
favor  at  court.  The  Third  Estate,  or  commons,  having  offended  the  queen, 
were  ignominiously  dismissed,  and  forbidden  ever  to  meet  again.  Their 
next  assembly,  in  1789,  was  an  immediate  cause  of  the  great  revolution. 

302.  The  councils  of  Marie  de'  Medici  were  controlled  by  her  Italian 
favorite,  Concini,  and  his  wife  Leonora.  The  former  bore  the  title  of 
Marechal  d'Ancre.  Perceiving  the  talents  of  Richelieu,  the  marshal 
caused  him  to  be  named  secretary  of  state,  thinking  thus  to  secure  a 
useful  instrument ;  but  the  bishop,  as  soon  as  he  felt  the  ground  firm 
beneath  his  feet,  quarreled  with  Concini  and  separated  from  his  party. 
A  more  dangerous  enemy  to  the  marshal  was  the  Sieur  de  Luincs,  the 
king's  falconer,  a  man  of  dull  and  insignificant  mind,  but  of  great  influ- 
ence with  Louis.  The  king,  now  sixteen  years  of  age,  was  beginning  to 
act  in  resistance  to  the  queen-mother ;  and  the  two  parties  at  court  were 
led  respectively  by  the  two  favorites.  Luines  obtained  a 
royal  order  for  the  arrest  of  the  marshal,  and  caused  him  to 
be  murdered  on  his  way  to  the  palace.  The  king,  regarding  the  scene 
from  a  window,  cried  aloud,  "  Thank  you,  good  friends !  I  am  now  a 
king!"  He  dismissed  the  Council  appointed  by  the  queen,  and  recalled 
his  father's  old  ministers,  except  Sully.  The  queen  was  exiled  to  Blois; 
Leonora  d'Ancre  was  tried  for  witchcraft  and  put  to  death.  The  new 
Council,  like  the  old,  favored  the  House  of  Austria,  aud  its  policy  has- 
tened the  religious  war  in  Germany. 

803.  The  unhappy  disputes  of  sectaries,  which  had  already  so  weakened 
and  compromised  the  Eeformation,  were  renewed  in  Holland  between  the 
Calvinists  and  the  new  sect  of  Arminians.  The  latter  included  many  of 
the  best  minds  in  the  States,  among  others  the  noble  patriot  and  Grand 
Pensionary,  Olden  Barne veldt,  and  Hugo  Grotius,  the  celebrated  jurist. 
The  worst  blot  on  the  record  of  Maurice  of  Nassau  is  his  agency  in  the 
death  of  Barneveldt.  They  belonged  to  opposite  political  parties;  the 
aged  statesman  apprehended  danger  to  his  country  from  the  soaring  am- 
bition of  the  young  prince.  No  man,  except  William  of  Orange,  had  done 
so  much  for  the  freedom  of  Holland  as  Olden  Barneveldt.  The  Calvin- 
istic  Synod  of  Dort  condemned  the  Arminians  without  a  hearing,  and 
banished  or  deposed  their  pastors.  Barneveldt  and  Grotius  were  arraigned 
before  a  council  of  their  enemies  and  condemned  —  the  one  to  death,  the 
other  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Barneveldt  scorned  to  ask.  his  life  from 
M.  H.— 16. 


242  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  son  of  his  old  friend ;   Maurice,  who  could  have  saved  it,  would  not 
interfere;    and  Barneveldt  was  beheaded,  May  14,  1619. 

12.  E  C  J^I=  I T  XJ  Ij -A.T  I O  IT  . 

Henry  IV.  remedies  the  disorders  and  promotes  the  prosperity  of  France;  marries  Marie 
de'  Medici ;  is  a  constant  foe  to  the  House  of  Austria;  defeats  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the 
rebellions  of  Biron  and  Bouillon.  Great  scheme  of  Henry  for  the  union  and  pacification  of 
Europe.  Final  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes  from  Spain.  Victories  of  the  Dutch ;  fall  of 
Ostend,  capture  of  Sluys.  Death  of  Elizabeth.  Peace  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  secures  impor- 
tant benefits  to  Holland. 

Discontent  in  the  dominions  of  Rudolph  II. ;  Matthias  is  acknowledged  chief  of  the 
House  of  Austria.  Counter-reformation  in  Styria  and  Bavaria.  Protestant  "Act  of  Union," 
and  "  Holy  League  "  of  German  Catholic  nobles.  War  for  the  Cleve-Duchies  involves 
not  only  Germany,  but  Holland,  France,  England,  and  Denmark.  Assassination  of  Henry 
IV. ;  regency  of  Marie  de'  Medici ;  retirement  of  Sully.  Fall  of  Jiiliers.  Accession  of  Fred- 
eric v.,  elector-palatine.  Close  alliance  of  France  and  Spain.  States-General  summoned  in 
France;  rise  of  Richelieu.  Rival  parties  in  the  French  court;  murder  of  Concini;  ban- 
ishment of  Marie  de'  Medici.  Religious  dissensions  in  Holland ;  execution  of  Olden 
Barneveldt. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

304.  The  weak  and  incompetent  Rudolph  II.  died  early  in  1612,  and 
his  brother  Matthias,  already  crowned  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
became  emperor  in  his  place.  The  alliance  of  Holland  with  the  Protest- 
ant Union  of  Germany  made  the  latter  far  stronger  than  the  Holy 
League,  which  was,  indeed,  paralyzed  by  divisions  in  the  imperial  family 
and  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  three  archbishop  electors.  Instead  of  the 
Jesuits,  who  had  ruled  Rudolph  II.,  Cardinal  Klesel  now  controlled  the 
court;  while  the  new  emperor  contented  neither  party,  but  was  regarded 
with  increasing  distrust  by  all.  The  dispute  concerning  the  Cleve-Duchies 
has  already  been  described.  Still  more  serious  disturbances  occurred  in 
Bohemia.  The  imperial  line  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  had  so  evidently 
fallen  into  decay,  that  the  brothers  of  Matthias  resigned  all  claim  to  the 
succession  ;  and  their  cousin,  the  able  and  ambitious  Ferdinand  of  Styria, 
was  crowned  in  Bohemia,  with  the  consent  of  the  king  of  Spain. 

305.  A  formidable  revolt  was  organized  by  Count  Thurn,  who  sum- 
marily dismissed  the  council  of  King  Ferdinand  by  throwing  its  three 
most  obnoxious  members  from  a  window  of  the  Castle  of  Prague.  A  new 
government  of  thirty  directors  was  then  organized,  and  a  movement  was 
made  toward  alliance  with  the  protestant  party  in  Austria,  Hungary,  and 
Germany.  Count  Mansfeld  was  sent  to  its  aid  by  the  young  elector-pala- 
tine, and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  great  military  fame  by  the  capture 
of  Pilsen,  one  of  the  three  towns  which  alone  remained  to  Ferdinand.  The 
two  armies  raised  by  the  latter  were  both  defeated  by  Count  Thurn,  and 
the  one  commanded  by  the  Flemish  general  Bucquoi  was  pursued  into 
Austria  and  deprived  of  all  its  plunder.     The  Austrians  refused  to  arm 


WAE  FOE  BOHEMIA,  248 

in  the  emperor's  service,  or  even   to  permit  his  reinforcements  to  pass 
through  their  territories. 

300.  Matthias  died  suddenly  in  1G19,  and  Ferdinand  succeeded  to  all 
his  dominions.  In  the  war  which  followed  his  accession,  Albert  von 
Wallenstein,  the  greatest  general  of  the  age,  first  emerged  into  distinc- 
tion. He  was  Bohemian  by  birth  but  German  by  descent,  and  had  been 
educated  at  Padua,  then  one  of  the  most  renowned  universities  of  Europe. 
Here  he  became  imbued  with  that  belief  in  the  mystical  science  of  the 
stars,  which  exercised  so  great  an  influence  over  his  subsequent  career. 
The  army  of  Thurn,  after  the  death  of  Matthias,  overran  Moravia,  and, 
entering  Austria,  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Vienna,  where  Ferdinand 
II.  was  surrounded  by  all  the  chief  estates  of  his  dominions. 

The  moment  was  critical ;  with  prompt  resolution  the  city  might  have 
been  taken,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  destroyed.  But 
a  detachment  from  the  army  of  Dampierre  succeeded  in  penetrating  the 
capital  v/itli  aid  to  the  emperor,  while  Thurn  was  recalled  by  the  news 
that  Bucquoi,  having  conquered  Mansfeld,  was  threatening  Prague.  The 
imperial  election  of  Ferdinand  had  just  been  accomplished  at  Frankfort, 
when  news  arrived  that  the  Bohemian  nation  had  cast  off  its  allegiance  to 
him  and  had  chosen  Frederic,  the  elector-palatine,  to  be  its  king.  Against 
the  warnings  of  his  wisest  friends,  including  the  whole  electoral  college, 
Frederic  accepted  the  dangerous  promotion  —  moved  chiefly  by  the  persua- 
sions of  his  former  tutor.  Prince  Christian  of  Anhalt,  and  of  his  wife,  the 
English  princess  Elizabeth,  who  declared  that  she  would  rather  starve  at 
the  table  of  a  king  than  feast  at  that  of  an  elector.  He  was  crowned 
at  Prague  Nov.  4,  1619. 

807.  But  the  friends  of  Frederic  were  few,  and  absorbed  in  their  own 
affairs.  His  father-in-law.  King  James  of  England,  was  weak,  vacillating, 
and  disinclined  to  war.  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau,  though  the  most  de- 
termined foe  of  the  House  of  Austria,  was  wholly  occupied  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  Holland.  Bethlem  Gabor,  Waywode  of  Transylvania,  though 
at  first  the  most  active  of  the  protestant  allies,  soon  made  a  separate  truce 
with  the  emperor.  Vienna  was  a  second  time  besieged  by 
a  Bohemian  and  Transylvanian  army  of  80,000  men  ;  but 
want  of  supplies  compelled  them  to  retire,  after  2,000  had  died  of  actual 
starvation. 

308.  Frederic,  by  his  lack  of  energy  and  dignity,  proved  his  own  worst 
enemy.  He  allowed  his  favorite  court-chaplain  to  offend  the  religious 
preferences  of  the  Bohemians  in  the  rudest  manner;  while  their  army 
was  no  less  incensed  by  seeing  its  own  able  leaders,  counts  Thurn  and 
Mansfeld,  outranked  by  Christian  of  Anhalt  and  Count  Hohenlohe,  who 
had  accompanied  the  king  from  Heidelberg.  On  the  other  hand,  Spain, 
the  Jesuits,  and  the  German   League,  were  working  actively  for  Ferdi- 


244  MODERN  HISTORY. 

nand  II.  By  French  mediation,  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Ulm  between 
the  League  and  the  Union,  which,  in  the  war  for  Bohemia,  gave  all  the 
advantage  to  the  former.  Peace  was  concluded  between  all  the  German 
states,  but  both  parties  permitted  the  passage  of  troops  across  their  terri- 
tories into  Bohemia;  and  as  the  "Archdukes"  of  the  Netherlands  were 
not  included  in  the  peace,  nothing  prevented  their  Spanish  forces  from 
invading  the  Palatinate. 

309.  In  August,  1620,  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  at  the  head  of  the  army 
of  the  League,  entered  Bohemia,  and  was  joined  by  Count  Bucquoi ;  their 
united  armies  then  numbered  32,000  men,  who  were  opposed  by  scarcely 
more  than  20,000  on  the  part  of  Frederic.  Next  in  command  to  Max- 
imilian was  Count  Tilly,  a  ferocious  character,  whose  fame  among  the 
German  leaders  is  only  second  to  that  of  Wallenstein.  The  Spaniards, 
under  Spinola,  were,  meanwhile,  ravaging  the  borders  of  the  Rhine;  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  by  occupying  Lusatia  for  the  emperor,  cut  off  Fred- 
eric's hope  of  relief  from  that  quarter;  and  the  king  of  Poland  sent  8,000 
Cossacks  to  reinforce  the  imperial  army.  With  firmness  and  good  man- 
agement, Frederic  might  even  yet  have  saved  his  kingdom;  but  Mans- 
feld,  his  best  general,  was  alienated  by  ill  treatment,  and  the  attack  of 
the  imperialists  upon  the   forces  under  the  Prince  of  Anhalt,  at  Weisse 

Berg    near   Prague,  resulted    in    a    sudden    and    complete 
^^"     "  ■  rout.     All  was  lost;  the  king  and  queen  could  neither  trust 

the  Bohemians  whom  they  had  offended,  nor  return  to  their  rightful  sov- 
ereignty, the  Palatinate,  which  they  had  so  rashly  abandoned  in  grasping 
at  a  higher  dignity.  Forced  to  flee  from  Prague,  they  took  refuge  in 
Silesia,  and  afterward  in  Holland. 

310.  Ferdinand  II.,  now  established  in  all  his  dominions,  avenged  his 
insulted  dignity  with  great  and  wanton  severity.  Not  only  were  all  prot- 
estant  teachers  banished  from  Bohemia,  and  all  acts  of  toleration  revoked, 
but  the  people  were  insulted  by  the  demolition  of  the  tombs  and  burning 
of  the  bones  of  the  reformers.  Thirty  thousand  families  emigrated  from 
the  kingdom ;  but  multitudes  held  fast  in  secret  their  reformed  faith ; 
and  when,  after  the  lapse  of  150  years,  religious  freedom  was  at  length 
proclaimed,  the  government  was  surprised  by  the  number  who  declared 
themselves  protestants.  In  Upper  and  Lower  Austria  all  dissent  from  the 
established  worship  was  suppressed  by  similar  means. 

311.  The  two  years'  war  for  the  Palatinate  was  ended  with  its  conquest 
by  Tilly,  and  its  transfer,  with  the  electoral  title,  to  Maximilian  of  Ba- 
varia. The  Heidelberg  library,  then  among  the  richest  in  Europe  for  its 
rare  collection  of  MSS.,  was  partly  used  instead  of  straw  to  stable  the 
horses  of  Tilly's  cavalry ;  but  a  part  was  sent  by  Maximilian  to  the  Pope, 
and  for  200  years  was  known  among  the  treasures  of  the  Vatican  as  the 
Palatine  Library. 


VASA  DYNASTY  IN  SWEDEN.  245 

During  the  same  years  war  had  been  raging  between  Turkey  and 
Pohmd.     The  Poles  were  defeated  with  great  loss  at  Jassy, 

A  D  16''0-1G22 

in  Moldavia,  Sept.,  1620;  but  the  young  sultan,  Othman  II., 
presuming  on  this  victory  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Poland,  lost,  the 
next  year,  80,000  men  in  an  unsuccessful  battle  and  a  disastrous  cam- 
paign. He  was  murdered  by  his  Janizaries  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  after 
a  reign  of  four  years,  1622.  His  imbecile  uncle,  Mustapha,  was  dragged 
from  a  dungeon  to  be  placed  upon  the  throne;  but  he  was  replaced  in 
a  year  by  Amurath  IV.,  a  younger  brother  of  Othman. 

312.  It  is  time  for  a  view  of  the  northern  kingdoms,  which,  from  their 
slowly  dawning  civilization,  had  hitherto  exerted  little  influence,  and 
formed  no  part  of  the  States-System  of  central  and  southern  Europe. 
Near  the  close  ot  the  fourteenth  century,  Denmark,  Sweden, 

*"  '  '  A.  D.  1S97. 

and  Norway,  were  joined  by  the  Union  of  Calmar  under 
the  sway  of  Margaret  Waldemar.  Each  kingdom  continued  to  be  gov- 
erned by  its  own  laws,  but  all  united  in  the  choice  of  one  sovereign, 
and  for  the  common  defense.  Eric,  the  grand-nephew  and  successor  of 
Margaret,  lost  his  kingdoms  after  a  turbulent  reign  of  27  years,  and  ended 
his  life  as  a  pirate.  After  nearly  twenty  years'  separation.  Christian  of 
Oldenburg  reunited   the   three  realms,  and  added   to  them  ,   ^   

^  A.  D.  14o7. 

Schleswig  and  Holstein,  which   he   had  inherited  from  an 
uncle.      He  was  succeeded   by  his  son  John,  who,  though   acknowledged 
in  Sweden,  never  really  ruled  that  country,  for  its  government  was  ad- 
ministered by  native  nobles. 

313.  Christian  II.,  the  son  of  John,  married  a  sister  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  and  made  extensive  alliances  with  other  European  powers, 
with  a  view  to  the  conquest  of  Sweden.  He  obtained  possession  of  Stock- 
holm (Oct.,  1520),  and  was  acknowledged  king  under  the  terms  of  the 
Union  of  Calmar;  but  he  treated  his  now  reconciled  and  obedient  sub- 
jects with  a  barbarity  which  well  earned  him  the  title,  "  The  Nero  of  the 
North."  Eighty  or  a  hundred  citizens  were  beheaded  without  trial  in 
the  market-place  at  Stockholm ;  and  the  city  was  given  up  to  the  rage 
and  covetousness  of  his  soldiery,  as  if  it  had  been  taken  by  assault.  These 
crimes  worked  their  own  retribution  by  rousing  in  the  people  a  spirit  of 
revenge,  which  ultimately  drove  Christian  from  his  throne. 

314.  The  revolt  in  Sweden  was  led  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  a  young  noble- 
man whose  father  had  been  beheaded  at  Stockholm.  Pie  himself  had  been 
given,  with  four  others,  as  hostages  for  the  safe  return  of  Christian  to  his 
ships,  after  a  battle  which  he  lost  at  Brankirka,  in  one  of  his  early  and 
vain  attempts  upon  the  kingdom.  Contrary  to  his  agreement,  Christian 
no  sooner  found  himself  in  safety  than  he  sailed  away  with  his  hostages 
and  kept  them  as  prisoners  in  Denmark.  Gustavus  escaped  in  1519,  dis- 
guised as  an  ox-driver,  and  hid  himself  among  the  peasants  of  Dalecarlia, 


246  MODERN  HISTORY, 

wearing  their  coarse  apparel  and  working  with  them  for  daily  wages. 
At  length  by  a  secret  intelligence  among  the  patriots  of  Sweden,  an  army 
of  5,000  men  was  raised,  and  Gustavus  was  placed  at  its  head.  The 
Hanse-towns,  which  had  been  injured  by  the  commercial  policy  of  Chris- 
tian II.,  declared  for  the  Swedes  and  ravaged  the  Danish  islands.  Den- 
mark now  discarded  Christian  II.,  and  accepted  as  its  king  his  uncle, 
Frederic  I.  The  Union  of  Calmar  was  dissolved.  Stockholm  surrendered 
1-00  to  Gustavus   Vasa,  after  a  two  years'   siege,  and  he  was 

elected  king  by  the  Swedish  Diet.  He  favored  the  Lu- 
theran reformation ;  and  the  change  of  state-religion  was  quietly  effected 
by  the  Diet  in  1527.  Convents  were  broken  up,  and  the  incomes  of  the 
bishoprics,  which  happened  to  be  all  vacant  but  two,  were  either  distrib- 
uted among  the  nobles  or  applied  to  public  uses. 

315.  The  exiled  king,  Christian  II.,  at  length  raised  an  army  of  nearly 
10,000  men  in  the  Netherlands,  and  invaded  Norway  in  1531.  He  was 
besieged  at  Opslo  by  a  Danish  fleet  and  a  Swedish  army;  and  having 
consented  to  be  conveyed  to  Denmark  in  order  to  treat  in  person  with 
his  uncle,  he  was  there  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  in  which 
state  he  passed  the  remaining  twenty-six  years  of  his  life.  Frederic  I. 
was  succeeded,  in  1534,  by  his  son  Christian  HI.,  who  made  good  his  claim 
against  the  Count  of  Oldenburg  with  the  aid  of  the  king  of  Sweden.  His 
son,  Frederic  II.,  was  elected  during  his  father's  life-time,  and  succeeded 
peaceably  to  the  throne  of  Denmark  and  Norway  in  1559.  His  long  and 
prosperous  reign  of  41  years  was  celebrated  by  the  progress  of  arts  and 
sciences,  which  now  first  found  a  congenial  home  in  Denmark.  His  fav- 
orite astronomer,  Tycho  Brahe,  founded  an  observatory  at  Uranienborg, 
which  has  rendered  illustrious  service  to  the  science  of  the  stars. 

316.  Gustavus  Vasa,  after  raising  Sweden  to  great  prosperity,  died  in 
1560;  and  —  the  kingdom  having  been  made  hereditary  in  his  line  —  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Eric  IV.  This  prince  being  subject  to  fits  of  in- 
sanity, his  three  younger,  brothers,  John,  Magnus,  and  Charles,  were  asso- 

ciated  in  the  government.  The  first  of  these  obtained  the 
crown  and  kept  Eric  in  prison,  until,  at  the  end  of  eight 
years,  he  caused  him  to  be  poisoned.  Denmark,  at  this  time,  possessed 
the  whole  of  Norway  and  the  seven  southern  provinces  of  Sweden.  John, 
by  the  treaty  of  Stettin,  recognized  the  right  of  Frederic  II.  to  these 
territories. 

317.  The  Swedish  king  had  married  Catherine,  heiress  of  the  ancient 
Polish  family  of  Jagcllon,  and  in  1587  their  son  Sigismund  was  elected 
king  of  Poland,  This  vast  kingdom  possessed  no  power  proportional  to  its 
territorial  extent;  for  the  yet  unsettled  conflict  between  the  elective 
and  hereditary  principles  in  its  monarchy,  the  violent  feuds  of  its  great 
nobles,  and  the  lingering  traces  of  its  late  barbaric  condition  kept  it  a 


ACCESSION  OF  G  USTA  VUS  ADOLPHUS.  247 

continual  prey  to  civil  wars.  At  the  death  of  John  III.  in  1592,  his 
brother  Charles  became  the  rival  of  Sigismund  as  a  candidate  for  the 
Swedish  crown.  He  was  supported  by  strong  motives  both  of  civil  and 
religious  policy ;  for  the  Polish  king,  like  his  mother,  was  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Jesuits ;  and,  moreover,  the  Swedes  as  well  as  the  Poles,  re- 
quired their  sovereign  to  live  constantly  among  them.  The  dispute  of 
many  years  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  Charles  IX.  as 
king-elect,  and  his  son  Gustavus  Adolphus  as  Crown  Prince 
of  Sweden.  The  latter  served  his  apprenticeship  in  the  art  of  war  in  a 
contest  with  the  young  Danish  king,  Christian  IV.,  which  began  a  few 
months  before  the  death  of  King  Charles.  The  Swede  was  to  become  not 
only  a  master  in  military  science,  but  the  inventor  of  a  new  system  of 
army  organization,  which  in  time  superseded  the  closely  serried  ranks  of 
the  Swiss  pikemen  and  the  Spanish  lancers. 

318.  Several  causes  of  complaint  had  existed  between  the  two  kings 
for  years  —  among  the  rest,  that  each  bore  three  crowns  upon  his  shield. 
Christian  IV.,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  was  a  successful  and  powerful 
monarch.  His  diligent  attention  to  business,  and  his  personal  intelligence 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  interests  of  his  kingdom,  afforded  a  pleas- 
ing contrast  to  the  frivolous  character  of  the  kings  who,  at  that  time, 
filled  most  of  the  European  thrones.  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  been  no 
less  thoroughly  trained  to  the  duties  of  his  station.  Becoming  king  in 
the  autumn  of  1611,  when  not  quite  seventeen  years  of  age,  he  chose  for 
his  chief  minister  Axel  Oxenstierna,  a  man  of  profound  wisdom  and  good 
judgment,  the  model  of  a  statesman  and  diplomatist,  and  for  a  long 
series  of  years  the  prime  mover  in  Swedish  affairs. 

319.  The  war  with  the  Danes  was  ended  (Jan.,  1613)  by  the  mediation 
of  England,  but  another  conflict  with  Kussia  had  already  broken  out. 
The  line  of  Euric  (see  Book  I,  §  93)  had  become  extinct,  and  a  party  in 
the  kingdom  desired  to  place  a  brother  of  Gustavus  upon  the  vacant 
throne.  Some  advantages  were  gained  by  the  Swedes,  but  a  majority  of 
the  Eussians  succeeded  in  maintaining  the  right  of  Michael  Eomanoff, 
ancestor  of  the  present  imperial  family.     By  the  Peace  of 

Stolbova,  the  ground  where  St.  Petersburg  now  stands  was 
included  in  the  territory  of  Sweden.  A  third  war  of  nine  years  with 
Poland  now  demanded  the  attention  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  It  resulted 
in  a  gain  to  Sweden  of  some  important  towns ;  but  of  more  value  were 
the  discipline  and  experience  which  enabled  the  young  king  to  assume 
his  place  as  the  great  leader  of  the  protestant  armies  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

Matthias  succeeds  Rudolph  II.  as  emperor,  but  the  power  of  tlie  Ilapsburgs  is  soon  trans- 
ferred to  the  Styrian  branch  of  the  family.    Ferdinand  II.  crowned  successively  in  Bo- 


248  MODERN  HISTORY. 

hernia,  Hungary,  and  the  Empire.  Bohemia  revolts,  and  chooses  Frederic  V.,  elector- 
palatine,  to  be  its  king.  Vienna  twice  besieged  by  insurgent  armies.  By  Pacification  of 
Ulm,  the  German  states  secure  their  own  peace  and  leave  Bohemia  to  its  fate.  Decisive 
victory  of  the  imperialists  at  Wcisse  Berg,  near  Prague.  Frederic  loses  both  kingdom  and 
palatinate,  the  latter  being  conferred  upon  Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  Suppression  of  religious 
rights  by  Ferdinand  II.  The  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  usually  under  one  crown,  from 
A.  D.  1397  to  1523,  when  Gustavus  Vasa  becomes  king  of  Sweden,  Frederic  I.  of  Denmark 
and  Norway.  Reformed  religion  established  in  all  three  kingdoms,  Frederic  II.  of  Den- 
mark patronizes  astronomical  science.  Sweden  united  for  a  time  with  Poland  under  Sigis- 
mund  II.,  but  his  uncle,  Charles  IX.,  gains  the  former  kingdom.  His  son,  Gustavus 
Adolphus  becomes  a  great  general  by  early  experience  of  war  and  is  chosen  by  the  German 
protestants  to  be  their  leader. 


Affairs  of  France. 

320.  A  dispute  arose,  A.  D.  1620,  between  France  and  Spain  concerning 
the  Valtelline  territory  in  northern  Italy.  This  long  and  narrow  valley, 
watered  by  the  Adda,  and  reaching  from  Lake  Como  to  the  borders  of 
the  Tyrol,  was  anciently  a  possession  of  the  dukes  of  Milan,  but  had  been 
ceded  by  the  last  of  the  Sforzas  to  the  Swiss  Grisons.  It  was  now  of 
great  importance  to  the  Spaniards  during  the  wars  in  Germany,  as  afford- 
ing a  passage  into  that  country  from  the  Milanese.  The  people  of  the 
district,  being  Catholics,  resented  the  sway  of  the  protestant  Swiss.  In 
July,  1620,  they  rose  against  their  rulers,  massacred  all  who  fell  into  their 
power,  and  called  upon  the  neighboring  Spaniards  to  protect  them.  The 
latter  sent  troops  to  seize  all  the  fortresses  in  the  valley.  The  French 
government  demanded  their  evacuation  from  the  court  of  Madrid,  and  a 
treaty  to  that  effect  was  signed  the  following  spring,  but  never  executed. 
The  insignificant  king,  Philip  III.,  died  in  March,  1621,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Philip  IV.,  then  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  death  of 
Paul  v.,  a  month  or  two  before,  had  transferred  the  papal  crown  to  the 
head  of  Gregory  XV.,  who  wore  it  only  two  years. 

321.  Eichelieu  became  cardinal  in  1622,  but  his  reign  in  France  began 
two  years  later  with  his  appointment  in  the  royal  Council.  In  spite  of 
some  personal  weaknesses  of  character,  he  was  the  ablest  statesman  whom 
France  has  produced.  His  clear  and  well  defined  policy  coincided  in 
some  points  with  that  of  Henry  IV.  and  Sully,  especially  in  his  unre- 
lenting hostility  to  the  House  of  Austria.  With  this  motive,  he  favored 
the  Protestants  of  England,  Holland,  and  Germany,  though  he  made  war 
upon  those  of  France.  For  his  injurious  treatment  of  the  latter,  reason 
may  be  found  in  the  second  great  principle  of  his  policy,  namely,  the 
consolidation  of  royal  power  and  suppression  of  the  feudal  aristocracy. 
The  chiefs  of  the  Huguenots,  it  has  been  seen,  affected  to  act  as  sover- 
eign princes  in  their  own  dominions  ;  they  coined  money,  held  courts,  and 
inflicted  penalties  without  reference  to  the  royal  tribunals ;  and  it  was 
not  until  Richelieu's  administration  that  the  long  struggle  between  the 


AFFAIRS  OF  FRANCE.  249 

king  and  the  nobles,  begun  in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Capets,  ended  in 
the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  king,  or  rather,  in  the  present  case,  of  his 
prime  minister.  The  death-blow  of  feudal  tyranny  dnd  private  wars  was 
given  by  the  destruction  of  all  castles  and  fortresses  not  upon  the  fron- 
tiers, or  otherwise  needful  for  the  general  protection. 

322.  Among  his  first  measures  were  a  new  alliance  with  Holland,  whose 
twelve  years*  truce  with  Spain  had  but  recently  expired  ;  a  marriage  of 
Henrietta  Maria,  youngest  sister  of  the  king,  with  Charles  Stuart,  heir  of 
the  English  crown ;  and  an  interference  to  wrest  the  Valtelline  from  the 
Spaniards,  or  rather  from  the  Pope  (now  Urban  VHI.,  1623-1644),  who 
held  that  territory  for  them.      A  combined  army  of  Swiss 

and  French  entered  the  valley  and  quickly  drove  out  the 
papal  troops.     Genoa,  the  faithful  ally  of  Spain,  was  the  next  object  of 
attack ;  but  at  this  moment  a  fresh  insurrection  of  the  Huguenots  called 
off'  the  Dutch  naval  forces  in  alliance  with  France  to  a  siege  of  the  Isle 
of  Re,  which  guards  the  harbor  of  Eochelle. 

323.  With  consummate  art,  Richelieu  disengaged  himself  from  a  knot 
of  perplexities.  He  used  the  English  influence  to  pacify  the  Huguenots ; 
he  ratified  a  treaty  with  Spain  by  which  the  affairs  of  the  Valtelline  were 
restored  to  nearly  the  condition  in  which  they  had  been  before  the  inva- 
sion of  1620 ;  he  consoled  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  had  coveted  the  dis- 
puted territory,  with  the  hope  of  a  royal  title,  and  conciliated  the 
English,  who  were  reasonably  offended  by  being  made  tools  in  matters 
with  which  they  had  no  interest,  with  the  promise  of  a  large  French 
army  to  aid  in  restoring  the  elector  Frederic  to  his  lost  Palatinate. 

324.  Friendly  relations  did  not  long  continue  between  England  and 
France.  Charles  I.  became  king  by  the  sudden  death  of  his  father  in 
March,  1625;  and  his  marriage  with  the  princess  Henrietta  Maria  was 
celebrated  by  proxy  at  Paris  a  few  weeks  later.  By  the  terms  of  the 
treaty,  the  queen  was  accompanied  to  England  by  her  own  clergy ;  but 
these,  instead  of  confining  themselves  to  the  duties  of  their  oflfice,  de- 
stroyed by  their  intrigues  the  peace  of  the  court.  By  their  advice  and 
in  their  company  the  queen  made  a  pious  pilgrimage  to  Tyburn,  where, 
indeed,  some  Catholics  had  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII. ,  but  which  was  now  the  place  of  execution  for  the  lowest  criminals. 
In  consequence  of  this  undignified  proceeding,  all  the  French  attendants 
of  Henrietta  Maria  were  dismissed  from  the  kingdom.  The  French  court 
apologized  for  their  conduct,  and  Charles  thereupon  permitted  twelve 
French  priests  and  a  bishop  to  be  attached  to  his  wife's  household. 

325.  But  hostile  movements  had  gone  too  far  to  be  arrested.  The 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  a  favorite  of  Charles  I.,  was  sent  with  a  great  fleet 
to  capture  the  forts  upon  the  Isle  of  Re,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  be- 
siegers.     He  proved  himself  no  less  contemptible  as  a  general  than  as 


250  MODERN  HISTORY. 

a  man,  and  the  only  result  of  his  ill-starred  expedition  was  to  hasten  the 
reduction  of  Rochelle,  long  contemplated  by  Richelieu.  This  remarkable 
prelate  and  statesman  now  discovered  the  highest  qualities  of  generalship. 
Across  the  inlet  to  the  harbor  he  constructed  a  mole,  which  he  fortified 
with  strong  earthworks  and  cannon,  cutting  off  all  access  from  the  sea, 
while  a  besieging  army  equally  prevented  the  entrance  of  supplies  by 
land.  The  starving  citizens  saw  two  English  fleets  approach  for  their 
relief,  and,  after  ineffectually  cannonading  the  mole,  disappear  in  the 
offing.  Upon  the  second  of  these  disappointments,  the  town 
°^'  '  '  surrendered,  and  the  king  entered  in  triumph.  The  victory 
was  used  with  moderation.  Richelieu  had  previously  declared  that  the 
time  of  martyrdom  for  conscience  was  past,  and  that  his  Majesty  waged 
war,  not  with  Huguenots,  but  with  rebels.  As  an  insurgent  city,  Rochelle 
was  deprived  of  its  political  privileges,  but  the  people  were  confirmed  in 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  The  fall  of  Montauban  in  August  of 
the  next  year,  completed  the  extinction  of  the  Huguenots  as  a  party  in 
the  state. 

326.  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  died  in  April,  1625.  He  was  succeeded 
as  Captain-General  of  the  United  Provinces  by  his  brother  Frederic 
Henry,  who  was  also  elected  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  West 
Friesland.  About  the  same  time  King  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  entered 
into  the  wars  of  Germany  by  accepting  an  appointment  as  military  chief 
of  the  Circle  of  Lower  Saxony,  and  marching  an  army  from  the  Elbe 
to  the  Weser.  He  was  defeated  by  Tilly  near  Hanover,  and  the  first 
campaign  was  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  imperialists.  In  the  spring  of 
1626,  Wallenstein,  now  Duke  of  Friedland  and  a  prince  of  the  Empire, 
marched  into  the  north  with  an  army  which  he  avowedly  supported  by 
plunder  or  by  billeting  it  in  free  quarters  upon  the  people.  Fortunately 
a  jealousy  between  Wallenstein  and  Tilly  prevented  their  acting  in  con- 
cert. The  former,  turning  to  the  east,  pursued  Count  Mansfeld,  while 
the  latter  captured  Miinden  in  Hanover,  prevented  the  junction  of  the 
Danish  king  with  the  Saxon  dukes,  and  finally  defeated  him  with  great 
loss  at  Lutter. 

327.  The  next  spring,  Wallenstein  again  advanced  northward,  his  free- 
booting  army  preceded  and  accompanied  by  bands  of  gypsies,  who  con- 
cealed themselves  in  the  woods  and  plundered  farms  and  houses  as  they 
had  opportunity.  The  king  of  Denmark  was  forced  to  retreat  into  his 
own  dominions,  and  even  to  abandon  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Jutland 
to  the  two  imperial  armies.  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden,  still  engaged 
in  his  war  with  Poland,  could  render  little  assistance  except  by  prevent- 
ing that  country  from  sending  aid  to  the  imperialists.  Wallenstein 
greatly  respected  his  talents,  and  tried  to  draw  him  into  a  treaty  for  the 
partition   of  the  Danish  dominions;    Sweden  to  gain  Norway   and   the 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  251 

province  of  Schonen,  while  either  the  emperor  or  Wallenstein  himself 
would  receive  Denmark,  with  the  control  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  Gustavus 
rejected  his  overtures,  and  joined  Christian  IV.  in  aiding  Stralsund 
when  besieged  by  the  imperial  forces.  The  failure  of  this 
siege  was  a  check  upon  the  victorious  career  of  Wallen- 
stein,  who  was  forced  to  withdraw  with  a  loss  of  nearly  half  his  army. 
Tilly  was  at  the  same  time  weakened  by  the  detachment  of  troops  to 
Italy,  and  Christian  IV.  was  able  to  drive  him  successively  from  Jutland, 
Holstein,  and  Schleswig.  The  treaty  of  Lubec,  May,  1629,  restored  peace 
between  Denmark  and  the  Empire.  Christian  abandoned  his  late  allies, 
and  engaged  to  take  no  part  in  German  affairs  except  in  his  quality  as 
Duke  of  Holstein. 

328.  Among  the  most  diflScult  questions  raised  by  the  Reformation  in 
Germany  was  that  which  related  to  ecclesiastical  property.  Much  of  this 
had  been  bestowed,  centuries  ago,  under  conditions  of  tribute  and  obedi- 
ence to  the  Roman  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  protestant  sovereigns, 
as  well  as  the  heirs  and  descendants  of  donors,  claimed  their  right  to 
control  the  disposition  of  benefices.  The  imperial  Edict  of  Restitution, 
enacted  by  Ferdinand  II.  in  1629,  deprived  Protestants  of  all  church 
property  of  which  they  had  become  possessed  since  the  Peace  of  Passau. 
Two  of  the  most  important  bishoprics  so  held  —  those  of  Halberstadt  and 
Magdeburg  —  were  bestowed  upon  the  emperor's  brother,  who  already  held 
a  plurality  of  sees.  In  many  protestant  cities  the  churches  were  closed, 
and  even  private  worship  forbidden.  So  vast  were  the  financial  interests 
involved,  that  the  Edict,  if  enforced,  would  have  destroyed  all  commercial 
security  in  the  Empire. 

329.  At  this  juncture  the  German  princes  were  singularly  lacking  in 
spirit  and  patriotism.  The  true  champion  both  of  civil  and  religious 
rights  was  the  king  of  Sweden,  who,  with  the  secret  aid  of  France,  now 
appeared  as  a  principal  actor  upon  the  scene.  Richelieu,  who  held  the 
balance  of  European  affairs,  gladly  saw  the  imperial  power  weakened  by 
the  religious  dissensions  in  Germany,  though  his  position  as  cardinal  and 
minister  of  a  Catholic  king  prevented  his  making  open  war  in  the  prot- 
estant interests.  He  had,  however,  negotiated  the  truce  between  Sweden 
and  Poland  which  set  Gustavus  Adolphus  free  to  prosecute  his  designs 
in  the  Empire;  and  he  urged  upon  that  sovereign  the  subsidies  and  close 
alliance  of  the  French  court.  These  were  at  first  rejected,  but  a  few 
months  later  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Beerwald  in  Neumark,  binding  the 
two  powers  for  five  years  to  mutual  aid  and  cooperation.  The  most 
prudent  of  the  Swedish  Council  admitted  the  necessity  of  the  war.  Late 
movements  of  Wallenstein  toward  the  supreme  control  of  the  Baltic, 
threatened  their  commerce,  while  the  support  rendered  to  Sigismund  of 
Poland  in  his  claim  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  and  the  contemptuous  and 


252  MODEHN  HISTORY. 

even  violent  exclusion  of  Swedish  embassadors  from  the  Congress  of  Lu- 
bec,  were  flagrant  insults  to  their  king. 

330,  Thus  convinced  of  the  justice  of  his  cause,  Gustavus  "set  his 
house  in  order  like  a  dying  man."  Intrusting  the  government  to  a 
Council  of  Regency,  and  commending  his  daughter  and  heiress,  Chris- 
tina, then  but  four  years  old,  to  the  care  and  fidelity  of  the  estates,  he 
set  sail  from  Sweden,  which  he  was  never  again  to  behold,  and  landed, 
June  24,  on  the  island  of  Rugen  in  Pomerania.  The  moment  was  favor- 
.   ^  ,    „  able  to  the  invasion.    The  Diet  at  Ratisbon  had  iust  secured 

A.  D.  1630.  '' 

the  dismissal  of  Wallenstein,  whose  brutal  tyrannies  and  ex- 
tortions had  exhausted  the  patience  even  of  his  own  party,  while  his 
ascendency  over  the  emperor  enraged  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  his 
haughty  assumption  of  sovereign  state  offended  all  the  princes  of  the 
League. 

Most  of  his  officers  quitted  the  imperial  service  upon  the  retirement 
of  their  chief,  and  Tilly,  who  succeeded  him  in  command,  found  the 
army  diminished  even  more  in  effective  force  than  in  numbers.  Still 
the  arrival  of  the  Swedes  attracted  little  attention  in  Vienna,  where  it 
was  predicted  that  the  "Snow-King"  would  never  dare  venture  far  from 
his  own  frozen  dominions.  But  while  the  courtiers  mocked,  Gustavus  ad- 
vanced, the  fortresses  of  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg  falling,  one  after 
another,  into  his  possession.  In  vain  the  imperial  generals  laid  waste  the 
whole  country,  even  burning  towns  and  villages  to  prevent  their  affording 
shelter  and  support  to  the  Swedes.  The  perfect  order  and  discipline  of 
the  latter  won  the  hearts  of  the  people,  who  were  surprised  to  find  all 
their  rights  respected  by  the  invading  army. 

331.  The  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg  declined  the  Swedish 
king's  proposal  of  cooperation,  and  even  resisted  his  progress.  The  former 
claimed  by  hereditary  right  the  leadership  of  the  German  Protestants — 
a  post  which  he  had  not  the  ability  to  maintain ;  while  the  latter,  though 
a  brother-in-law  of  the  Swedish  king,  was  actuated  more  by  jealousy  and 
cowardice  than  by  an  enlightened  regard  to  the  interests  of  his  people. 
Thus  unsupported  by  the  princes  of  northern  Germany,  Gustavus  was 
reluctantly  compelled  to  leave  the  important  city  of  Magdeburg  to  its 
fate.  This  ancient  seat  of  an  archbishopric  had  become  one  of  the  first 
and  firmest  strongholds  of  the  Reformation  under  princes  of  the  House 
of  Brandenburg.  Its  magistrates  had  resisted  the  Edict  of  Restitution 
and  the  investiture  of  Leopold  of  Styria,  (§§  316,  328)  and  in  1629  the 
walls  had  sustained  a  seven  months'  bombardment  by  the  imperial  army. 
It  was  now  besieged  anew  by  Tilly,  and  upon  its  capture  thirty  thousand 
citizens  were  massacred.  Hordes  of  savage  Croats  and  not  less  brutal 
Walloons  were  let  loose  upon  the  miserable  inhabitants ;  and  their  rav- 
ages were  only  interrupted  by  the  smoke  and  flames,  which  in  a  brief 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.  253 

time  consumed  the  entire  city,  except  the  Cathedral  and  a  few  houses 
in  its  neighborhood. 

332.  Both  armies  being  largely  reinforced,  Tilly  with  150,000  men, 
marched  into  Saxony,  ravaging  and  plundering  with  his  usual  ferocity. 
When  the  elector  heard  that  two  hundred  of  his  villages  were  in  flames, 
he  was  at  length  willing  to  ally  himself  with  Gustavus  Adolphus,  whom 
he  joined  with  18,000  men.  The  battle  of  Leipzig,  which  immediately 
followed,  resulted  in  a  brilliant  victory  to  the  Swedes,  while 

it  revealed  the  long  hidden  decline  of  the  Austrian  power.  *  ' 

So  complete  was  the  rout  of  the  imperialists,  that  scarcely  two  thousand 
could  be  rallied  for  the  retreat  to  Halle  ;  and  all  their  guns  remained 
to  the  victor.  Germany  was  at  the  mercy  of  Gustavus ;  nothing  impeded 
his  march  to  Vienna,  and  he  might  apparently  have  ended  the  war  by 
striking  directly  at  the  heart  of  his  foe.  But  he  had  higher  views  than 
conquest,  and  believed  that  he  could  better  secure  the  religious  freedom 
of  the  Empire  by  entering  the  territories  of  the  League,  where,  in  every 
state,  a  minority  were  still  struggling  for  the  rights  of  conscience.  Leav- 
ing the  conquest  of  Bohemia  to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  he  took  the  road 
through  Franconia  to  the  Rhine.  All  the  important  towns  and  fortresses 
were  taken,  in  scarcely  more  time  than  would  have  been  required  for  an 
ordinary  tour  of  pleasure.  Many  of  them  gladly  opened  their  gates  and 
welcomed  the  invader  as  a  deliverer. 

333,  The  Spanish  garrison  of  Mentz  surrendered  Dec.  13,  and  that  town 
became  the  Swedish  head-quarters.  At  Christmas,  the  "  Snow-King  "  was 
firmly  established  on  the  Rhine,  attended  by  his  queen,  his  chancellor, 
and  a  brilliant  court  of  princes  and  embassadors.  But  his  unexpected 
approach  to  the  French  frontier  had  alarmed  the  suspicions  of  Louis 
XIII.,  while  Richelieu  began  to  fear  the  decline  of  his  own  influence  in 
the  Empire.  The  elector  of  Treves,  declining  the  Swedish  protection, 
admitted  a  French  garrison  into  Ehrenbreitstein,  ceding  to  that  nation 
a  coveted  foothold  on  the  Rhine,  which  was  not  soon  relinquished.  Hav- 
ing driven  all  the  Spaniards  from  the  Palatinate,  Gustavus  returned  into 
Franconia.  Nuremberg  received  him  with  acclamations  of  joy  as  the 
protector  of  German  liberty.  Thence  marching  to  the  Danube,  he  cap- 
tured Donauwerth,  and  pursued  the  imperial  army  to  the  Lech,  which 
alone  separated  him  from  Bavaria. 

The  river,  though  narrow,  was  deep,  rapid,  and  now  swollen  by  the 
melting  of  the  winter  snows.  Tilly  occupied  a  strongly  fortified  camp  on 
the  Bavarian  side ;  the  Swedish  council  of  war  declared  his  position  too 
strong  to  be  attacked,  but  the  king,  who  had  personally  reconnoitered 
the  whole  region,  had  his  own  plan  of  operations,  which  proved  eminently 
successful.  Placing  his  artillery  at  a  bend  of  the  river  where  the  height 
of  the  bank  gave  him  a  great  advantage  over  the  imperialists,  he  ordered 


264  MODERN  HISTORY. 

a  tremendous  cannonade  upon  the  enemy's  camp.  Under  cover  of  the 
smoke  and  noise,  he  then  caused  a  bridge  to  be  constructed,  while  the 
Bavarians  were  kept  from  interfering  by  the  terrible  precision  with  which 
the  Swedish  guns  swept  the  opposite  bank.  Tilly  received  a  mortal  wound, 
and  Maximilian,  abandoning  the  defense  of  his  frontier,  retired  to  Ingol- 
stadt. 

334.  The  humiliated  emperor  was  compelled  to  recall  Wallenstein. 
That  general,  who  had  been  secretly  aiding  the  Saxon  conquest  of  Bo- 
hemia for  the  sake  of  forcing  this  very  necessity  upon  his  ungrateful 
master,  now  feigned  a  haughty  reluctance,  and  finally  consented  to  serve 
only  upon  conditions  which  were  both  injurious  and  insulting  to  the  em- 
peror. He  demanded  to  be  absolute  Dictator;  no  prince  of  the  House 
of  Austria  was  to  be  with  the  army,  no  appointments  made,  and  no 
orders  given  by  Ferdinand ;  all  confiscated  estates  were  to  be  at  the 
disposal  of  Wallenstein.  Revenge  and  ambition  had  made  him  a  traitor ; 
and  he  accepted  the  imperial  commission  only  as  a  stepping-stone  to  sov- 
ereignty. 

335.  The  magic  of  his  name  drew  together  a  powerful  army,  and  Bo- 
hemia was  speedily  reconquered;  but  the  Swedish  king  had  meanwhile 
entered  Augsburg  and  received  the  homage  of  its  citizens,  then  pressed 
on  and  occupied  the  Bavarian  capital.  In  vain  the  emperor  begged  a 
few  regiments  to  relieve  Bavaria  and  thus  avert  danger  from  Austria 
itself.  Wallenstein  could  not  forego  the  opportunity  of  revenge  upon  his 
bitterest  enemy.  At  last  he  consented  to  a  formal  reconciliation  with 
Maximilian,  and  adding  the  Bavarian  forces  to  his  own  —  for  he  still 
insisted  upon  the  undivided  authority  —  he  followed  Gustavus  to  Nurem- 
berg, and  fortified  a  camp  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Swedish  lines.  Nine 
weeks  the  two  armies  which  held  in  their  hands  the  destinies  of  Germany, 
remained  facing  each  other,  while  hunger  and  pestilence  waged,  with  both, 
a  more  destructive  warfare  than  the  sword.  At  length  the  Swedish  king, 
failing  to  draw  his  enemy  into  a  battle  on  equal  ground,  stormed  his  in- 
trenchments  and  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  several  thousands  of  men. 
He  soon  withdrew  into  Bavaria,  and  Wallenstein  gladly  saw  the  Swedish 
forces  engaged  in  humbling  his  rival,  while  he  himself  turned  to  pursue 
his  designs  upon  Saxony.  A  revolt  of  the  Austrian  peasants  opened  a 
way  for  Gustavus  to  the  imperial  capital,  but  again  he  sacrificed  his  own 
interests  to  the  demands  of  his  Saxon  ally. 

336.  Making  a  rapid  movement  to  the  northward,  he  collected  fresh 
forces  in  Franconia,  and  on  the  evening  of  November  15,  arrived  upon 

the  plain  of  Lutzen,  where  Wallenstein  Avas  already  posted 

to  receive   him.      The   next   morning  the   whole   Swedish 

army,  kneeling,  joined  in  the  devotions  of  their  king,  and  then  broke 

forth  in  singing  Luther's  hymn,  ^^Eine  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gotty     The 


DEATH  OF  G USTA  VUS  ADOLPHUS.  255 

two  greatest  generals  in  Europe  were  for  the  first  time  to  meet  on 
equal  terQis,  and  every  soldier  felt  that  the  fate  of  the  Empire  hung 
upon  the  issue.  Three  imperial  brigades  were  put  to  flight  by  the 
impetuous  valor  of  the  Swedes,  but  the  word  and  example  of  Wal- 
lenstein  were  sufiicient  to  rally  them  and  lead  them  anew  to  the 
contest.  A  colonel  of  Swedish  cavalry  having  been  wounded,  the  king 
took  command  in  person,  and  charging  the  enemy  in  advance  of  his 
whole  army,  received  a  mortal  wound.  His  men,  now  led  by  Duke  Bern- 
hard  of  Saxe  Weimar,  were  inspired  by  a  fury  of  revenge,  and  after  nine 
hours'  obstinate  fighting,  the  troops  of  Wallenstein  were  withdrawn.  Te 
Deums  were  indeed  chanted  as  for  a  victory  in  all  the  Spanish  and  Aus- 
trian dominions,  but  the  field,  with  the  imperial  artillery,  remained  to 
the  Swedes. 

337.  The  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  a  grief  to  Christendom. 
Never  was  king  or  general  more  beloved;  he  hated  flattery  and  de- 
manded absolute  sincerity  from  all  with  whom  he  dealt,  but  he  was 
careful  to  give  every  man  his  due  proportion  of  praise,  and  never  forgot 
a  brave  deed  done  in  his  service.  His  death  completed  the  beneficent 
results  of  his  life,  for  in  the  general  consternation,  the  hitherto  inert 
powers  of  Germany  were  roused  to  self-defense,  and  the  united  energy 
of  the  many  was  better  than  the  all-absorbing  authority  of  one,  however 
disinterested  was  his  devotion  to  the  common  cause.  It  is  possible,  too, 
that  a  longer  career  would  have  revealed  lower  motives  than  had  yet 
appeared  in  the  conduct  of  Gustavus.  His  failure  to  restore  the  Pala- 
tinate to  Frederic  Y.,  his  acceptance  of  sovereign  honors  at  Augsburg, 
his  apparent  intention  to  establish  a  Swedish  kingdom  in  the  heart  of 
the  Empire,  or  even  to  grasp  for  himself  the  imperial  crown,  awakened 
anxiety  in  the  lovers  of  German  independence,  lest  they  might  have 
exchanged  an  Austrian  for  a  foreign  despot.  As  yet,  however,  no  un- 
worthy act  had  sullied  the  brightness  of  his  fame.  A  German  poet  has 
celebrated  him  as  the  "  first  and  only  just  conqueror  that  the  world  has 
produced." 

ie,EC^:piTTjx.^Ti03sr. 

War  of  France  for  the  "Valtelline.  Accession  of  Pope  Gregor^'^  XV.,  of  Philip  IV.  in 
Spain,  of  Frederic  Henry  of  Nassau  in  Holland.  Richelieu  prime  minister  in  France; 
opposes  the  Hapsburgs ;  captures  Rochelle  and  Montauban ;  ends  the  political  existence 
of  the  Huguenots ;  completes  the  consolidation  of  the  monarchy.  Intervention  of  Den- 
mark in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Lubec.  Edict  of  Restitution  of 
confiscated  church  property.  Franco-Swedish  intervention.  Invasion  of  Germany  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  Dismissal  of  Wallenstein.  Sack  and  massacre  at  ISIagdeburg  by  the 
soldiers  of  Tilly.  Victory  of  the  Swedes  at  Leipsic.  Swedish  head-quarters  at  Mentz. 
Defeat  of  Tilly  on  the  Lech,  and  invasion  of  Bavaria.  Recall  of  Wallenstein  with  dic- 
tatorial powers.  Encampment  of  both  armies  at  Nuremberg.  Battle  of  Lutzen ;  victory 
and  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 


256  MODERN  HISTORY. 


Thirty  Years'  ^Y a.^.— Concluded. 

338.  A  congress  at  Heilbronn  of  the  four  Circles  of  Southern  Germany 

with  the  embassadors  of  France,  England,  and  Holland,  conferred  upon 

Count  Oxenstiern  the  same  dignity  which  his  master  had 
March,  1633.         ,    ,  ,  .     .  ,.     ,  . 

held  as  protector  or   the  protestant  interests  in  opposition 

to  the  emperor  and  the  League.    The  unfortunate  elector-palatine  having 

died  since  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  his  reconquered  estates  were  now  secured 

to  his  heirs  under  the  guardianship  of  their  uncle,  Louis  Philip.     The 

bishoprics  of  Bamberg  and  Wurtzburg  were  formed  into  the  duchy  of 

Franconia,  and  conferred,  as  a  fief  of  the  Swedish  crown,  upon  Duke 

Bernhard  of  Weimar.     Beside  the  conquest  of  these  territories,  the  duke 

made  the  important  capture  of  Ratisbon,  during  the  campaign  of  1633, 

thus  gaining  the  command  of  the  Danube. 

339.  The  fall  of  Wallenstein  was  soon  to  follow.  His  designs  upon 
the  crown  of  Bohemia  were  more  than  suspected,  and  a  numerous  and 
powerful  party  both  at  court  and  in  the  army,  demanded  his  dismissal. 
Informed  by  spies  of  the  decision  of  the  imperial  Council,  Wallenstein 
assembled  his  principal  officers  at  Pilsen  and  obtained  their  signatures  to  a 
paper  in  which  they  promised  to  stand  by  him  to  the  last  drop  of  their 
blood.  What  could  not  have  been  effected  by  open  force  was,  however, 
accomplished  by  deception.  Ferdinand  kept  up  a  friendly  correspondence 
with  his  doomed  victim,  even  after  orders  had  been  distributed  through 
the  army  releasing  officers  and  soldiers  from  their  obedience,  and  requir- 
ing that  he  should  be  brought,  alive  or  dead,  into  the  imperial  presence. 
The  Italian  general  Piccolomini,  whom  Wallenstein  regarded  as  his  best 
friend,  acted  under  secret  orders  from  the  court  to  incite  the  soldiery 
against  him  and   lay  snares  for  his  life.    The  murder  was  accomplished 

at  Wallenstein's  own  quarters  in  Eger,  by  some  officers  of 
an  Irish  regiment.  His  confiscated  estates  rewarded  the 
more  distinguished  of  his  assassins.  The  emperor,  who  had  twice  owed 
his  crown  to  the  man  whom  he  had  thus  illegally  and  violently  put  to 
death,  publicly  thanked  and  praised  the  instruments  of  the  crime,  while 
he  ordered  three  thousand  masses  to  be  sung  for  the  soul  of  its  victim. 

340.  King  Ferdinand  of  Bohemia  assumed  the  command-in-chief  of  the 
army,  which,  in  the  summer  of  1634,  took  Donauwerth  and  threatened 
Nordlingen.  The  Swedish  general  Horn,  who  had  been  detached  to  guard 
the  passes  of  the  Tyrolese  Alps,  was  compelled  to  rejoin  Duke  Bernhard, 
and  leave  the  way  open  for  the  advance  of  the  Cardinal  Infant,  Ferdi- 
nand of  Spain,  with  an  army  from  Italy,  This  warlike  prelate  was  said  to 
be  the  first  Spanish  prince  since  John  of  Austria  who  had  possessed  any 
military  talent.  He  joined  King  Ferdinand  under  the  walls  of  Nord- 
lingen, and  a  great  battle  was  fought  (Aug.  26,  27),  which  ended  in  the 


TREATY  OF  PRAGUE,  2b'l 

complete  and  ruinous  overthrow  of  the  Swedish  army.  Horn  and  three 
other  generals,  with  6,000  men,  were  prisoners;  12,000  lay  dead  upon  the 
field,  while  80  guns,  300  standards,  and  4,000  wagons  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victors. 

341.  The  Swedes  were  now  reluctantly  compelled  to  buy  the  active  aid 
of  the  French  by  favoring  the  annexation  of  Alsace  by  Louis  XIII.  Lor- 
raine had  already  been  forcibly  annexed,  and  a  "  Parliament  of  Austrasia" 
was  duly  instituted  at  Metz.  The  conquered  duke,  Charles,  abdicated  in 
favor  of  his  brother,  the  cardinal  Nicholas  Francis,  and  entering  the  im- 
perial service,  became  a  valiant  and  successful  general,  instead  of  a  faith- 
less and  unfortunate  sovereign.  The  French  court  made  a  close  alliance 
the  same  year  with  Prince  Frederic  Henry  of  Nassau  for  a  simultaneous 
invasion  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  from  north  and  south.  These  prov- 
inces were  invited  to  form  an  independent  state,  ceding  a  liberal  tract  of 
their  territories  on  either  side  to  the  two  neighboring  nations  by  whose 
aid  their  deliverance  from  the  Spaniards  was  to  be  achieved.  If  they 
refused  this  offer,  they  were  to  be  conquered  and  divided  between  Holland 
and  France. 

342.  Philipsburg  on  the  Ehine  had  already  been  wrested  by  the  Span- 
iards from  the  French;  and  in  March,  1635,  Treves  was  likewise  seized, 
its  French  garrison  destroyed,  and  the  elector  carried  away  as  prisoner  to 
Antwerp.  The  Cardinal  Infant,  failing  to  surrender  him  upon  the  demand 
of  Richelieu,  war  was  declared  against  Spain  by  a  French  herald  at  Brus- 
sels. The  elector  was  already  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  for  having 
admitted  French  troops  into  Ehrenbreitstein ;  and  he  was  soon  conveyed 
to  Vienna,  where  he  remained  in  captivity  ten  years. 

343.  The  elector  of  Saxony,  long  wavering,  decided  after  the  battle  of 
Nordlingen  to  make  his  peace  with  the  emperor.  All  the  German  states, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  acceded  in  time  to  the  Treaty  of 

Prague,  though  all  joined  in  condemning  the  base  ingrati-  ^' 

tude  of  John  George  of  Saxony,  in  defense  of  whose  dominions  the  king 
of  Sweden  had  lost  his  life,  but  who  engaged,  by  a  special  article  of  the 
treaty,  to  assist  in  driving  the  Swedes  out  of  Germany.  The  emperor 
made  many  concessions  with  regard  to  church  property  and  freedom  of 
worship,  except  in  Bohemia,  which  kingdom  was  now  declared  to  be  hered- 
itary in  his  family.  The  Swedes  refused  to  accept  the  treaty,  and  their 
own  propositions  to  the  Court  of  Vienna  were  disregarded.  The  Union  of 
Heilbronn  was  formally  dissolved. 

344.  Germany  being  thus  momentarily  pacified,  Piccolomini  entered 
the  Netherlands  with  20,000  men ;  while  the  imperial  army  of  the  Rhine 
drove  the  French  not  only  from  that  river  and  the  Neckar,  but  from  the 
lower  Moselle  and  Sarre.  Richelieu's  operations  in  the  Netherlands  and 
the  Milanese  were  not  more  successful ;  and  in  1636,  France  was  invaded 

M.  H.— 17. 


258  MODERN  HISTORY, 

on  four  sides  by  Spanish  and  imperial  troops,  though  with  no  great  effect. 
Bands  of  Croats  and  Hungarians  ravaged  the  northern  provinces  and  ter- 
rified Paris,  where  loud  complaints  began  to  be  heard  against  the  chief 
minister.  The  cardinal,  however,  quickly  raised  an  army  which  dislodged 
the  imperialists  from  Corbie  and  drove  them  from  the  country. 

345.  In  Germany,  Duke  Bernhard  of  Weimar  was  performing  brilliant 
feats  of  arms  in  the  service  of  France,  while  the  Swedes,  under  Banner,  in 
spite  of  one  or  two  reverses,  were  so  far  from  being  expelled  that  they  de- 
feated the  faithless  elector  of  Saxony  at  Domitz  and  still  more  decisively 

at  Wittstock.  The  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  died  at  Vienna, 
Feb.,  1637.  ^ 

and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand  III.  More  toler- 
ant by  nature,  and  less  influenced  by  the  Spaniards  and  the  Jesuits  than 
his  father,  the  new  emperor  had  also  been  a  personal  witness  of  the 
misery  and  desolation  wrought  by  the  war,  and  began  his  reign  with  an 
ardent  desire  for  peace.  Military  movements  were,  however,  prosecuted 
with  unabated  zeal,  and  Banner  was  compelled  not  only  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Leipzig,  but  to  effect  a  retreat  into  Pomerania  by  a  series  of 
adventures  and  escapes  which  seem  to  belong  rather  to  romance  than 
history. 

346.  The  great  heroes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  —  Tilly,  Wallenstein, 
Gustavus  Adolphus  —  had  all  passed  away,  and  though  the  conflict  con- 
tinued eleven  years  longer,  with  ever-increasing  atrocity,  its  details  are 
more  hideous  than  instructive.  The  admirable  discipline  maintained 
among  the  Swedes  by  their  king  was  now  dissolved;  even  the  profli- 
gate Banner  declared  that  it  would  be  no  wonder  if  the  earth  should 
open  and  swallow  them  up  for  their  crimes  and  cruelties.  The  Ger- 
man armies,  on  the  other  hand,  lived  without  a  commissariat,  and 
commonly  without  pay,  at  the  expense  of  the  wretched  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  through  which  they  passed.  Each  army  systematically  de- 
stroyed the  produce  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  starve  its  opponents;  the 
grand  weapon  of  the  war  in  Germany,  and  toward  its  last  years  the  ex- 
clusive one,  was  hunger — a  means  of  destruction  from  which  the  inno- 
cent, women  and  children,  suflTered  even  more  than  the  active  combatants. 

347.  In  the  latest  period  of  the  war  —  that  following  the  Treaty  of 
Prague  —  all  the  leading  European  states  were  more  or  less  actively  en- 
gaged. Duke  Bernhard  having  died  at  the  zenith  of  his  brilliant  career, 
all  his  conquests  on  the  upper  Rhine  were  absorbed  by  France.  The 
electoral  prince  of  the  Palatinate  was  aided  by  his  two  nearest  relatives, 
the  king  of  England  and  the  Prince  of  Orange ;  but  his  first  Dutch  army 
was  destroyed  by  the  imperialist  general  Hatzfeld,  and  his  brother  Ru- 
pert, afterward  unhappily  famous  in  England,  remained  some  years  a 
prisoner  in  Germany. 

348.  The  home-forces  of  Spain  were  for  a  time  absorbed  by  the  revolt 


HOUSE  OF  B  BAG  AN  g A  IN  PORTUGAL,  269 

of  Biscay  and  Catalonia.  The  intolerable  outrages  of  a  Spanish  army- 
quartered  in  those  provinces  during  the  French  campaign  of  1639-40, 
incensed  the  people ;  bands  of  half-savage  mountaineers,  repairing  to  Bar- 
celona to  hire  themselves  out  for  labor  in  the  fields,  caught  the  fury,  and 
by  a  sudden  impulse  every  Castilian  or  foreigner  in  the  city  was  mur- 
dered. The  insurgents  sent  to  all  the  European  powers  a  statement  of 
their  grievances  against  the  Spanish  government,  and  Louis  XIII.  en- 
gaged by  formal  treaty  to  provide  ofl&cers  and  troops  for  the  inevitable 
war.  A  Spanish  force  of  20,000  men  was  already  on  its  march  to  the 
Catalan  frontier,  marking  its  route  by  fire  and  massacre,  and  the  rebels 
soon  converted  their  treaty  with  France  into  an  act  of  perpetual  union 
with  that  kingdom. 

349.  The  liberation  of  Portugal  was  a  more  permanent  loss  to  Spain. 
This  conquered  kingdom  had  only  been  oppressed,  humiliated,  and  im- 
poverished by  its  sixty  years'  subjection  to  the  Spanish  crown.  Her 
commerce  with  the  Indies  was  crippled,  her  navy  destroyed,  and  her 
people  crushed  with  taxes  which  went  to  build  needless  palaces  for  the 
Spanish  kings.  On  receiving  a  command  to  march  against  the  Catalans, 
the  Portuguese  nobles  and  officers  resolved  rather  to  imitate  those  in- 
surgents. The  foreign  guards  of  Lisbon  and  the  vice-queen's  palace  were 
cut  down ;  the  Duke  of  Bragan§a,  a  descendant  of  the  an-  *  r>  iR^n 
cient  kings  of  Portugal,  was  proclaimed  sovereign  as  John 

IV.,  and  the  revolution  was  complete.  The  Portuguese  colonies,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Ceuta  in  Africa,  overpowered  their  Spanish  garrisons ; 
and  the  Cortes  assembled  in  1641  at  Lisbon  declared  the  right  of  every 
nation  to  depose  a  tyrant,  even  were  he  a  legitimate  monarch  and  not  a 
usurper  like  the  king  of  Spain.  Thus  was  founded  the  dynasty  which, 
in  its  royal  and  imperial  branches,  still  rules  Portugal  and  Brazil. 

350.  The  Spaniards  were  not  more  fortunate  upon  the  sea.  In  1638 
their  fleet  had  been  destroyed  by  the  French  in  Guetaria;  and  in  1639 
a  great  armada — the  most  powerful  they  had  sent  forth  since  that  "in- 
vincible" armament  which  had  threatened  England  —  was  likewise  an- 
nihilated by  the  Dutch.  Arras,  the  capital  of  Artois,  and  long  the  bul- 
wark of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  against  France,  was  captured  in  the 
same  year  with  Piedmont,  1640. 

351.  The  Swedes  had  more  than  retrieved  their  losses  in  1637.  The 
next  year  they  defeated  the  imperial  army  at  Elsterburg,  the  Saxons  at 
Chemnitz ;  captured  and  destroyed  Pirna,  and  spread  terror  and  desola- 
tion throughout  Bohemia,  where  more  than  a  thousand  castles,  hamlets, 
and  villages  were  laid  in  ashes.  The  campaigns  of  1639  and  1640  were 
sharply  contested,  and  the  advantages  were  more  evenly  divided.  In 
January,  1641,  Banner,  by  a  rapid  and  masterly  movement  through  the 
upper  Palatinate,  appeared  suddenly  before  Ratisbon,  where  a  Diet  was 


260  MODERN  HISTORY. 

in  session.  The  emperor  was  very  nearly  captured,  but  the  city  was  saved 
by  a  thaw  which  prevented  the  Swedes  from  crossing  the  Danube.  Ban- 
ner died  the  following  May. 

352.  General  Torstenson,  who  succeeded  him  in  command  of  the 
Swedes,  was  the  ablest  pupil  and  imitator  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He 
transferred  the  seat  of  war  to  the  Austrian  territories,  which  had  hitherto 
escaped  the  general  devastation;  captured  Glogau,  Schweidnitz,  Olmiitz, 
and  excited  terror  in  Vienna  itself.  He  besieged  Leipzig,  and  defeated 
the  archduke  Leopold,  who  was  approaching  for  its  relief,  on  the  very 
ground  which  Gustavus  Adolphus  had,  eleven  years  before,  made  famous  by 
a  decisive  victory.  The  town  surrendered  three  weeks  later,  and  redeemed 
itself  from  pillage  only  by  an  enormous  contribution.  A  severe  winter 
scarcely  impeded  the  energetic  movements  of  the  Swedes ;  the  imperialists 
were  forced  from  their  winter-quarters  to  defend  Freiberg;  but  scarcely 
had  Torstenson  raised  his  siege  of  that  town,  when  with  a  swift  and  unex- 
pected movement,  he  penetrated  through  Bohemia  and  relieved  Olmiitz, 
which  was  closely  pressed  by  their  forces.  His  fortified  camp  near  that 
place  commanded  the  whole  of  Moravia,  and  his  detachments  again  car- 
ried their  ravages  to  the  walls  of  Vienna. 

353.  The  French  on  the  lower  Khine,  meanwhile,  gained  a  victory  at 
Kempen  which  opened  to  them  the  whole  electorate  of  Cologne  and 
duchy  of  Jiiliers.     In  the  war  for  the  Catalans,  Louis  XIII.  besieged  and 

captured  Perpignan.  But  the  united  reign  of  the  king  and 
the  cardinal  was  near  its  end.  Richelieu  died  in  December 
and  Louis  the  following  May,  1643.  The  French  people,  generally  incapable 
of  comprehending  the  far-reaching  plans  of  the  great  minister,  celebrated 
his  death  with  bonfires  and  rejoicings.  Though  we  can  not  justify  the 
system  of  deceit  which  constituted  so  large  a  part  of  the  diplomacy  of 
the  age,  and  notably  of  Richelieu's  policy,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  sub- 
sequent ascendency  of  France  in  European  affairs  was  a  direct  result  of 
his  genius  and  resolution.  With  almost  his  last  breath  he  named  Mazarin 
as  his  successor,  and  that  Italian  cardinal  was  immediately  appointed  a 
member  of  the  royal  council.  Upon  the  death  of  the  king,  he  became  the 
prime  minister  of  the  queen  regent,  Anne  of  Austria. 

354.  Louis  XIV.,  now,  by  his  father's  death,  king  of  France,  was  not 
yet  five  years  old.  In  his  reign  of  seventy-two  years  —  the  longest  in 
European  annals  —  is  comprised  a  most  brilliant  and  eventful  epoch,  illus- 
trated not  less  by  the  variety  of  talent  employed  in  his  service  than  by 
his  own  amazing  proficiency  in  king-craft.  His  career  belongs,  however, 
to  the  ensuing  period  of  our  history.  The  young  Duke  d'Enghien,  after- 
ward known  as  the  "  great  Conde,"  was  now  giving  proof  of  his  consum- 
mate genius  in  his  command  of  the  French  forces  in  the  Netherlands. 
He  gained  a  decisive  victory  over   the  Spaniards  at  Rocroi,  and  soon 


END  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'   WAR.  261 

besieged  and  captured  Thionville,  the  key  to  Luxembourg  and  the  strong- 
est place,  excepting  Metz,  in  the  line  of  the  Moselle. 

355.  By  the  victories  of  Enghien  and  Turenne  in  1644,  the  French 
acquired  the  whole  valley  of  the  Rhine  from  Basle  to  Coblentz,  though 
they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  from  Freiburg.  The  next  year,  En- 
ghien, advancing  toward  the  Danube,  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Bavarian  general  Von  Mercy  on  the  heights  of  Nordlingen,  by  which 
that  town  and  Dinkelsbiihl  were  gained  for  France.  Turenne  not  only 
captured  many  towns  in  Flanders,  but  took  Treves,  and  restored  the  long- 
captive  elector  to  his  archbishopric.  In  1646,  Enghien  captured  Courtrai, 
Mardyk,  and  Dunkirk,  and  only  the  insanity  of  the  Prince  of  Orange 
prevented  greater  conquests  by  the  combined  forces  of  France  and  Hol- 
land. Turenne,  in  connection  with  the  Swedes,  pushed  his  operations  the 
same  year  to  the  gates  of  Munich^ 

356.  Sweden  had  become  involved  (1644)  in  a  war  with  Denmark,  by 
the  intrigues  of  the  emperor  and  of  the  Swedish  queen-dowager,  who  had 
been  excluded  from  the  regency  during  her  daughter's  minority.  The 
pretext  was  found  in  the  demand  of  the  Danish  government  for  a  pay- 
ment of  toll  by  Swedish  vessels  passing  into  the  Baltic — an  imposition 
from  which  they  had  been  exempted  by  special  treaty.  Denmark  was 
invaded  by  Torstenson,  and  the  whole  peninsula,  as  well  as  Schleswig  and 
Holstein,  was  speedily  overrun,  while  the  Danes  lost  also  their  province 
of  Schonen  and  the  towns  of  Helsingborg  and  Landscrona.  A  military 
force  sent  by  the  emperor  to  the  relief  of  his  ally,  was  annihilated  or 
dispersed,  with  the  exception  of  2,000  men  who  accomplished  their  retreat 
into  Germany. 

357.  Torstenson,  then  turning  his  attention  to  the  latter  country,  pene- 
trated Bohemia,  and  gained  at  Jankowitz,  over  the  imperialists,  one  of  the 
most  decisive  victories  of  the  whole  war.  The  young  queen,  Christina  of 
Sweden,  assumed  the  government  on  her  eighteenth  birthday  in  1644. 
Desiring  peace,  she  required  her  great  minister,  Oxenstiern,  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with  the  Danes,  and  in  August,  1645,  the  treaty  of  Bromsebro 
restored  tranquillity  between  the  two  kingdoms.  The  southern  provinces 
of  the  Swedish  peninsula,  so  long  held  by  Denmark,  were  relinquished, 
and  Swedish  vessels  were  exempted  from  all  tolls  in  the  Sound  or  Belts. 

358.  The  ancient  contest  for  Naples  and  the  duchy  of  Milan  had  been 
renewed  in  1635  by  the  declaration  of  war  between  France  and  Spain. 
In  1647,  Naples  revolted  and  besought  the  aid  of  France  in  expelling  the 
Spanish  viceroy  and  establishing  a  republic.  The  Duke  of  Guise  was 
offered  a  position  in  the  new  state  equivalent  to  that  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  in  Holland ;  but  as  a  descendant  of  the  French  house  of  Anjou, 
he  doubtless  intended  to  convert  his  protectorate  into  a  sovereignty; 
while   Cardinal  Mazarin  desired   rather  to  obtain  the  Neapolitan  crown 


262  MODERN  HISTORY. 

for  Louis  Xiy.  The  duke  was  received  at  Naples  with  joy  and  with  cries 
of  "  Long  live  the  Kepublic ! "  Philip  IV.,  engrossed  by  his 
operations  against  Portugal  and  Catalonia,  and  despairing  of 
making  good  his  title  to  so  distant  a  possession,  recalled  his  fleet;  but 
the  inactivity  of  the  French  revived  his  courage.  Another  armament  in 
1648  effected  a  restoration  of  Spanish  authority;  and  Guise,  taken  pris- 
oner at  Capua,  was  held  four  years  in  captivity  in  Spain. 

359.  Already  in  1641  movements  had  been  made  toward  a  general 
peace,  and  the  neighboring  towns  of  Miinster  and  Osnabriick  in  West- 
phalia were  appointed  for  the  meeting  of  commissioners  from  the  several 
nations.  More  than  a  year  was  wasted  in  disputes  concerning  minute 
points  of  etiquette ;  but  in  1643  the  two  congresses  —  one  of  protestant, 
the  other  of  Catholic  powers  —  were  formally  opened.     Not  only  all  the 

•great  nations  of  Europe,  except  England,  Poland,  and  Kussia;  but  the 
dukes  of  Savoy,  Mantua,  Tuscany,  Catalonia,  the  electors  and  all  the 
princes,  temporal  or  spiritual,  of  Germany,  had  their  ministers  either  at 
Miinster  or  Osnabriick.  England  was  absorbed  in  civil  war,  and  it  was 
fortunate  for  the  growth  of  her  liberties  that  the  continental  sovereigns 
were  prevented  from  interfering  in  behalf  of  the  divine  right  of  kings. 

360.  All  the  governments  were,  doubtless,  sincere  in  their  desire  for 
peace.  Ferdinand  TIL  was  at  the  end  of  his  resources;  a  large  part  of 
the  empire  was  still  in  arms  against  him  and  another  large  part  had  de- 
clared itself  neutral,  while  his  hereditary  states  were  reduced  to  poverty 
by  their  extraordinary  exertions.  Spain  had  lost  Portugal,  Catalonia, 
and  many  towns  in  the  Netherlands,  and  was  now  reduced  to  make  hu- 
miliating concessions  to  France.  This  power  and  Sweden  were  bent  on 
enriching  themselves  as  much  as  possible  from  the  crumbling  fragments 
of  the  empire.  Still,  so  many  and  conflicting  were  the  claims,  that  ne- 
gotiations were  protracted  more  than  five  years,  and  peace  appeared,  at 
many  points  in  the  conferences,  utterly  unattainable.  The  ministers  felt 
their  own  importance  increased  by  the  .continuance  of  the  discussion, 
while  the  generals  had  an  equal  professional  interest  in  the  prolongation 
of  the  war.  Disputes  concerning  the  right  of  precedence  between  the 
embassadors  of  France  and  Spain,  and  the  title  of  Excellency  borne  by 
the  Venetian  envoy  and  claimed  by  the  representatives  of  the  German 
electors,  wasted  precious  months  of  the  conference  at  Miinster,  while  that 
at  Osnabriick  was  wholly  suspended  during  the  war  between  Sweden  and 
Denmark. 

361.  At  length,  however,  the  rebellion  at  Naples  compelled  Spain  to 
urge  on  her  negotiations  with  the  United  Netherlands ;  and  a  peace  was 

signed  in  which  the   seven  provinces  (see  §   258)  were  ac- 
knowledged as  free  and  sovereign  states.     The  towns   of 
Dutch  Flanders,  as  well  as  all  the  conquests  of  the  Hollanders  in  Asia, 


PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA.  263 

Africa,  and  America,  were  made  over  to  the  new  Republic.  Thus  ended 
the  Eighty  Years'  War  of  Independence  sustained  by  the  northern  Neth- 
erlands against  the  power  of  Spain  —  a  power  by  far  the  greatest  in 
Europe  when  the  struggle  began,  now  crippled  and  reduced,  partly  by 
her  own  suicidal  policy,  partly  by  the  heroic  and  persistent  efforts  of 
her  former  subjects. 

362.  The  war  still  went  on  between  France  and  Sweden,  on  the  one 
hand  —  Spain  and  the  Empire,  on  the  other.  Turenne  and  Wrangel,  in 
command  of  a  Franco-Swedish  army,  defeated  the  imperialists  near  Augs- 
burg and  overran  Bavaria  with  all  the  customary  barbarities.  Conde 
gained,  at  Lens,  one  of  his  most  brilliant  victories  over  the  archduke 
Leopold ;  and  the  Swedish  generalissimo,  Charles  Gustavus,  advancing 
upon  Prague,  waged  an  indecisive  war  with  General  Konigsmark  of  the 
imperial  army.  Thus  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ended  upon  the  same  spot 
where  it  had  begun ;  for  the  emperor,  despairing  of  retrieving  his  fortunes 
by  a  longer  contest,  consented  to  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  while  the  con- 
ferences at  Miinster  were  pressed  to  a  conclusion.  The  Peace  of  West- 
phalia was  signed  Oct.  24,  1648. 

303.  In  Germany,  general  amnesty,  religious  freedom,  and  the  sovereign 
rights  of  the  several  princes  in  peace  and  war,  were  conceded  by  the  em- 
peror. The  Upper  Palatinate  remained  to  Maximilian  of  Bavaria ;  but 
the  "  Palatinate  of  the  Ehine,"  with  an  eighth  electoral  vote,  was  secured 
to  Charles  Louis,  the  son  of  the  deposed  elector  Frederic  V.  The  Dutch 
and  Swiss  republics,  hitherto  members  of  the  Empire,  were  recognized  as 
independent  states.  Sweden  received  Western  Pomerania,  Stettin,  and 
three  towns  on  the  Oder,  several  islands  and  the  bishoprics  of  Bremen  and 
Verden,  now  secularized  into  a  duchy  and  a  principality.  Her  sovereign 
thus  became  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  with  three  votes  in  the  Diet.  France 
was  confirmed  in  possession  of  all  the  lands  belonging  to  Metz,  Toul,  and 
Verdun,  of  Alsace,  the  Sundgau,  Breisach,  and  the  prefecture  of  ten  im- 
perial cities,  beside  the  fortress  of  Pignerol  in  Piedmont. 

364.  The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  marks  an  important  era  in  European 
history,  for  it  was  the  first  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  system  of  states  by 
diplomacy,  when  their  relations  had  been  seriously  disturbed.  It  defi- 
nitely closed  the  century  and  more  of  religious  and  consequent  civil  revo- 
lution ;  it  put  an  end  to  the  international  authority  of  the  emperor,  while 
it  loosened  the  bond  which  had  united  the  German  states.  Three  hundred 
petty  sovereignties  existed  between  the  Alps  and  the  Baltic,  each  with  its 
distinct  coinage,  its  standing  army,  its  custom-houses,  and  a  court  which 
made  up  in  ceremony  what  it  lacked  in  grandeur.  Of  the  "Eoman  Em- 
pire "  there  remained  only  the  name,  and  a  system  of  clumsy  formalities 
which  served  chiefly  to  impede  and  embarrass  European  diplomacy.  All 
really  imperial   functions  —  such  as  making  war  or  peace,  building  for- 


264  MODERN  HISTORY. 

tresses,   raising  armies,   levying  contributions — were  transferred  to  the 

Diet,  which  from  an  occasional  assembly  of  the  princes  in 
A.  D.  1654.  X.  A    ■    ^  ^  '     .' 

person,   was  soon  changed  into  a  permanent  organization 

composed  of  their  envoys  with  those  of  the  fifty  free  cities. 

365.  Pope  Innocent  X.  denounced  the  treaty  as  "  null,  invalid,  iniqui- 
tous, and  void  of  all  power  and  effect."  The  great  revolution  in  human 
thought  which  this  treaty  marked  and  declared,  in  fact  concerned  His 
Holiness  more  nearly  than  any  other  European  power,  except,  perhaps, 
the  emperor.  By  admitting  to  full  civil  rights  persons  who  were  aliens 
and  enemies  to  the  Roman  Church,  it  abrogated  the  whole  theory  by 
which  the  Empire  and  the  papacy  had  subsisted  together  for  nearly  a 
thousand  years.  But  this  theory  had  been  slowly  vanishing  from  among 
the  opinions  and  motives  of  men,  and  the  treaty  only  announced  a 
change  already  accomplished.  The  emperor  forbade  the  papal  bull  to 
be  circulated  in  his  dominions,  and  the  Catholic  powers,  glad  of  peace 
after  a  generation  of  conflict,  completely  disregarded  the  thunders  of  the 
Vatican. 

Union  of  Heilbronn,  Oxenstiern  at  the  head  of  protestant  interests  in  Germany;  Duke 
Bernhard  of  Weimar  in  command  of  the  army.  Disgrace  and  death  of  Wallenstein.  Dis- 
aster of  the  Swedes  at  Nordlingen.  The  French  occupy  Lorraine  and  Alsace;  renew  their 
alliance  with  Sweden  and  the  United  Netherlands.  Imprisonment  of  the  elector  of  Treves. 
Treaty  of  Prague  between  Saxony  and  the  emperor,  joined  by  most  of  the  German  states. 
Fourfold  invasion  of  France  by  Spanish  and  imperial  forces.  Victories  of  the  Swedes  at 
Domitz  and  Wittstock.  Accession  of  Ferdinand  III.  Last  years  of  the  war  marked  in 
Germany  by  increased  atrocities,  in  Europe  at  large  by  more  active  and  general  cooper- 
ation. Spain  loses  Catalonia  and  Portugal.  Rise  in  the  latter  of  the  Bragan^a  dynasty. 
Naval  disasters  of  the  Spaniards.  Devastation  of  Bohemia  by  the  Swedes.  Great  victories 
of  Torstenson.  The  French  occupy  Cologne  and  the  neighboring  territories.  Death  of 
Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII. ;  accession  of  Louis  XIV.  under  regency  of  his  mother  and 
ministry  of  Mazarin.  War  between  Sweden  and  Denmark  ;  repeated  discomfitures  of  the 
Danes  and  defeat  of  the  imperialists  at  Jankowitz.  Queen  Christina,  attaining  her  ma- 
jority, concludes  the  Peace  of  Bromsebro.  Naples  revolts  and  hails  the  Duke  of  Guise 
as  protector;  is  subdued  by  a  Spanish  fleet.  Congresses  of  Miinster  and  Osnabriick.  End 
of  Eighty  Years'  War  for  Independence  of  the  United  Netherlands.  Continued  victories 
of  the  French  and  Swedish  armies.  Peace  of  Westphalia  closes  the  Thirty  Years'  War; 
puts  a  period  to  the  Reformation,  and  changes  the  Empire  into  a  mere  confederation  of 
three  hundred  states. 


QTJESTIOlSrS    irOR    nE^IE^\r. 

Book  III. 

1.  To  what  extent  was  the  Atlantic  navigated  during  the  Middle  Ages  ?       .       •  ??  2,  3. 

2.  Describe  the  enterprises  of  the  Portuguese. 4,  5,  6. 

3.  What  resulted  from  the  opening  of  a  sea-route  to  India  ? 0,  7. 

4.  WTiat  action  was  taken  by  the  Popes  concerning  newly-discovered  lands?       .     5, 10. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW,  265 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  Columbus §§  7-14. 

6.  Give  an  outline  of  the  other  discoveries  and  explorations 15,  20,  22. 

7.  Describe  the  Spanish  conquests 16, 17-19,  21. 

8.  vvhat  is  meant  by  the  European  States  System? 23. 

9.  Describe  the  principal  nations  of  Europe  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 

sixteenth  century.  24,  25,  286,  287. 

10.  Sketch  the  character  and  career  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France.  ....    26-34. 

11.  The  history  of  Florence 27,  46,  58,  59, 113, 125, 189. 

12.  Describe  the  character  aud  reign  of  Pope  Alexander  VI 28,  33,  39. 

13.  Of  Louis  XII.  of  France.      . 34-38, 41-63. 

14.  Of  Pope  Julius  II 40,  48,  49,  51,  57,  58. 

15.  Who  governed  Castile  and  Leon  after  the  death  of  Isabella?      ....     42,43. 

16.  Describe  the  League  of  Cambray  and  its  consequences 44-i57,  74. 

17.  The  character  and  history  of  Leo  X 59,  91. 

18.  Of  the  emperor  Maximilian 25,  53,  54,  72. 

19.  Of  Ferdinand  of  Spain 71. 

20.  What  changes  have  occurred  in  Navarre  ? GO,  73,  89,  93. 

21.  What  alliances  between  France  and  England  ? 03,  78,  322,  324. 

22.  What  was  the  character  of  Francis  I.  and  his  court? 64,  93, 107. 

23.  Of  Henry  VIII.  of  England  ?       . 65, 92. 

24.  What  were  the  titles  and  character  of  Charles  V.  ? 66,  77. 

25.  Describe  his  policy  toward  Spain 74,  75,  89,  90,  98, 139. 

26.  Toward  the  Netherlands 140, 150, 162, 165. 

27.  What  rival  interests  had  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.? 67. 

28.  Give  an  outline  of  their  wars.      ,     89,  92,  93,  96,  97,  102, 103, 108,  115,  116, 136,  143, 144, 148. 

173,  175. 

29.  Describe  the  several  invasions  of  Italy  by  Francis  1 68,  69,  93,  94. 

30.  His  captivity 104-106. 

31.  Tell  the  history  of  Cardinal  Ximenes 73-75. 

32.  Describe  the  progress  and  decline  of  the  Turkish  power.       25,  76,  99, 122, 129, 139, 142, 

171,  212-215,  131. 

33.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  Reformation? 79. 

34.  Tell  the  story  of  Luther .      80-87. 

35.  Describe  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland 88. 

36.  Its  progress  in  France 151, 152, 164, 194, 197,  202-206. 

37.  What  circumstance  favored  it  in  England? 131,132,157. 

38.  What  civil  disturbances  during  the  Reformation  in  Germany?  .        .  117-120. 

39.  What  Leagues  were  formed  respectively  by  the  two  religious  parties?     .  121,128. 

40.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Constable  de  Bourbon 100-102, 109,  111. 

41.  Describe  the  two  captures  of  Rome  in  1526,  '27. 

42.  The  reign  of  Pope  Clement  VII 

43.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  Peace  of  Cambray?     . 

44.  Who  were  rival  kings  of  Hungary  after  the  battle  of  Mohacz? 

45.  What  alliances  between  the  French  and  the  Turks?     . 

46.  Describe  the  wars  of  Charles  V.  in  Africa 

47.  His  abdication,  retirement,  and  death. 

48.  What  were  the  chief  events  in  the  life  of  Ferdinand  I.? 

49.  Describe  the  rise  and  influence  of  the  Jesuits. 

50.  The  Counter-reformation 

51.  What  changes  have  occured  in  the  Cleve-Duchies? 

52.  What  kings  of  Scotland  died  during  wars  with  England?    . 


110-112. 
102,  110-114, 130-133. 
116. 

123,  124. 
128, 137, 141, 147, 149. 
134,  135,  143. 
179-182. 
123,  128, 170,  187,  207. 
.    184-186,241,282. 
185,  282,  297,  310,  328. 
.    138,  14G,  298,  300. 
145. 
53.  Tell  the  story  of  Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Scotland.  .       .    145, 163,  192,  201,  216,  217. 


54.  The  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

55.  Of  the  Smalcaldic  War. 


150,  161,  167,  199,  207. 
.    153-156,  166-169. 


266  MODERN  HISTORY. 

56.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Guises §§  lf>l.  557-159,  163, 189,  191, 192,  196,  201-206, 

220,  243,  245,  251,  273-275,  278. 

57.  Of  Maurice  of  Saxony 154,  155,  166,  167,  171,  174. 

58.  Of  Mary  I.  of  England 176-178. 

59.  Of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  .        188-190,  193,  205,  211,  216,  222,  225,  220,  239,  245, 

249-251,  200-263,  209,  270,  276,  280,  281. 

60.  Describe  the  Netherlands,  their  revolt,  and  the  rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 

Note  p.  193 223-240,  253-267,  271,  293-295,  303,  361. 

61.  Name  the  successive  foreign  protectors  of  the  Netherlands.     254,  256,  261,  262,  266,  267. 

62.  Describe  Alexander  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma 255,  259,  265,  271. 

63.  The  character  and  history  of  Maximilian  II.  .        .  208, 222, 231,  241. 

64.  Of  Henry  III.  of  France '        242,  243,  246,  247. 

65.  Of  John  of  Austria 181,  211,  214,  215,  253-255. 

66.  'What  became  of  the  Spanish  Moriscoes? 211,292. 

67.  What  changes  of  dynasty  in  Portugal  ? 248-250,  349. 

68.  Describe  the  relations  between  England  and  Spain.     190-193,  205,  216,  234,  269-271,  279. 

69.  The  reign  of  Elizabeth  Tudor 193,  216,  217,  222,  286,  293. 

70.  The  death  of  Henry  II.  and  subsequent  condition  of  parties  in 

France 195-197. 

71.  What  changes  followed  the  death  of  Francis  II.  ? 201,  202. 

72.  Give  an  outline  of  the  religious  wars  in  France.     .     202-206,  209,  210,  218-222,  244-247, 

251,  252,  272-278. 

73.  Describe  Paul  IV.  and  his  successor 187-189, 198, 199. 

74.  Pius  V.  and  Sixtus  V.  208, 216, 268. 

75.  Three  sons  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange.         .     265,  267,  271,  280,  303,  326,  355. 

76.  The  character  and  reign  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.      219,  244,  247,  251,  275-279, 

288-292,  299. 

77.  Of  Frederic  V.,  Elector-Palatine 300,  306-308,  338. 

78.  Of  Gustavus  Adolphus 318,  319,  327,  329-333,  3.35-337. 

79.  Of  Wallenstein 306,  326,  327,  330,  334-.339. 

80.  Sketch  the  history  of  the  northern  European  kingdoms 312-319. 

81.  What  part  was  taken  by  the  Danes  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War?  .  326,  327,  356,  357. 

82.  Name  the  most  decisive  battles  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.    .    309,  322,  333,  .336,  340,  353, 

355,  357. 

83.  Its  most  important  treaties ,327,  329,  338,  3^13,  359-365. 

84.  Name   the   sovereigns  belonging  to   the   three   branches  of  the  House,  of 

Hapsburg,  from  Charles  V.  to  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

85.  Name  the  English  and  French  monarchs,  A.  D.  1500-1648. 


BOOK  IV, 


THE   MODEE]^   EEA, 

Feom  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  French  Eevolution, 
A.  D.  1648-1789. 

THE  ENGLISH  COMMONWEALTH. 

1.  While  the  conferences  at  Miinster  and  Osnabriick  were  absorbing  the 
attention  of  continental  Europe,  England  had  arrived  at  the  crisis  of  a 
revolution  occasioned,  no  less  than  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  by  the  relig- 
ious changes  of  the  preceding  century.  The  separation  from  Rome  had 
appeared,  indeed,  to  exalt  and  strengthen  the  royal  prerogative.  Henry 
VIII.  was  the  most  absolute  of  English  kings.  But  the  movement  which 
began  with  placing  him  at  the  head  of  the  national  Church,  was  far  from 
ending  there. 

2.  Elizabeth,  with  a  temper  no  less  arbitrary,  had  the  prudence  to  meet 
the  just  demands  of  her  people  half-way,  instead  of  allowing  discontent 
to  gather  force.  In  her  successor,  James  Stuart,  "Nature  and  education 
had  done  their  utmost  to  produce  a  finished  specimen  of  all  that  a  king 
ought  not  to  be."  His  undignified  person  and  manner  were  rendered 
contemptible  by  his  affectation  of  the  wisdom  of  Solomon  and  his  de- 
mand, as  "  the  Lord's  anointed,"  upon  the  unlimited  reverence  and  obe- 
dience of  better  men  than  himself.  His  son,  Charles  I.,  was  personally 
worthy  of  far  greater  respect ;  but  he  was  ignorant  of  the  force  of  that 
current  of  public  opinion  which  had  been  gaining  strength  throughout 
his  father's  reign,  and  which,  as  he  rashly  attempted  to  oppose  it,  carried 
him  away  to  his  destruction. 

3.  The  Petition  of  Right,  presented  by  both  houses  of  Parliament  in 
1628,  was  granted  by  the  king  in  consideration  of  a  vote  of  supplies ;  but 
though  the  money  was  paid,  the  terms  of  the  petition  were  violated. 
Dissolving  the  Parliament,  the  king  attempted  to  levy  by  his  own  author- 

(267) 


268  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ity  the  taxes  wliicli  could  only  be  lawfully  imposed  by  the  Commons. 
His  illegal  exaction  of  "  tonnage  and  poundage  "  was  firmly  resisted  by 
Hampden  and  other  patriots.  The  attempt  of  Charles  to  impose  the  rites 
of  the  Church  of  England  upon  the  Scots  caused  the  latter  to  unite  in 
the  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant "  and  to  prepare  for  open  war.  Need 
of  money  again  threw  the  king  upon  the  Parliament,  which  he  sum- 
moned after  the  long  interval  of  eleven  years;  but  at  its  first  serious 
reaffirmation  of  the  principles  of  Hampden,  it  was  dissolved. 

4.  The  Long  Parliament  which  met  the  following  November,  adopted 
bolder  measures.  The  arbitrary  and  illegal  courts  of  the  Star  Chamber 
and  of  High  Commission  were  abolished,  and  others  of  longer  standing 
were  reformed.  The  Earl  of  Strafford,  the  king's  ablest  and  most  un- 
scrupulous minister,  was  impeached,  condemned,  and  beheaded.  On 
learning  that  Charles,  who  had  profited  by  his  extortions,  had  consented 
to  sign  his  death-warrant,  Strafford  exclaimed,  "  Put  not  your  trust  in 
princes ! "  "  The  whole  history  of  the  times,"  says  Macaulay,  "  is  a  com- 
mentary on  that  bitter  text."  Archbishop  Laud  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower.  The  king  now  violated  a  fundamental  law*  of  the  kingdom  by 
attempting  the  arrest  of  Hampden,  Pym,  and  three  other  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  This  act  broke  the  last  bond  of  allegiance,  and  both 
parties  appealed  to  arms. 

5.  The  king's  forces  had  at  first  the  advantage  of  military  experience 
over  the  citizen-soldiery  of  the  Parliament;  but  their  outrages  upon  pri- 
vate rights  cost  the  king  more  of  the  moral  support  of  the  nation  than 
their  valor  and  skill  could  regain.  Prince  Rupert  of  the  Palatinate  — 
second  son  of  the  deposed  elector  Frederic  and  the  English  Princess 
Elizabeth  —  had  been  trained  amid  the  brutalities  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  and  was  leader  of  the  wildest  "Cavaliers."  The  year  1643  was 
marked  by  the  death  of  three  of  the  most  illustrious  patriots:  Hampden 
and  Pym  on  the  parliamentary,  and  Lord  Falkland  on  the  royal  side. 
The  Parliament  entered  the  League  of  the  Scottish  Covenanters,  whose 

army  under  General  Leslie  invaded  England  and   joined 

A  D  1644  <j  ^ 

the  forces  of  Fairfax  in  besieging  York.  Rupert  hastened 
to  its  relief,  and  in  the  great  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  the  royalists  were 
decisively  overthrown.  Subsequent  defeats  at  Newbury  and  Naseby 
ruined  the  hopes  of  Charles.  Rupert  surrendered  Bristol,  and  sought  a 
field  for  his  reckless  valor  beyond  the  seas.  The  king  put  himself  in 
the  power  of  the  Scottish  leaders,  by  whom  he  was  surrendered  to  the 
English  in  January,  1647. 

6.  Serious  dissensions  had  already  broken  out  in  the  victorious  party. 
Presbyterians  and  Independents — the  civil  and  the  military  authorities  — 


=  That  no  subject  could  be  arrested  by  the  king  in  person. 


EXECUTION  OF  CHARLES  I.  269 

were  ranged  in  opposition.  The  latter,  under  Oliver  Cromwell,  gained 
ascendency :  the  king  was  forcibly  transferred  from  the  control  of  the 
Parliament  to  that  of  the  army,  and  the  House  of  Commons  was  intim- 
idated by  a  guard  of  soldiers.  The  king's  insincerity  of  purpose  was 
more  than  ever  apparent;  he  negotiated  with  all  parties,  but  kept  faith 
with  none.  But  his  enemies  were  now  resolved  upon  an  act  which, 
should  assert  in  unequivocal  terms  the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  Charles 
Stuart  was  impeached  and  tried  for  high  treason  before  a  court  instituted 
for  the  purpose.  He  firmly  denied  its  jurisdiction,  and  refused  to  plead 
his  cause  before  it;  but  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  was  beheaded 
before  his  palace  of  Whitehall,  Jan".  30,  1649. 

7.  This  act  —  unprecedented  in  history  —  was  regarded  with  very  dif- 
ferent emotions  even  by  the  opponents  of  the  dead  king.  Irish  Catho- 
lics and  Scottish  Covenanters  hastened  to  proclaim  Charles  II.  Prince 
Kupert  was  already  in  the  Irish  seas  with  a  foreign  fleet.  All  the  mal- 
contents in  Ireland,  of  whatever  creed  or  race,  enrolled  themselves  under 
the  banners  of  the  Marquis  of  Ormond,  to  oppose  the  English  Common- 
wealth. Lieutenant-General  Cromwell  was  appointed  by  the  Parliament 
to  deal  with  the  Irish  rebellion.  By  a  single  act  of  extreme  severity  he 
overawed  opposition,  and  the  war,  which  had  raged  nine  years  in  that 
distracted  island,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  as  many  months,  Crom- 
well permitted  all  the  disaffected  to  leave  the  country,  and  45,000  of  the 
most  dangerous  accordingly  enlisted  in  the  armies  of  France  and  Spain. 
By  this  stroke  of  wise  policy,  peace  was  restored,  and  Ireland  saw  a  new 
era  of  comparative  order  during  the  few  years  that  Cromwell  and  his 
lieutenants  administered  her  affairs. 

8.  Charles  II.  was  in  every  respect  a  worse  man  than  his  father ;  but 
his  dealings  with  the  Scots  showed  only  the  same  falsity  of  character 
which  he  had  inherited  from  the  victims  of  Fotheringay  and  Whitehall. 
The  Marquis  of  Montrose  was,  by  his  urgent  entreaties,  gathering  men 
and  means  to  do  battle  for  the  royal  cause,  at  the  same  time  that  Charles 
was  promising  adhesion  to  the  Covenant,  declaring  his  complete  subserv- 
iency to  the  Scottish  Parliament  and  Kirk,  and  denying  all  knowledge 
or  responsibility  concerning  the  movements  of  Montrose.  This  brave  and 
loyal  servant  of  a  faithless  prince  was  defeated  at  Kincardine  and  be- 
headed  at   Edinburgh    with   every    circumstance   of   insult  and  malice. 

Charles  landed  soon  after  in  Scotland,  and  was  crowned  at         ^      .  _„ 

Jan.  1, 1651. 

Scone.  Cromwell  with  his  army  was  already  in  the  north- 
ern kingdom;  he  had  routed  the  Scots  at  Dunbar  (Sept.  3,  1650),  and 
of  his  10,000  prisoners  many  were  sent  to  service  in  the  New  England 
plantations.  Giving  Cromwell  the  slip,  Charles  marched  with  11,000  men 
into  England,  and  was  proclaimed  king  at  Carlisle  and  Penrith.  Con- 
trary to  his  hopes,  few  joined  him.     He  was  overtaken  by  Cromwell  at 


270  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Worcester,  and  thoroughly  defeated,  with  the  loss  or  dispersion  of  his 
entire  army.  After  wandering  six  weeks  in  various  disguises,  he  made 
his  escape  to  France. 

9.  The  Commonwealth  was  now  established.  Order  and  confidence  re- 
turned ;  commerce,  long  depressed  by  the  monopolies  and  exactions  of 
the  two  preceding  reigns  and  the  insecurity  of  civil  war,  revived.  A 
quarrel  with  the  Dutch  concerning  the  herring  fisheries  of  the  Scottish 
coast  led  to  a  war  whose  field  was  the  ocean  and  Avhose  prize  the  com- 
merce of  the  world.  England  declared  herself  Mistress  of  the  Seas; 
but  Holland,  by  reason  of  her  distant  foreign  possessions,  had  a  far  more 
numerous  and  eifective  marine.  "English  mariners  sought  employment 
in  Dutch  vessels,  while  English  ships  lay  rotting  at  the  wharves."  The 
"Navigation  Act"  passed  by  the  British  Parliament  in  1652,  prohibited 
any  foreign  vessel  from  bringing  a  cargo  into  English  ports  unless  it  were 
of  the  products  of  the  country  whence  the  vessel  came.  As  the  products 
of  Holland  were  few  but  her  ships  many,  and  England  her  best  market, 
this  act  was  evidently  a  destructive  blow  to  her  carrying  trade. 

10.  After  a  summer  of  frequent  but  indecisive  skirmishes  among  the 
Orkneys  and  Hebrides,  the  Dutch  admiral  Van  Tromp  appeared,  late  in 
November,  off  the  Naze.     He  was  met  by  the  English  under  Blake,  and  a 

furious  combat  ended  with  the  retreat  of  the  latter,  after 
great  loss,  into  the  Thames.  Van  Tromp  then  placed  a 
broom  at  his  mast-head  and  sailed  up  and  down  the  Channel,  as  if  to 
sweep  the  English  from  the  seas.  A  four  days'  battle  the  next  February 
was  indecisive ;  but  in  June  and  July,  1653,  Blake  and  Monk  gained  great 
victories  over  Van  Tromp,  in  the  latter  of  which  the  Dutch  admiral  was 
killed.  The  war  was  virtually  at  an  end,  though  peace  was  not  signed 
until  April,  1654. 

11.  The  remnant  of  the  Long  Parliament  had  by  this  time  forfeited  the 
confidence  of  the  English  people,  who  saw  themselves  on  the  verge  of  an- 
archy amid  the  conflicts  of  rival  sects  and  parties.  Cromwell  relieved 
many  anxieties  when  he  put  an  end  to  its  existence  by  military  force.  A 
new  assembly  of  140  members,  called  the  Little  Parliament,  was  convoked 
by  his  own  authority.  It  afterward  acquired  the  nickname  "Barebone's 
Parliament"  from  one  of  its  most  fanatical  members.  After  five  months' 
T»      1C-Q  sitting,  it  resigned  its  authority  to  a  council  of  officers,  who 

JJ6C.,  1653. 

requested  Cromwell  to  assume  the  title  and  character  of 
"Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland." 

12.  No  man  ever  lived  who  appeared  to  his  contemporaries  and  to 
succeeding  generations  under  more  directly  opposite  colors  than  Oliver 
Cromwell.  A  late  celebrated  historian  calls  him  "the  greatest  prince 
that  ever  ruled  England,"  "  the  greatest  prince  and  soldier  of  the  age." 


OLIVER  CROMWELL,  PROTECTOR.  271 

On  tlie  other  hand,  extreme  royalists  and  lawless  republicans  have  joined 
the  profligate  skeptics  of  Charles  II.'s  court  in  branding  him  with  the 
names  of  "usurper,  traitor,  hypocrite,  and  fanatic;"  and  until  very  re- 
cently their  verdict  has  doubtless  had  the  predominant  influence  upon 
public  opinion.  Without  clearing  him  from  the  charge  of  personal  ambi- 
tion—  a  trait  which  is  certainly  not  inconsistent  with  great  virtues  and 
great  talents,  if,  indeed,  it  is  often  separated  from  the  latter — we  find 
his  usurpation  extenuated  by  the  stern  necessities  of  the  time  and  by  his 
unsurpassed  ability  and  disposition  to  govern  well.  No  contemporary 
king  equaled  him  in  equity  of  intention;  not  one  —  even  the  "Grand 
Monarch  "  himself —  excelled  him  in  the  eflSciency  of  his  administration. 
England,  depressed  at  home  and  despised  abroad  during  the  reigns  of 
the  first  two  Stuarts,  now  assumed  her  true  position  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  Christian  powers,  as  the  protectress  of  Protestant  interests.  Every 
nation  prized  her  friendship  and  dreaded  her  enmity.  Mazarin  courted 
her  alliance  by  expelling  the  Stuart  princes,  the  near  relations  of  his 
king,  from  France,  and  by  ceding  the  port  of  Dunkirk,  then  nearly  the 
most  important  on  the  German  Ocean,  when  it  had  been  taken  by  the 
combined  French  and  English  forces.  Spain  eagerly  sought  the  same  end, 
but  demurred  at  Cromwell's  conditions,  which  required  her  to  abolish  the 
Inquisition,  and  grant  to  English  merchants  free  trade  with  her  American 
colonies.  The  Spanish  embassador  justly  remarked  that  these  two  conces- 
sions would  be  equivalent  to  putting  out  the  two  eyes  of  Philip  lY. 

13.  In  his  home-rule,  Cromwell  found  it  impossible  to  exercise  his  new 
and  undefined  power  within  the  constitutional  limits  which  he  had  set 
to  it.  Thie  first  parliament  called  under  his  Protectorate,  disputed  his 
authority,  reversed  his  acts  of  toleration,  and  left  him  at  its  dissolution 
unprovided  with  funds  to  support  the  army  and  navy  or  the  necessary 
expenses  of  the  state.  The  court  of  Charles  II.,  now  at  Cologne,  now  at 
Brussels,  availed  itself  of  these  dissensions  to  excite  seditions  in  England ; 
and  the  discovery  of  their  plots  led  Cromwell  to  more  arbitrary  measures. 
England  was  divided  into  ten  —  afterward  eleven  —  military  districts, 
each  governed  by  a  major-general  of  extreme  republican  principles.  A 
contribution  of  one-tenth  to  the  service  of  the  government  was  levied 
upon  the  estates  of  rich  and  disaffected  royalists ;  and  prisoners  taken  in 
a  rebellion  were  transported  to  the  Barbadoes. 

14.  Cromwell  emulated  the  policy  of  Elizabeth  in  fostering  the  navy. 
The  famous  Admiral  Blake  caused  his  flag  to  be  respected  in  the  Medi- 
terranean equally  by  the  Pope,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the 
pirates  of  the  African  coast.  Algiers  and  Tripoli  released  their  Christian 
captives  at  his  demand,  and  Tunis  was  soon  bombarded  into  submission. 
Venables  and  Penn  failed  in  their  attempt  upon  St.  Domingo,  but  they 
conquered  Jamaica,  thus  gaining  for  England  an  important  foot-hold  in 


272  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  West  Indies.  Blake  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Spaniards  off 
Cadiz,  and  the  next  year  (1657)  destroyed  their  entire  fleet  in  the  harbor 
of  Santa  Cruz.  Being  called  home  to  receive  the  thanks  of  Parliament,  he 
died  of  disease  within  sight  of  the  English  coast.  The  treasure  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  relieving  the  immediate  necessities  of  the  government,  Crom- 
well dismissed  the  eleven  major-generals  and  adopted  a  less  arbitrary  policy. 

15.  After  long  discussion  in  Parliament,  the  Protector  was  desired  to 
assume  the  royal  title  and  dignity.  But  this  would  have  oflfended  the 
army  and  all  extreme  republicans,  and  Cromwell  declined  it.  A  new 
Instrument  of  Government  gave  him,  however,  all  the  essential  rights  of 
sovereignty.  He  received  an  oath  of  allegiance  from  each  member  of 
Parliament,  and  was  publicly  invested  with  the  purple  robe,  the  scepter 
and  the  sword,  according  to  the  usual  forms  of  a  royal  coronation.  An 
Upper  House  of  Parliament,  including  only  seven  of  the  old  nobility, 
was  now  organized.  The  court  at  Brussels  was  more  active  than  ever  in 
its  plots  of  assassination ;  but  its  desires  were  accomplished  by  more 
natural  and  peaceful  means.  On  the  3d  of  September,  1G58,  the  anni- 
versary of  his  victories  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester,  the  Protector  died. 

16.  His  son  Richard,  whom  with  his  dying  breath  Oliver  had  appointed 
his  successor,  was  recognized  by  the  Parliament.  But  his  gentle  and 
somewhat  indolent  nature  was  wholly  unfit  to  deal  with  those  discordant 
elements  of  the  army  and  people  which  his  father  had  held  in  their  re- 
spective places  with  iron  hand.     A  council  of  military  officers  dissolved 

the  Parliament.    Richard  Cromwell  retired  to  his  estate  in 

April,  1659.  -      ,       T  T-.     1. 

the  country.  Forty-two  members  of  the  Long  Parliament 
assembled  and  took  upon  themselves  the  functions  of  government.  A 
royalist  insurrection  was  defeated  by  General  Lambert  at  Chester;  but 
fresh  conflicts  between  the  military  and  civil  authorities  led  soon  to  the 
result  sought  by  the  insurgents.  Charles  II.  was  watching  at  once  with 
trembling  anxiety  the  revolutions  in  England  and  the  conferences  of  the 
French  and  Spanish  embassadors  on  an  island  in  the  Bidassoa,  hoping 
that  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  concluded  this  year,  would  lead  to 
a  combined  action  of  the  two  kingdoms  for  his  restoration.  The  re- 
sult was  better  for  himself  and  for  England  than  if  his  hopes  had  been 
fulfilled;  for  the  reestablishment  of  Romanism,  with  the  surrender  of 
Jamaica,  Dunkirk,  and  the  Channel  Islands,  would  probably  have  been 
the  price  demanded  by  the  contracting  powers  for  their  aid.  The  will 
of  the  English  people  recalled  their  sovereign  without  such  humiliating 
concessions.   See  §  26. 

17.  General  Monk,  who  had  been  governor  of  Scotland  under  Crom- 
well, had  an  active  though  at  first  a  secret  part  in  promoting  the  king's 
return.  Under  pretense  of  an  ardent  zeal  for  a  republic,  he  gained  ab- 
solute control  of  London.      The  remnant  of  the   Long  Parliament  was 


THE  RESTORATION  IN  ENGLAND.  273 

dissolved,  and  writs  were  issued  for  a  new  election.  The  Royalists  had 
a  majority  in  the  new  Houses,  which  met  April  26,  1660.  Letters  were 
received  from  Charles  II.  promising  amnesty  and  toleration  to  all  his 
"subjects."  In  return  he  was  proclaimed  king;  and  such  was  the  fear 
of  exciting  discord  by  long  debate,  that  no  limits  or  conditions  were  im- 
posed upon  his  assumption  of  power.  Three  weeks  later  ^ 
the  king,  with  his  train  of  cavaliers  and  counselors,  arrived 
at  London.  After  twenty  years  of  civil  conflict  the  nation  welcomed 
the  return  of  settled  government  with  transports  of  joy,  and  its  gener- 
ous confidence  was  undiminished  by  the  glaring  defects  of  the  king's 
character.  To  spare  him  all  temptation  to  illegal  exactions,  his  yearly 
revenues  were  made  far  more  liberal  than  those  of  his  father. 

18.  Ignoring  the  Commonwealth,  Charles  dated  all  the  Acts  of  the 
Restoration  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign.  A  petty  revenge  was  exe- 
cuted upon  the  lifeless  remains  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  of  General  Ireton, 
his  son-in-law,  and  of  Bradshaw,  the  judge  who  had  pronounced  sentence 
upon  Charles  I.  They  were  dragged  from  their  tombs  in  Westminster 
Abbey  and  hung  upon  the  gallows  at  Tyburn.  All  the  regicides  —  those 
who  had  signed  the  death-warrant  of  Charles  I.  —  with  five  others,  were 
excepted  from  the  amnesty.  Of  twenty-nine  persons  who  were  tried  as 
traitors,  ten  were  executed,  and  the  rest  imprisoned  for  life.  The  illus- 
trious chancellor,  Lord  Clarendon  —  a  faithful  and  invaluable  friend  of 
Charles  in  all  his  adversities,  though  his  virtues  drew  upon  him  the  ridi- 
cule of  a  dissolute  court  —  honored  himself  by  insisting  upon  the  strict 
execution  of  the  remaining  articles  of  the  Act  of  Amnesty  and  Indem- 
nity. The  king's  promise  of  religious  toleration  proved  less  binding.  Not 
only  was  the  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant "  burnt  by  the  hangman, 
but  more  than  2,000  clergymen  were  ejected  from  their  parishes,  and 
subsequent  acts  against  the  "  Non-conformists  "  amounted  to  a  bitter  per- 
secution. Scotland  was  gratified  by  a  separate  assembly,  commonly  called 
the  "  Drunken  Parliament,"  which  sentenced  the  Marquis  of  Argyle,  the 
great  leader  of  the  Covenanters,  to  a  traitor's  death. 

19.  The  shameless  profligacy  of  the  court  went  far  to  cure  the  "be- 
sotted loyalty"  of  the  nation.  To  support  his  wild  excesses,  Charles 
became  a  regular  pensioner  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  even  sold  to  him  the  port 
of  Dunkirk  —  a  sacrifice  of  national  pride  which  was  commonly  consid- 
ered equally  disastrous  and  infinitely  more  disgraceful  than  the  loss  of 
Calais.  The  royalist  Pepys  wrote :  "  It  is  strange  how  every  body  do  now- 
adays reflect  upon  Oliver,  and  commend  him,  what  brave  things  he  did, 
and  made  all  the  neighbour  princes  fear  him,  while  here  a  prince,  come 
in  with  all  the  love  and  prayers  and  good  liking  of  his  people,  ^  ^  * 
hath  lost  all  so  soon,  that  it  is  a  miracle  what  way  a  man  could  devise 
to  lose  so  much  in  so  little  time." 

M.  H.— 18. 


274  MODERN  HISTORY. 


The  Reformation  in  England  undermines  the  principle  of  passive  obedience  to  kings. 
Decline  under  the  first  of  the  Stuarts.  Arbitrary  exactions  of  Charles  I.  lead  to  the  de- 
termined resistance  of  the  Long  Parliament.  His  attempted  arrest  of  the  five  members 
drives  the  opposition  into  armed  resistance.  Battles  of  Marston  Moor,  Newbury,  and 
Naseby  are  disastrous  to  the  king.  Cromwell  and  the  Independents  gain  chief  power; 
Charles  I.  is  imprisoned,  tried  for  high  treason,  condemned,  and  beheaded.  Charles  II. 
proclaimed  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  latter  country  subdued  by  the  massacres  of 
Drogheda  and  Wexford,  and  the  foreign  enlistment  of  most  of  the  disafliected.  Duplicity 
of  Charles  II.  with  tlie  Scots ;  death  of  the  J»Iarquis  of  Montrose.  Cromwell  defeats  the 
Scots  at  Dunbar,  and  Charles  himself  at  \\orcester.  Establishment  of  the  (Jommonwealth. 
War  with  the  Dutch.  Van  Tromp  at  first  victorious,  afterward  defeated  by  Blake.  Crom- 
well expels  the  Long  Parliament,  calls  another,  which  makes  him  Protector.  Rise  of  the 
foreign  fame  of  England  under  the  Protectorate.  Blake  victorious  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  among  the  West  Indies.  Capture  of  Jamaica.  Arbitrary  home-rule  of  Cromwell  oc- 
casioned by  parliamentary  opposition  and  royalist  schemes  of  assassination.  He  declines 
the  name  but  accepts  the  power  of  king ;  revives  the  House  of  Lords ;  dies  of  disease  at 
Whitehall ;  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Richard.  The  abdication  of  Richard  followed  by  re- 
turn of  Charles  II.  and  restoration  of  monarchy.  Execution  of  ten  regicides  and  of  the 
Marquis  of  Argyle.  Persecution  of  Non-conformists.  Licentiousness  of  the  court,  and 
venal  subserviency  of  the  king  to  the  interests  of  France. 


The  Eeign  of  Louis  XIV. 

20.  The  only  European  powers  left  unpacified  by  the  Treaty  of  West- 
phalia were  France  and  Spain.  The  latter,  relieved  at  length  of  her 
eighty  years'  war  with  the  United  Netherlands,  was  able  to  renew  oper- 
ations with  greater  prospect  of  success;  while  the  former  was  paralyzed 
by  all  the  troubles  of  a  minority.  The  boundless  rapacity  of  Mazarin 
and  his  ignorance  or  disregard  of  French  laws,  disgusted  the  national 
party ;  while  the  arrogance  of  Conde,  who  presumed  upon  his  great  mili- 
tary services,  offended  the  court.  The  result  was  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde. 
Its  prime  mover  was  the  abbe  Gondi,  afterward  Cardinal  de  Eetz ;  but  many 
great  nobles  and  fine  ladies  of  the  court  took  an  active  part  in  the  dis- 
turbances. The  queen-regent  and  her  son  withdrew  from  Paris,  and,  in 
the  impossibility  of  levying  taxes,  were  often  destitute  of  the  common 
comforts  of  life.  This  early  experience  of  privation,  and  his  resentment 
against  the  popular  leaders,  doubtless  gave  an  impulse  to  the  young  king's 
ambition  of  absolute  power. 

21.  The  domestic  war  soon  became  part  of  the  international  conflict. 
Conde  sold  his  services  to  the  king  of  Spain,  and  marching  from  Guienne, 
defeated  the  royal  army  at  Bleneau.  The  same  consummate  genius  which 
had  inspired  terror  in  the  enemies  of  France,  exerted  itself  to  waste  and 
consume  the  forces  of  the  kingdom.  A  battle  in  the  suburbs  of  the 
capital  was  decided  in  favor  of  Conde  by  the  warlike  Mademoiselle  de 
Montpensier,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  with  her  own  hands 
directed  the  guns  of  the  Bastile  upon  the  forces  of  the  king.     The  city 


THE  REIGN  OF  LO  UIS  XIV.  275 

opened  its  gates  to  the  prince ;  a  new  government  was  organized  in  which 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  became  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  and  Conde 
commander-in-chief  of  its  armies.  Mazarin  retired  from  office.  But  De 
Retz,  who  had  now  reconciled  himself  with  the  court,  soon  effected  an- 
other revolution,  which  drove  Conde  from  the  capital.  This  time  he 
repaired  to  Flanders,  and  became  generalissimo  of  the  Spanish  forces. 

22.  The  French  king  and  his  mother  reentered  Paris.  Conde  was  sen- 
tenced by  the  Parliament  to  a  traitor's  death ;  the  Duke  of  Orleans  was 
exiled  to  Blois;  De  Eetz,  whose  ambition  had  by  this  time  overreached 
itself,  was  imprisoned  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  obscurity.  Maz- 
arin was  recalled,  and  the  Fronde  was  ended.  This  civil  war,  whose 
details  are  too  tedious  to  be  related  at  length,  is  remarkable  chiefly  as 
having  been  the  last  struggle  of  the  French  nobility  with  the  crown. 
Thenceforth  all  the  privileged  orders  in  the  nation  made  common  cause; 
the  nobles  were  content  to  revolve  as  obedient  satellites  around  the  king 
and  add  their  splendor  to  his  court.  The  same  questions  had  been  raised 
in  France  and  England,  to  meet  directly  opposite  solutions.  In  the  isl- 
and kingdom  both  royalty  and  aristocracy  had  been  overthrown,  though 
but  for  a  short  time,  and  in  the  restored  monarchy  absolutism  soon 
yielded  to  the  just  supremacy  of  law.  In  France,  aristocracy  joined  with 
royalty  to  trample  down  the  hopes  and  righteous  demands  of  the  people. 

23.  Spain,  meanwhile,  had  profited  by  the  domestic  troubles  of  her 
enemy.  Barcelona  was  taken  after  a  blockade  of  thirteen  months;  and 
all  Catalonia,  after  a  nominal  but  contested  independence  of  as  many 
years,  was  reunited  to  the  Spanish  dominions.  Casale  in  Italy,  and  Dun- 
kirk, Ypres,  and  Gravelines,  on  the  side  of  the  Netherlands,  were  lost  to 
France.  Conde,  at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  forces,  infused  new  energy 
into  the  war.  He  was  worthily  opposed  by  Turenne,  and  for  six  years 
the  two  great  commanders  rivaled  each  other  in  feats  of  generalship.  In 
1654,  England  broke  her  peace  with  Spain,  captured  Jamaica,  and  sent 
forth  fleets  to  prey  upon  Spanish -American  commerce.  The  persecution 
If  the  Vaudois  prevented  an  alliance  of  England  with  France  until 
Mazarin,  upon  the  peremptory  demand  of  Cromwell,  had  obtained  from 
the  duke  of  Savoy  pardon  and  indemnity  for  his  oi:>pressed  subjects.  An 
alliance  was  then  made  which  threw  the  whole  power  of  England  into 
the  French  scale.  The  Battle  of  the  Dunes  resulted  in  the  total  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  governor  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the  capture  of  Dunkirk, 
which  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  was  made  over  to  England.  All  Flan- 
ders, to  the  neighborhood  of  Brussels,  soon  fell  into  the  power  of  France  ; 
and  still  more  important  events  in  Germany  had  meanwhile  disposed  the 
Spanish  government  to  seek  for  peace. 

24:.  Ever  since  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  the  emperor  Ferdinand  III., 
though  nominally  at  peace  with  France,  had  been  indirectly  furnishing 


276  MODERN  HISTORY, 

men  and  money  to  the  Spaniards.  Duke  Charles  of  Lorraine,  having 
been  expelled  from  his  duchy  by  the  French,  gladly  enlisted  imperial 
troops  under  his  own  colors,  and  gained  many  advantages  in-  Flanders 
and  upon  the  German  borders.  To  guard  against  his  depredations,  the 
four  Khenish  electors,  with  the  bishop  of  Miinster,  formed  a  "  Catholic 
League,"  for  the  professed  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  Treaty  of  West- 
phalia. A  "  Protestant  League "  was  formed  with  the  same  design  in 
northern  Germany.  The  emperor,  intimidated  by  these  coalitions,  caused 
the  treaty  to  be  confirmed  in  1654,  by  the  Diet  at  Eatisbon. 

25.  Ferdinand  III.  died  in  1657,  and  Mazarin,  with  all  the  German 
princes  who  were  in  the  interest  of  France,  resolved  to  prevent  the  con- 
ferring of  the  imperial  crown  upon  another  member  of  the  Austrian 
family.  Mazarin  would  gladly  have  obtained  it  for  Louis  XIV.,  but  this 
proving  impossible,  the  French  interest  was  exerted  in  behalf  of  the 
young  elector  of  Bavaria.  The  eldest  son  of  Ferdinand  III.  had  died 
before  his  father,  and  the  second  son,  Leopold,  had  been  educated  only 
for  the  Church.  He  received  the  electoral  votes,  however,  about  sixteen 
months  after  his  father's  death.  The  French  and  their  allies,  unable  to 
defeat  his  election,  imposed  upon  him  the  most  rigid  conditions  concern- 
ing the  wars  then  in  progress ;  and  he  solemnly  engaged  neither  to 
render  aid,  secret  or  open,  to  the  enemies  of  France,  nor  to  interfere  in 
Italy  or  the  Netherlands.  The  fulfillment  of  this  engagement  was  in- 
sured by  the  consolidation  of  the  two  Leagues  above  mentioned  into  one, 
called  the  "  Ehenish  League,"  under'  the  protection  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
common  forces  were  called  "The  army  of  His  Most  Christian  Majesty 
and  of  the  Allied  Electors  and  Princes." 

26.  Spain,  thus  deprived  of  help  from  the  Empire,  sought  peace  with 

France.  It  was  accomplished,  after  long  negotiations,  by 
the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  sealed  by  a  marriage  of 
Louis  XIV.  with  Maria  Theresa,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  king  of 
Spain.  An  important  clause  in  the  contract  was  the  renunciation  by 
the  Infanta  of  all  her  rights  to  the  Spanish  crown,  even  in  case  of  her 
brother's  death.  By  the  two  treaties  of  Westphalia  and  the  Pyrenees, 
the  supremacy  of  France  in  European  diplomacy  was  secured,  and  Spain 
resigned  the  precedence  which  she  had  claimed  since  the  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella.  Mazarin  died  in  March,  1661,  and  Louis  XIV., 
whose  ambition  was  becoming  impatient  of  restraint,  made,  the  next  day, 
the  important  announcement  to  his  council,  "For  the  future,  I  shall  be 
my  own  prime  minister." 

27.  He  entered  at  once  upon  that  course  of  diligent  application  to 
business  which  constituted,  perhaps,  the  main  secret  of  his  success.  From 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  reign,  he  spent  eight  hours  each  day  in 
the  actual  labor  of  governing.      The  disordered  exchequer  soon  felt  the 


WAR  FOR  THE  SPANISH  NETHERLANDS.  277 

master-hand.  The  finance  minister,  Fouquet,  who  had  enormously  en- 
riched himself  by  falsifying  the  public  accounts,  was  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  life.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  celebrated  Colbert,  a  man 
of  stainless  honesty  and  of  such  marked  ability  that,  though  the  burden  of 
taxation  was  diminished,  the  royal  treasury  was  kept  full,  even  during 
the  most  exhausting  wars.  This  was  done  by  introducing  strict  order 
and  economy  into  every  department  of  the  government,  and  by  a  far- 
reaching  and  enlightened  encouragement  of  industry  which  multiplied 
the  sources  of  wealth,  and  made  the  royal  demands  easier  to  be  borne. 

28.  The  dignity  of  Louis  did  not  suffer  for  want  of  assertion.  The 
Spanish  embassador  at  London  having  taken  precedence  of  the  French, 
Philip  IV.  was  compelled  to  make  a  humble  apology,  and  promise  by  a 
special  envoy,  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  diplomatic  body  at  the 
French  court,  never  more  to  infringe  the  claims  of  His  Most  Christian 
Majesty.  Pope  Alexander  VII.  underwent  a  similar  humiliation ;  for  his 
Corsican  guard  having  insulted  the  French  embassador  at  Eome,  His 
Holiness  was  compelled  to  send  messengers  over  the  Alps  to  beg  pardon 
in  the  most  prostrate  terms ;  to  disband  his  guard  and  to  erect  a  monu- 
ment in  commemoration  of  the  event.  Louis  was  already  preparing  a 
more  serious  assault  upon  the  Spanish  pretensions.  Philip  IV.  having 
died  in  1665,  Louis  claimed  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  with  Luxembourg 
and  Franche  Comte,  in  right  of  his  wife.  He  had  already  fortified  him- 
self by  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  alliance  with  the  Dutch,  and  by  the 
purchase  of  Dunkirk  from  the  English  (see  §  19). 

29.  A  war  between  his  two  allies  delayed  his  operations.  Charles  II. 
desired  to  place  his  nephew,  the  young  Prince  of  Orange,  at  the  head  of 
the  Dutch  Eepublic;  but  this  scheme  was  firmly  opposed  by  the  Grand 
Pensionary  De  Witt,  and  the  consequent  division  of  parties  nearly  proved 
fatal  to  the  independence  of  Holland.  The  war  broke  out  in  1664,  though 
not  formally  declared  until  the  following  year.  The  Dutch  possessions 
on  the  Hudson  Eiver  in  America  were  seized  by  the  English  and  re- 
named for  the  king's  brother,  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany.  In  June, 
1665,  the  Dutch  fleet  was  totally  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  York  in  a 
battle  near  Lowestoff.  The  bishop  of  Miinster,  an  ally  and  pensioner  of 
England,  laid  waste  the  Dutch  territories  from  the  eastward,  until  the 
German  allies  of  Holland  joined  the  king  of  France  in  compelling  him 
to  lay  down  his  arms.      A  severe  but  indecisive  battle  was  fought  four 

days  by  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  off  the  North  Fore-  ^       .,  ..  ,^^^ 
•^        ''  =>  June  11-14, 1666. 

land.     In  a  subsequent  action  the  English  were  victorious, 
but  their  domestic  calamities  —  the  plague  and  the  Great  Fire  at  Lon- 
don —  now  disposed  them  to  peace.     During  the  progress  of  negotiations, 
the  Dutch  fleet  sailed  up  the  Thames  and  the  Medway,  destroyed  many 
ships,  captured  Sheerness  and  threatened  London. 


278  MODERN  HISTORY. 

30.  The  Peace  of  Breda,  July  31,  1667,  was  effected  by  three  treaties 
concluded  by  England  with  Holland,  France,  and  Denmark.  New  York 
and  New  Jersey  were  secured  to  the  first-named  power,  but  the  other  co- 
lonial possessions  of  the  Dutch  were  restored  or  left  undisturbed.  Louis 
XIV.  had,  meanwhile,  astonished  Europe  by  a  sudden  march  into  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  where  in  the  course  of  one  summer  most  of  the  im- 
portant places  in  the  Walloon  provinces  surrendered  with  little  or  no  re- 
sistance. The  queen-regent  of  Spain  was  blinded  by  his  pacific  assurances 
until  within  a  few  days  of  the  actual  invasion.  In  the  manifesto  which  the 
Grand  Monarch  then  addressed  to  her  in  common  with  all  the  European 
rulers,  he  claimed  the  Spanish  Netherlands  not  only  in  right  of  his  queen, 
Maria  Theresa,  as  the  eldest  child  of  Philip  IV.,  but  on  the  ground  of  a 
"natural  claim"  of  the  French  kings  to  all  which  had  ever  belonged  to 
the  Prankish  monarchy !  Franche  Comte  was  conquered  the  next  winter 
by  the  Prince  of  Conde,  who  had  now  returned  to  his  allegiance,  having 
been  pardoned  and  restored  to  his  government  of  ducal  Burgundy  by  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees. 

31.  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden,  alarmed  by  the  arrogant  preten- 
sions of  Louis  XIV.,  now  formed  the  Triple  Alliance,  with  the  purpose 
of  setting  a  limit  to  his  aggressions.  Spain,  at  the  last  point  of  exhaust- 
ion, was  unable  to  resist  the  dismemberment  of  her  dominions,  and  in 
May,  1668,  a  definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  by  which 
Louis  restored  Franche  Comte,  but  retained  all  his  conquests  in  the  Neth- 
erlands. The  Dutch  Kepublic  was  now  at  the  height  of  her  glory  and 
prosperity  —  the  protectress  of  the  great  power  which  by  her  heroic  strug- 
gle for  independence  she  had  most  contributed  to  humble,  the  successful 
rival  of  England  in  the  dominion  of  the  seas,  the  deliverer  of  Denmark 
from  the  ambitious  grasp  of  Sweden  (see  §  46),  and  able  to  interpose 
a  barrier  to  the  ambitious  career  of  Louis  himself.  The  Grand  Monarch, 
however,  was  not  likely  to  forgive  the  intervention  which  had  cut  short 
his  conquest  of  the  entire  Spanish  dominion  in  the  Low  Countries.  As 
the  champion  of  absolute  kingly  power,  he  cherished  an  especial  hatred 
toward  the  Republic,  which  afforded  a  generous  asylum  to  all  exiles  from 
civil  or  religious  tyranny. 

32.  By  skillful  bribery,  Louis  gained  the  neutrality  of  the  emperor  and 
the  close  adhesion  of  England,  Sweden,  and  many  of  the  German  princes. 
The  "  Great  Elector,"  Frederic  William  of  Brandenburg,  was  the  faithful 
ally  of  Holland;  while  the  electors  of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Saxony,  with 
the  margrave  of  Baireuth,  formed  a  league  for  the  defense  of  the  Empire. 
Holland  stood  almost  alone  against  the  world,  but  Spain,  recently  deliv- 
ered from  the  corrupt  and  incompetent  government  of  the  Jesuit  min- 
ister Niethard,  made  an  alliance  with  the  States  in  December,  1671.  The 
Prince  of  Orange,  now  twenty-one  years  of  age,  was  appointed  Captain- 


INVASION  OF  HOLLAND. 


279 


General  for  the  first  campaign.  England  and  France  at  nearly  the  same 
time  declared  war  against  Holland,  and  equally  without  honorable  reason. 
The  French  army  of  200,000  men  crossed  the  lower  Khine  in  three  divis- 
ions, and  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  had  occupied  the  entire  provinces 
of  Guelders,  Utrecht,  and  Overyssel,  with  part  of  Holland.  The  king,  at 
the  head  of  the  main  division,  was  attended  by  Louvois,  his  minister  of 
war,  and  Vauban,  the  famous  military  engineer. 

33.  The  Dutch  were  for  the  moment  paralyzed  with  dismay.  "Every 
man  seemed  to  have  received  sentence  of  death."  In  forlorn  hope  of 
securing  what  remained  to  them,  De  Witt  offered  the  most  submissive 
terms,  but  the  invader's  reply  was  so  haughty  and  insulting  that  it 
aroused  a  determination  to  defend  the  country  to  the  last  breath  of  its 
last  inhabitant.  In  the  popular  fury,  the  two  De  Witts  —  the  Grand 
Pensionary  and  his  brother  the  admiral — were  murdered;  and  dictato- 
rial powers  were  conferred  upon  the  young  Prince  of  Orange,  with  the 
offices  of  Stadtholder,  Captain-General,  and  Admiral,  for  life.  The  prince 
proposed  in  an  assembly  of  the  States,  that  rather  than  yield  to  the  de- 
mands of  Louis,  they  should  abandon  their  country,  and  embarking  on 
board  their  fleet,  with  wives,  children,  and  what  movable  property  they 
could  secure,  seek  on  the  other  side  of  the  globe  new  homes  among  the 
tropical  possessions  of  the  Eepublic. 

84.  The  tide  soon  turned  in  favor  of  the  Dutch,  who  had  at  least  held 
their  own  at  sea,  in  contests  with  the  combined  English  and  French  fleets. 
The  progress  of  the  French  army  was  arrested  by  the  opening  of  the 
sluices  around  Amsterdam,  which  laid  that  region  of  country  under 
water,  and  allowed  the  Dutch  fleet  to  approach  their  capital  for  its  de- 
fense. The  emperor,  in  spite  of  his  promised  neutrality,  offered  to  aid 
the  Eepublic  on  certain  conditions;  and  the  imperial  general  Montecu- 
culi  joined  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  with  12,000  men.  Turenne,  by 
his  masterly  maneuvers  on  the  Ehine,  prevented  their  junction  with  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  even  pursued  the  elector  in  his  retreat  as  far  as 
the  Elbe;  but  the  diversion  was  nevertheless  of  some  advantage  to  the 
Dutch.  The  freezing  of  the  canals  enabled  Marshal  Luxembourg  to  in- 
vade Holland  the  next  winter;  but  a  sudden  thaw  compelled  him  to 
retreat  without  effecting  a  conquest. 

35.  Maestricht  and  Treves  were  taken  by  the  French  in  1G73 ;  and 
Louis  in  person  occupied  the  ten  imperial  cities  in  Alsace  (see  Book  HI., 
§  363),  which  he  reduced  to  absolute  subjection,  compelling  them  to 
renounce  the  privileges  guaranteed  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia.  A 
closer  alliance  of  the  Dutch  with  the  Empire  and  with  Spain,  and  the 
firm  establishment  of  the  allies  on  the  Ehine  by  the  capture  of  Bonn, 
compelled  the  French  in  the  following  winter  to  evacuate  Holland,  re- 
taining of  all  their  conquests  only  Grave  and  Maestricht.     By  the  treaty 


280      •  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  Westminster,  Feb.,  1674,  England  made  peace  with  the  Eepublic,  and 
agreed  to  a  mutual  restitution  of  conquests;  Sweden  alone  remained  in 
alliance  with  France. 

36.  The  campaign  of  1674  was,  nevertheless,  favorable  to  that  country. 
Franche  Comte  was  reconquered,  and  the  French  frontier  permanently 
extended  to  the  Jura.  Turenne  ravaged  the  Palatinate  with  great  bar- 
barity, while  he  held  the  imperialists  in  check,  and  finally  wrested  Alsace 
from  their  grasp.  The  English  colonel  Churchill  —  afterward  the  famous 
Duke  of  Marlborough  —  served  under  him  in  this  campaign.  The  next 
year  was  to  see  three  principal  actors  withdrawn  from  the  military  stage : 
Turenne  by  a  cannon-ball,  which  ended  his  life  near  Salzbach,  while  he 
was  reconnoitering  for  a  battle  which  was  never  to  take  place ;  Conde  and 
Montecuculi  by  the  growing  infirmities  of  age  and  disease. 

37.  In  1676,  the  main  activity  of  the  war  was  transferred  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  in  three  naval  battles  near  Sicily,  the  French  were  com- 
pletely victorious.  In  the  second  of  these  battles,  the  brave  De  Kuyter 
received  his  death-wound.  The  campaign  on  land  was  fortunate  for  the 
French.  In  April,  1677,  the  Prince  of  Orange  sustained  a  severe  defeat 
at  Cassel,  while  marching  to  the  relief  of  St.  Omer.  The  prince  was  the 
consistent,  life-long  opponent  of  Louis  XIV.,  their  relative  positions  in  the 
European  States-System  being  nearly  the  same  with  those  of  Elizabeth  of 
England  and  Philip  of  Spain  a  century  before.  The  English  Parliament 
was  warmly  in  favor  of  the  prince ;  but  Charles  II.  had  just  sold  himself 
anew  to  the  king  of  France  for  a  pension  of  200,000  livres,  and  promised 
to  make  no  alliance  without  Louis'  consent.  He  was  nevertheless  com- 
pelled by  the  Parliament  to  declare  war  against  France,  and  to  confirm 
his  alliance  with  the  States  by  the  marriage  of  his  niece,  Mary  of  York, 
with  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

38.  It  was  agreed  to  force  the  French  king  to  accept  terms  of  peace. 
While  negotiations  were  pending,  Louis  seized  the  great  city  of  Ghent, 
and  Ypres ;  thus  gaining  the  power  to  dictate  his  own  terms.  The  Peace 
of  Nimeguen  was  signed  August  14,  1678;  Spain  and  the  emperor  ac- 
ceded a  few  months  later.  The  greatest  losses  of  the  war  had  fallen  upon 
Spain,  which  was  compelled  to  cede  Franche  Comte  and  the  region  after- 
ward known  as  French  Flanders.  Holland  lost  her  settlements  in  Sene- 
gal and  Guiana,  which  had  been  taken  by  the  French.  The  Duke  of 
Lorraine  was  offered  the  restoration  of  his  dominions  only  on  condition 
of  granting  to  Louis  XIV.  four  military  roads,  each  half  a  league  in 
breadth,  from  France  into  Germany.  Rather  than  accept  these  humili- 
ating terms,  he  exiled  himself  for  life  from  his  paternal  estates. 

The  glory  of  Louis  the  Great  was  now  at  its  height.  But  the  insolence 
of  his  pretensions  had  already  excited  an  enmity  throughout  Europe 
which  clouded  his  last  days  with  disappointment  and  regret. 


THE  NORTHERN  NATIONS. 


281 


I2,E!C-A.I'ia?TJXj.A.TI02Sr. 

Civil  war  of  the  Fronde  during  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  Prince  of  Conde  enters  the 
service  of  Spain.  With  close  of  the  Fronde  ends  the  long  conflict  between  royal  and 
feudal  power  in  France.  Catalonia  is  subdued;  Spanish  army  under  Conde  gains  many 
victories  over  the  French  in  the  Netherlands.  Persecution  of  the  Vaudois  being  discon- 
tinued at  the  demand  of  Cromwell,  the  forces  of  the  English  Commonwealth,  added  to 
those  of  France,  gain  the  Battle  of  the  Dunes.  Dunkirk  surrendered  to  England.  The 
Duke  of  Lorraine  makes  war  in  Spanish  interest  on  the  western  borders  of  the  Empire. 
Death  of  Ferdinand  III. ;  French  opposition  to  Leopold,  who  nevertheless  becomes  em- 
peror ;  his  power  limited  by  the  Rhenish  League.  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  transfers  the 
leadership  of  European  diplomacy  from  Spain  to  France.  Louis  XIV.  marries  the  Span- 
ish Infanta;  assumes  direct  control  of  affairs  upon  death  of  Mazarin.  Colbert's  thrifty 
administration.  Louis  claims  Spanish  Netherlands  and  other  possessions  in  right  of  his 
wife.  Naval  war  between  England  and  Holland.  New  Amsterdam  becomes  New  York. 
Peace  of  Breda.  Louis  surprises  the  Walloon  provinces.  Triple  alliance  of  England, 
Sweden,  and  Holland  forces  him  to  accept  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  bribes  the 
first  two  powers  to  aid  or  permit  his  vengeance  against  the  Dutch.  Murder  of  the  De 
Witts.  Prince  of  Orange  becomes  Stadtholder  and  Dictator.  Nearly  all  Europe  involved 
in  the  war.  Brandenburg  and  afterward  England  and  the  Empire  take  sides  with  Hol- 
la,nd.  Alsace  and  Franche  Comte  conquered  and  held  by  France.  Death  of  Turenne; 
retirement  of  Cond6  and  Montecuculi.  Increase  of  French  naval  power;  three  victories  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Prince  of  Orange  defeated  at  Cassel ;  he  marries  the  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  York.  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  restores  peace  and  places  Louis  XIV.  at  the  height  of 
his  power. 


The  Noethern  Nations. 

39.  In  the  north  of  Europe,  important  events  had  meanwhile  taken 
place.  Christina  of  Sweden  displayed  during  the  first  years  of  her  reign 
a  wisdom,  firmness,  and  manifold  ability  which  astonished  her  gray-haired 
counselors.  Her  influence  in  favor  of  peace  was  felt  in  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia.  Her  extraordinary  accomplishments  won  the  admiration  of 
the  learned  foreigners  who  thronged  her  court,  among  others  of  the 
French  philosopher,  Descartes.  Unhappily  the  powers  of  her  mind 
were  not  balanced  and  supported  by  steadiness  of  purpose.  She  wasted 
her  revenues  in  fantastic  entertainments,  and  bestov/ed  the  crown-lands 
on  her  favorite  courtiers,  who  in  the  subsequent  reign  employed  her  gifts 
only  to  oppose  the  royal  prerogatives.  At  length  she  became  weary  of 
the  cares  of  state,  and  naming  her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavus,  as  her  suc- 
cessor, abdicated  the  throne  in  the  twenty-eighth  year  of  her 
age,  and  sought  freedom  in  a  milder  climate.  At  Innsbruck, 
she  abjured  her  father's  faith  and  was  received  into  the  Roman  Church. 
During  the  thirty-five  remaining  years  of  her  life,  she  wandered  over  a 
great  part  of  the  continent  and  twice  revisited  Sweden,  but  ultimately 
died  at  Rome  in  1689. 

40.  Charles  X.  found  his  kingdom  still  exhausted  by  its  efforts  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  as  well  as  by  the  lavish  expenditures  of  Christina; 
yet  his  ambition  aimed  at  nothing  short  of  supremacy  in  northern  Europe 


A.  D.  1654. 


282  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  the  conversion  of  the  Baltic  into  a  mere  Swedish  lake.  The  weak- 
ness of  Denmark  and  Poland  seemed  to  flatter  his  hopes.  In  the  latter 
kingdom  —  or  "Eepublic,"  as  it  was  called  by  the  Poles  themselves — all 
real  power  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  nobles;  for  the  Diet,  chosen  by  and 
from  that  class  alone,  not  only  elected  the  king,  but  made  the  laws  and  in 
one  sense  executed  them,  all  officers  of  state  being  responsible  to  it  and 
not  to  the  sovereign.  When  discussions  in  the  Diet  failed  of  peaceable 
solution,  the  nobles  had  a  constitutional  right  to  levy  armies  and  settle 
their  differences  by  force.  Sometimes  a  General  Confederation  was  formed 
under  a  military  dictatorship,  which  suspended  or  absorbed  into  itself  all 
the  regular  functions  of  government. 

41.  John  Casimir  (A.  D.  1648-1668),  a  son  of  Sigismund  III.  (see  Book 
III.,  §  317),  was  destitute  of  the  tact,  firmness,  and  versatility  of  resources 
required  for  the  leadership  of  so  turbulent  and  disorganized  a  nation. 
Several  provinces  threatened  to  revolt  and  place  themselves  under  foreign 
protection;  and  the  vice-chancellor,  taking  refuge  at  the  Swedish  court, 
urged  Charles  X.  to  interfere  and  deliver  the  Poles  from  a  dominion 
which  they  hated.  The  great  empire  of  Eussia  was  another  formidable 
neighbor  of  the  Polish  king.  Alexis,  the  second  of  the  Eomanoffs,  had 
already  begun  that  policy  of  civilizing  his  nation  and  assuming  his  just 
place  in  the  European  States-System,  which  was  more  especially  to  distin- 
guish his  son,  Peter  the  Great.  A  revolt  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine, 
against  the  Polish  kingdom,  to  which  they  had  been  subjected  since  A.  D. 
1386,  gave  Alexis  a  pretext  for  war.  United  to  the  Eussians  by  identity 
of  race,  language,  and  religion,  the  Cossacks  claimed  the  protection  of  the 
Czar,  w^ho  was  only  too  willing  to  accept  their  allegiance. 

42.  Three  Eussian  armies  were  soon  in  the  field  —  one,  led  by  the  Czar 
in  person,  besieged  and  captured  Smolensko  and  several  other  towns;  a 
second  invaded  Lithuania,  and  a  third  occupied  the  entire  Ukraine.  The 
next  year,  two  Swedish  armies  entered  Poland,  while  their  fleet  blockaded 

the  free  city  of  Dantzic.  Charles  X.  defeated  John  Casimir 
and  received  the  surrender  of  Warsaw.  The  Polish  army 
and  most  of  the  nobility  took  oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  Swedish  king: 
Cracow  opened  its  gates,  and  the  province  of  Lithuania,  though  chiefly 
occupied  by  Eussians,  acknowledged  him  as  its  sovereign.  A  party  in  the 
Senate  offered  the  crown  of  Poland  to  the  emperor,  but  a  majority  in  the 
kingdom  inclined  to  Charles  X. 

43.  At  this  juncture,  the  great  elector,  Frederic  William  of  Branden- 
burg, having  allied  himself  with  John  Casimir,  marched  an  army  into 
West  Prussia,  with  a  view  to  protect  that  duchy  from  the  Swedes.  He 
was  defeated  by  Charles  X.  in  person,  and  was  compelled  to  acknowledge 
himself  the  vassal  of  Sweden  instead  of  Poland.  In  subsequent  treaties, 
the  embarrassments  of  the  Swedish  king  enabled  the  elector  to  secure  the 


CHARLES  X.  OF  SWEDEN.  283 

full  sovereignty  of  eastern  or  ducal  Prussia,  thus  laying  the  corner-stone 
of  a  powerful  monarchy.  John  Casimir,  meanwhile,  mustered  an  army 
of  Poles  and  Tartars  for  the  recapture  of  Warsaw.  It  surrendered  June 
21,  1656;  but  was.  recovered,  the  following  month,  for  the  Swedish  king 
and  the  elector  by  a  three  days'  battle  in  its  vicinity. 

44.  If  the  enemies  of  Poland  had  been  agreed,  the  dissolution  of  that 
kingdom  would  have  been  hastened  by  more  than  a  century;  but  the 
Czar,  now  jealous  of  the  Swedes,  invaded  their  province  of  Livonia  with 
100,000  men,  while  he  sent  another  army  to  ravage  Ingria,  Carelia,  and 
Finland.  The  emperor  Leopold  and  the  king  of  Denmark,  also  alarmed 
or  offended  by  the  progress  of  Charles  X.,  allied  themselves  with  John 
Casimir  to  oppose  that  "Pyrrhus  of  the  North."  Crom- 
well favored  Sweden,  though  he  offered  no  active  aid,  but 

George  Ragotzki,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  made  a  close  offensive  alliance 
with  Charles  X.,  in  the  hope  of  himself  obtaining  the  crown  of  Poland, 
or  at  least  the  provinces  of  Red  Russia,  Podolia,  Volhynia,  and  a  large 
southern  portion  of  that  kingdom.  The  elector  of  Brandenburg  withdrew 
his  contingent  force  from  the  Swedish  army  and  made  peace  with  Poland, 
on  being  guaranteed  his  title  of  Sovereign  Duke  and  the  possession  of 
Prussia  as  an  independent  state. 

45.  By  a  sudden  and  rapid  march,  Charles  X.  appeared  with  his  veter- 
ans upon  the  Danish  border,  and  dispatching  his  general  Wrangel  to 
occupy  the  duchy  of  Bremen,  he  overran  the  territories  of  Holstein  and 
Schleswig,  almost  without  encountering  resistance.  Fredericsddde  was 
taken  by  siege,  Oct.  24 ;  and  as  soon  as  a  winter  of  unusual  severity,  even 
for  those  regions,  had  covered  the  Baltic  with  ice,  he  began  a  remarkable 
series  of  maneuvers  among  the  islands  of  the  Sound  by  leading  cavalry  and 
artillery  across  the  solid  surface  of  the  two  Belts,  capturing  Fiinen,  Lange- 
land,  Laaland,  Falster,  and  finally  passing  over  into  Zealand.  Copen- 
hagen, poorly  fortified  and  taken  by  surprise,  was  at  his  mercy.     But 

France   and   England   now  intervened,  and   mediated   the 

.   ^     ,  .f,    ,  ,  .  ,      -rx  ^  1    1    ^      c<       1  March,  1G58. 

treaty  of  Roskild,  by  which    Denmark   ceded   to   Sweden 

some   of   her   most   important  islands,  and  abandoned  all  her  offensive 

alliances. 

46.  The  ambition  of  Charles  X.  had  grown  by  indulgence,  and  he 
dreamed  not  only  of  ruling  the  whole  region  of  the  Baltic,  but  of 
marching,  like  Alaric,  with  an  overwhelming  host  to  Italy,  and  founding 
there  a  new  kingdom  of  the  Goths.  Early  in  August  he  was  again  in 
the  field,  with  the  pretense  that  Frederic  III.  of  Denmark  had  failed  to 
fulfill  all  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  of  Roskild.  The  siege  of  Kronen- 
berg,  w^hich  he  captured  Sept.  5,  gave  the  Danes  time  to  strengthen  the 
fortifications  of  Copenhagen,  so  that  it  could  hold  out  until  a  Dutch 
fleet  arrived  to  its  relief      The  Swedes  then   turned  the  siege  of  the 


284  MODERN  HISTORY. 

capital  into  a  blockade,  but  they  were  themselves  besieged  by  the  Dutch 
and  Danish  fleets  which  guarded  the  sea,  while  on  land  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg  with  a  combined  force  of  Poles,  Austrians,  and  his  own 
subjects,  drove  the  Swedes  from  Jutland  and  captured  most  of  the  towns 
in  Swedish  Pomerania.  Thorn,  after  eighteen  months'  siege,  surrendered 
to  the  Poles,  Dec,  1658,  and  in  Prussia  only  the  two  towns  of  Elbing  and 
Marienburg  remained  to  Charles  X. 

47.  The  Maritime  Powers  now  interfered  to  put  an  end  to  a  war  which 
embarrassed  their  commerce  by  closing  the  ports  of  the  Baltic.  But  the 
sudden  death  of  Charles  X.,  Feb.,  1660,  removed  the  main  cause  of  dis- 
turbance. His  son  and  heir  was  but  four  years  old.  The  queen-regent, 
with  her  Council  of  State,  immediately  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 

hostile  powers,  and  peace  was  made  respectively  with  Po- 
land, Denmark,  and  Eussia,  by  the  three  treaties  of  Oliva, 
^  ^'        ■  Copenhagen,  and   Cardis.      Poland  continued  at  war  with 

Russia  until  1667,  when  a  truce  of  thirteen  years  was  agreed  upon,  and 
the  Cossacks  were  then  permanently  divided  into  the  tribes  of  the  Don 
and  the  Ukraine  —  the  former  under  allegiance  to  the  Czar,  the  latter  to 
the  king  of  Poland.  In  Denmark  the  year  of  the  peace  was  marked  by 
a  bloodless  revolution,  which  changed  the  elective  into  a  hereditary 
monarchy,  and  destroyed  the  excessive  power  of  the  nobles.  In  Sweden, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  ancient  nobility  gained  great  ascendency  during 
the  long  minority  of  Charles  XI. 

48.  In  1675,  war  was  renewed  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  was 
joined  by  Christian  V.  of  Denmark  and  aided  with  a  fleet  by  the  Dutch. 
The  Swedes  were  twice  defeated  within  four  days  at  Rathenow  and  Fehr- 
bellin ;  and  sustained  several  great  disasters  at  sea.  The  island  of  Riigen 
v/as  conquered  by  Denmark,  and  Stettin,  after  six  months'  siege,  surren- 
dered to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  Christian  V.  was,  however,  defeated, 
in  1676,  at  Halmstadt ;  and  though  the  still  severer  battle  of  Lunden  was 
indecisive,  he  was  disabled  by  it  from  any  further  attempts  that  year. 
The  next  summer  he  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  at  Landscrona,  though 
his  naval  force  was  constantly  superior  to  that  of  the  S^vedes.  The 
latter,  in  1678,  invaded  ducal  Prussia,  but  without  success ;  and  so  great 
were  their  sufferings,  that  of  their  army  of  16,000  men  only  1,500  re- 
traced their  way  to  Riga. 

49.  The  details  of  this  northern  war  are,  however,  less  important,  be- 
cause Louis  XIV.,  who  now  assumed  to  dictate  terms  to  all  Europe,  inter- 

fered,   and   by   treaties   signed   near  Paris,    compelled    the 
allies  to  restore  to  Sweden  all  their  acquisitions.     Though 
the   latter  power  thus  emerged  from  a  disastrous  war  with   no  loss  of 
territory,  yet  her  navy  was  destroyed,  her  treasury  emptied,  and  her  in- 
ability to  maintain  herself  without  foreign  aid  rendered  clear  to  the  eyes 


TREATY  OF  VASVAB.  285 

of  Europe.  In  this  state  of  depression,  all  classes  except  the  nobility 
called  for  a  revolution  in  the  government;  and  in  a  Diet  at  Stockholm, 
the  clergy,  citizens,  and  peasants  adopted  a  new  constitution  conferring 
absolute  and  irresponsible  power  upon  the  king.  A  subsequent  Diet  in 
1682  required  a  strict  account  from  all  who  had  administered  the  finances 
during  the  young  king's  minority,  or  who  had  held  leases  of  crown-lands 
since  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  prudent  measures  of  Charles 
XI.  during  the  last  years  of  his  reign  so  far  retrieved  the  resources  of  his 
kingdom,  that  his  son,  Charles  XII.,  was  able  for  a  time  to  reestablish 
the  superiority  of  Sweden  in  the  north. 

50.  Before  describing  the  remarkable  changes  which  took  place  in  the 
Kussian  Empire,  we  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  relations  of  Christendom 
with  the  Turks.  Their  "  War  of  Candia "  with  Venice  lasted  twenty-four 
years  (A.  D.  1645-1669) ;  but  its  only  memorable  event  was  its  termina- 
tion in  the  surrender  of  the  city  of  Candia,  after  a  siege  of  two  years  and 
four  months.  The  French  made  vain  attempts  to  relieve  it.  The  whole 
island  remained  nearly  two  centuries  in  the  undisputed  possession  of  the 
Turks. 

Meanwhile,  hostilities  broke  out  afresh,  A.  D.  1663,  between  the  Empire 
and  the  Porte ;  and  Achmet  Koproli,  the  Grand  Vizier,  invaded  Hungary 
with  200,000  men.  In  spite  of  the  vigorous  exertions  of  Montecuculi, 
Neuhausel  and  several  other  fortresses  were  taken,  and  Moravia  was  rav- 
aged by  a  horde  of  Tartars  who  penetrated  nearly  to  Olmiitz.  In  this 
crisis  of  peril  to  all  Europe,  Sweden,  France,  the  Pope,  and  the  Italian 
states  joined  in  sending  contributions  of  men  and  money;  and  with  the 
extraordinary  supplies  voted  by  the  imperial  Diet,  Montecuculi  was  able 
to  take  the  field  with  a  formidable  army.  He  routed  the  Turks  in  the 
great  battle  of  St.  Gothard,  near  the  frontier  of  Hungary  and  Styria ;  but 
instead  of  using  this  advantage  by  pushing  the  war  with  increased  energy, 
the  Court  of  Vienna  hastened  to  make  a  twenty  years'  truce 

All"".  1664. 

with  the  invaders.     By  the  treaty  of  Vasvar,  they  were  per- 
mitted to  retain  all  their  conquests,  and  even  received  a  tribute,  disguised 
under  the  name  of  a  gift,  of  200,000  florins. 

51.  Among  the  reasons  which  forced  the  emperor  to  this  disgraceful 
treaty,  was  the  enmity  of  the  Hungarians  against  the  House  of  Austria. 
The  civil  oppressions  and  religious  persecutions  of  the  latter  gave  rise  to 
repeated  attempts  at  revolt,  until  in  1678,  the  young  Count  Tekeli,  more 
fortunate  than  his  predecessors,  was  able  with  12,000  Hungarians  to  de- 
feat the  imperial  armies  in  Upper  Hungary,  and  occupy  the  whole  region 
of  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  He  allied  himself  with  the  Sultan,  who 
recognized  him  as  king  of  Hungary  in  1682;  and  the  tmce  of  Vasvar 
having  nearly  expired,  Kara  Mustapha,  now  Grand  Vizier,  joined  him 
with  a  large  army  at  Essek  and  marched  upon  Vienna.     At  their  ap- 


286  MODERN  HISTORY. 

proach,  the  emperor  and  his  court  fled  from  the  capital,  followed  in  a 
single  day  by  sixty  thousand  persons. 

52.  After  two  months'  siege  and  the  loss  of  6,000  of  its  garrison  by 
battle  or  pestilence,  Vienna  was  saved  by  the  arrival  of  John  Sobieski, 
king  of  Poland.  This  great  warrior  had  already  covered  himself  with 
glory  by  his  gallant  defense  of  Poland  against  Cossacks  and  Tartars;  and 
had  been  raised  in  1676,  by  the  acclamations  of  his  countrymen,  to  the 
throne.  Increasing  his  army  by  German  reinforcements,  he  numbered 
83,000  men,  when    the    rockets   which   betokened    his  arrival   upon   the 

heights  of  Kahlenberg  kindled  new  hope  in  the  starving 
citizens  of  Vienna.  The  next  day  the  Turks  were  routed 
with  great  slaughter;  and  their  vast  encampments,  with  treasures  of 
money  and  jewels,  as  well  as  horses  and  materials  of  war,  remained  to 
the  victors.  They  were  pursued  in  their  retreat  and  again  defeated  by 
Sobieski  and  the  Duke  of  Lorraine ;  and  the  fortress  of  Gran,  which  for 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half  had  been  held  by  the  Turks,  was  wrested 
from  their  possession.  Kara  Mustapha  atoned  to  his  enraged  sovereign 
by  the  loss  of  his  head. 

53.  The  next  year  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  captured  Wissegrad,  Wait- 
zen,  and  Pesth,  and  besieged  Buda  three  months,  with  a  loss  of  23,000 
men,  but  without  success.  Two  years  later,  after  a  second  siege  of  three 
months,  it  was  taken  by  assaul-t  and  restored  to  the  Hungarians,  having 
been  145  years  a  Mohammedan  city.  In  1684,  the  emperor,  the  king  of 
Poland,  and  the  Venetians  joined  the  Pope  in  what  was  called  a  Holy 
League  against  the  Turks;  and  the  Holy  War  which  followed  lasted  until 
1699.  Austria  in  three  years  regained  all  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and 
Slavonia.  In  the  battle  of  Mohacz,  Aug.,  1687,  the  Turks  were  defeated 
upon  the  field  of  their  former  memorable  victory,     (See  Book  III.,  §  122.) 

64.  By  a  change  in  the  Hungarian  Constitution,  the  crown  of  that 
kingdom  was  now  made  hereditary  in  the  House  of  Austria;  and  the 
magnates  renounced  the  valued  but  mischievous  privilege,  secured  to  them 
by  a  charter  of  Andrew  II.,  A.  D.  1222,  of  taking  up  arms  against  their 
sovereign  whenever  they  judged  him  guilty  of  having  broken  his  corona- 
tion vow.  Imperial  garrisons  were  admitted  into  all  the  fortresses  of  the 
kingdom;  Leopold,  in  return  for  these  concessions,  confirmed  the  ancient 
privileges  of  the  nation,  and  granted  to  all  orders  and  sects  of  Christians 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  His  son,  the  archduke  Joseph,  was 
crowned  king  of  Hungary  in  December,  1687. 

55.  The  Czar^  of  Russia  —  or,  as  it  was  still  called,  Muscovy — joined 
the  League  in   1686;   but  his  efforts  to    conquer  the   Crimea  from  the 


*  The  Czar  Alexis  had  died  in  1676 ;  his  son  Feodor  in  1682.  Another  son,  Ivan,  under  the 
regency  of  his  sister  Sophia,  bore  the  titles  of  sovereignty  until  1689,  when  Peter  the  Great, 
half-brother  of  Feodor  and  Ivan,  assumed  the  crown. 


EUGENE  OF  SAVOY.  287 

Tartars  were  unavailing.  It  was  reserved  for  his  greater  brother, 
Peter,  to  capture  Azov  and  secure  an  entrance  to  the  Black  Sea.  The 
Venetians  gained  brilliant  victories  over  the  Turks  in  southern  and 
central  Greece,  capturing,  among  other  important  but  less  illustrious 
places,  Corinth  and  Athens.  The  Parthenon,  the  greatest  architectural 
ornament  of  the  latter  city — still  perfect  in  its  exquisite  proportions  as 
in  the  days  of  Pericles  —  was  used  by  the  Turks  as  a  powder-magazine. 
During  the  siege,  a  bomb  from  a  Venetian  vessel  fell  into  the  building, 
and  its  explosion  scattered  the  finely  sculptured  marbles  of  the  central- 
portion  to  the  winds.  The  conquest  of  the  Morea  was  completed  by  the 
Venetian  general  Morosini  in  1690. 

66.  The  manifold  disasters  of  the  Turks  in  the  year  1687,  occasioned  a 
mutiny  in  the  army  and  a  riot  in  the  capital,  resulting  in  the  deposition 
and  imprisonment  of  Mahomet  IV.,  and  the  elevation  of  his  brother  Soly- 
man  II.  to  the  throne.  Their  humiliation  only  deepened  during  the  next 
two  years:  Belgrade  was  taken  by  the  imperialists,  and  a  great  part  of 
Bosnia  overrun.  The  Sultan's  demands  for  peace  were  refused,  for  the 
emperor  now  imagined  it  possible  to  annihilate  the  Turkish  power  in 
Europe  and  recombine  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empires.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1689,  these  projects  seemed  almost  on  the  eve  of  fulfillment. 
Several  passes  of  the  Balkan  and  forts  on  the  Danube  were  taken  by 
the^  margrave  of  Baden,  who  fixed  his  winter-quarters  in  Wallachia. 

57.  The  energy  and  talents  of  the  new  Grand  Vizier,  Mustapha  Koproli, 
son  of  Achmet,  enabled  the  Turks  to  recover,  in  1690,  almost  all  that  they 
had  lost.  Belgrade  was  retaken,  Tcmesvar  newly  provisioned,  and  a  battle 
near  Essek  gained  by  the  Vizier,  while  a  division  of  the  Turkish  army 
entered  Transylvania.  The  next  year,  however,  in  the  battle  of  Salan- 
kemen,  the  Turks  were  defeated,  and  Koproli  slain.  Nothing  of  impor- 
tance occurred  during  the  next  five  years,  until  Mustapha  II.,  becom- 
ing Sultan,  crossed  the  Danube  at  the  head  of  his  armies 

and  defeated  the  imperialists  at  Bega.  John  Sobieski  died 
this  year,  and  the  elector  Augustus  of  Saxony,  though  opposed  by  a 
majority  of  the  nobles,  received  the  Polish  crown  through  the  combined 
influence  of  the  Czar,  the  emperor,  the  Jesuits,  and  the  Pope.  He  was 
succeeded  in  command  of  the  imperial  armies  in  Hungary  by  one  of  the 
greatest  generals  of  an  age  especially  distinguished  by  military  genius 
and  science. 

58.  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  though  born  a  French  noble,  had  been 
offended  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  offering  his  services  to  the  emperor,  exacted 
in  later  years  a  bitter  revenge.  Among  his  first  great  exploits  was  a 
signal  overthrow  of  the  Turks  at  Zeuta  on  the  Theiss  (Sept.,  1697),  which 
was  among  the  chief  circumstances  leading  to  a  termination  of  the  war. 
The  Venetians,  meanwhile,  had  made   many  conquests  in  Dalmatia  and 


288  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Albania;  and  the  Prince  of  Orange,  now  king  of  England  as  well  as 
stadtholder  of  Holland,  used  his  influence  in  favor  of  peace.  Three 
months'  negotiations  at  Carlowitz,  near  Peterwardein,  resulted  in  a  treaty 
between  the  Sultan  on  one  side,  and  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Poland, 
and  the  Republic  of  Venice  on  the  other.  The  Turks  ceded 
to  the  House  of  Austria  nearly  all  their  conquests  or  pos- 
sessions in  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Sclavonia,  and  part  of  Croatia ;  to  Ven- 
ice several  Dalmatian  fortresses,  the  isles  of  St.  Maura  and  ^gina,  and  the 
entire  southern  peninsula  of  Greece ;  to  Poland  the  Ukraine,  Podolia,  and 
Kameniek.  The  agreement  with  Russia  was  delayed  more  than  three  years, 
for  the  Sultan  was  most  unwilling  to  admit  his  powerful  neighbor  to  a 
share  in  Black  Sea  navigation.  In  July,  1702,  Azov,  with  eighty  miles  of 
coast,  was  at  length  ceded  to  Peter  the  Great,  who  soon  made  the  fortress 
one  of  the  strongest  in  Europe. 

59.  The  capture  of  Azov  had  been  the  first  success  of  the  young  Czar, 
and  it  was  achieved  by  foreign  aid.  But  before  the  signing  of  the  treaty 
he  had  put  in  execution  his  extraordinary  design  of  exiling  himself  for  a 
time,  that  he  might  become  the  civilizer  of  his  people  by  learning  the  arts 
and  industries  of  more  advanced  nations.  Traveling  in  disguise  as  a  sub- 
ordinate in  one  of  his  own  embassies,  he  passed  through  part  of  Sweden 
and  Brandenburg,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  length  for  several  months  in 
Holland.  Here  he  labored  with  his  own  hands  as  a  ship-carpenter,  and 
adopted  the  raiment,  food,  and  lodgings  of  his  comrades  in  the  shop  and 
yard,  learning  by  actual  experience  all  the  details  of  their  work.  Mean- 
while he  was  constantly  informed  of  movements  in  his  distant  empire, 
and  often  laid  down  the  hatchet  or  the  plane  to  sign  an  order  for  the 
march  of  an  army  or  the  arrest  of  a  suspected  traitor. 

60.  By  the  invitation  of  William  HI.,  he  passed  over  into  England  and 
established  himself  near  the  royal  navy  yard  at  Deptford,  where  he  contin- 
ued his  labors  in  ship-building  while  receiving  instruction  in  surgery,  math- 
ematics, and  navigation.  After  his  studies  were  ended,  he  paid  a  visit  of 
ceremony  to  the  emperor  Leopold  at  Vienna,  and  would  have  continued 
his  journey  into  Italy,  but  news  of  a  revolt  of  the  Strelitz,  the  Russian 
militia,  recalled  him  to  his  own  dominion.  This  formidable  and  turbu- 
lent soldiery  had  more  than  once  attempted  the  life  of  Peter  in  obe- 
dience to  the  orders  of  his  sister  Sophia ;  and  the  Czar  had  begun  in  his 
boyhood  to  train  a  body  of  infantry  after  the  German  tactics  to  super- 
sede it.  The  time  had  now  come  for  its  extermination.  The  ringleaders 
were  already  in  irons ;  the  barbarous  mode  of  their  execution  was  a 
warning  to  those  who  might  have  followed  their  example.  The  Strelitz 
was  forever  dissolved,  and  the  princess  Sophia,  whose  enthronement  had 
been  the  object,  if  she  herself  had  not  been  the  mover,  of  the  plot,  was 
imprisoned  in  a  convent. 


CIVILIZATION  OF  RUSSIA.  289 

CI.  Having  reestablished  his  power  by  these  prompt  and  decisive  meas- 
ures, Peter  began  to  execute  his  cherished  plans  for  the  civilization  of 
his  empire.  He  invited  from  other  nations  generals,  artists,  and  literary 
men  whose  talents  could  aid  in  the  formation  of  his  plans,  as  well  as 
skilled  artisans,  whose  industries  he  patronized  and  sought  to  establish  in 
his  dominion.  Arsenals,  manufactories,  and  schools  of  navigation  were 
established  by  order  of  the  Czar ;  maps  and  charts  of  various  parts  of 
the  Empire,  and  a  general  survey  of  mines,  were  made  by  competent 
experts  and  engineers.  Greater  difficulty  was  encountered  in  introdu- 
cing European  ideas  into  the  domestic  habits  of  the  people.  The  long 
robes  and  unkempt  beards  of  the  men,  the  oriental  seclusion  of  the 
women,  gradually  gave  way  to  western  modes  of  dressing  and  living; 
but  a  brutal  grossness  of  indulgence  still  prevailed  not  less  at  court  than 
among  the  common  people,  and  Peter  often  remarked  that  though  he 
could  civilize  his  empire  he  could  not  reform  himself. 

Talents  and  eccentricities  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  She  abdicates  in  favor  of  her  cousin, 
Charles  X.,  who  aims  at  supremacy  in  the  north,  and  even  dreams  of  founding  a  Gothic 
kingdom  In  the  south,  of  Europe.  Aristocratic  but  unstable  character  of  the  Polish  con- 
stitution. John  Casimir  threatened  by  Sweden  and  Russia.  The  Czar  encourages  a  re- 
volt of  the  Ukraine  Cossacks.  Two  Swedish  and  three  Russian  armies  invade  the  Polish 
territories.  Charles  acknowledged  by  many  as  king  of  Poland.  Ducal  Prussia  ceded  to 
Brandenburg.  Russia,  Denmark,  and  the  Empire  opposed  to  Sweden.  Protector  of  Eng- 
land and  Prince  of  Transylvania  become  her  allies.  Charles  X.  overruns  Denmark,  crosses 
the  frozen  Belts  and  captures  the  islands.  Peace  of  Roskild  mediated  by  France  and 
England.  Charles  violates  its  terms ;  is  besieged  by  Dutch  and  Danish  fleets  in  harbor 
of  Copenhagen,  while  his  lands  are  invaded  by  elector  of  Brandenburg.  Upon  his  death, 
Sweden  makes  peace  with  Poland,  Denmark,  and  Russia.  Power  of  the  nobles  overthrown 
in  Denmark,  temporarily  augmented  in  Sweden.  A  new  war  with  Denmark  and  Bran- 
denburg—  disastrous  to  the  Swedes  —  ended  by  inter^'ention  of  Louis  XIV.  Revolution 
in  Sweden  depresses  the  nobles  and  makes  the  royal  power  absolute. 

"  War  of  Candia  "  ends  in  subjection  of  Crete  to  the  Turks.  Their  conquest  in  Austrian 
dominions  ;  defeat  at  St.  Gothard.  Truce  of  Vasvar  hastened  by  disaflTection  in  Hungary, 
Revolt  of  Count  Tekeli ;  he  seeks  alliance  of  the  Turks,  who  besiege  Vienna.  It  is  re- 
lieved by  Sobieski,  who  routs  and  pursues  the  besiegers.  Gran  retaken;  other  fortresses 
and  finally  Buda  wrested  from  the  Turks.  "Holy  War"  lasts  fifteen  years.  Hungarian 
crown  declared  hereditary  in  the  Hapsburg  family.  Nobles  relinquish  the  right  of  armed 
insurrection,  and  the  nation  receives  a  guarantee  of  civil  and  religious  privileges.  Ac- 
cession of  the  Sultan  Solyman  II.  Many  fortresses  on  the  Danube  taken  from  the  Turks. 
Mustapha  Koproli  retrieves  their  losses,  but  is  defeated  and  slain  at  Salankemen.  Augus- 
tus of  Saxony  becomes  king  of  Poland  — Eugene  of  Savoy  imperial  general-in-chief.  De- 
feat of  the  Turks  at  Zeuta.  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  restores  Southern  Greece  to  Venice,  and 
most  of  its  southern  provinces  to  Austria.  Azov  and  access  to  the  Black  Sea  secured  by 
Peter  of  Russia.  Voluntary  exile  of  the  Czar  for  self-education.  He  introduces  science 
and  material  civilization  into  his  empire ;  disbands  the  Strditz  and  replaces  it  with  modem 
infantry. 


M.  H.— 19. 


290  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Reign  of  Louis  XIV. — Continued. 

62.  Returning  to  the  central  and  more  important  figures  in  the  great 
European  picture,  we  find  Louis  XIV.  still  annexing  new  territories,  in 
spite  of  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  or  at  least  by  the  most  artful  construc- 
tion of  its  terms.     The  free  imperial  city  of  Strasbourg  was 

■    ■       '  secured  by  bribery  and  then  taken  by  surprise ;  and  the  skill 

of  Vauban  soon  made  it  a  fortress  of  the  first  class.  So  important  was  it 
considered  as  an  eastern  bulwark  of  France,  that  a  medal  was  struck  to 
commemorate  the  completion  of  the  works,  bearing  the  inscription  Clmisa 
Germanic  Gallia.  Twenty  other  towns  were  wrested  from  neighboring 
princes;  and  regular  "Courts  of  Reunion"  were  instituted  in  France,  to 
ascertain  what  dependencies  might  have  belonged  at  any  earlier  period  to 
these  newly  annexed  dominions.  The  indignation  excited  in  Germany  by 
this  rapacity  was  only  increased  by  the  intrigues  of  Louis  to  obtain  a 
promise  of  the  imperial  crown  at  the  next  election. 

63.  Under  the  influence  of  William  of  Orange,  Sweden,  Holland,  Spain, 
and  the  Empire  entered  a  joint  protest  against  the  siege  of  Luxembourg 
by  the  French,  and  insisted  upon  a  faithful  execution  of  the  treaties  of 
Miinster  and  Nimeguen.  Warned  by  this  coalition,  Louis  suspended  his 
aggressions,  seizing,  however,  a  pretext  for  his  apparent  moderation  in  the 
siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks  (see  §§  51,  52).  He  declared  that  he  could 
not  prosecute  his  personal  plans  while  Christendom  itself  was  threatened 
by  the  infidel ;  but  he  secretly  urged  the  Sultan  not  to  relax  his  opera- 
tions. In  the  meantime  he  sent  a  fleet  to  bombard  Algiers  and  liberate 
French  and  other  captives.  No  sooner  had  the  Turks  retreated  from 
Vienna,  then  Louis  marched  his  troops  into  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
and  captured  Courtrai  and  Dixmude.  The  next  spring  and  summer 
Oudenarde  and  Luxembourg  were  taken,  Treves  was  dismantled,  Mons 
and  even  Brussels  were  threatened.  A  truce  for  twenty  years  was  now 
arranged  between  France  and  Holland,  and  acceded  to  in  a  few  weeks 
by  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain.  It  was  agreed  that  Louis  should 
keep  Strasbourg  and  the  province  of  Luxembourg,  with  all  the  towns 
which  he  had  annexed  before  August,  1681,  but  should  make  no  farther 
claim  on  the  imperial  territories. 

64.  In  1683,  the  queen  of  France  died;  and  the  next  year  the  king 
privately  married  Mme.  de  Maintenon,  a  woman  of  remarkable  powers 
of  mind,  whose  influence  effected  a  great  change  in  the  life  of  Louis. 
Unhappily  his  reformation  of  morals  was  accompanied  by  an  access  of 
bigotry,  which  led  to  a  renewed  persecution  of  his  Huguenot  subjects. 
The  king  dreamed  of  expiating  his  errors  and  follies  by  the  merit  of 
restoring  some  thousands  of  heretics  to  the  communion  of  the  Roman 
Church  ;    and  a  succession  of  edicts  soon  deprived  the  protestants  of  all 


EMIGRA  TION  OF  HUG  IJENOTS.  291 

tlie  civil  and  domestic  privileges  secured  to  thein  by  the  wiser  policy  of 
Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.  The  great  and  good  Colbert,  their  patron 
and  protector,  was  no  more.  Louvois,  the  minister  of  war,  sent  troops 
of  dragoons  to  crush  resistance  in  the  provinces.  This  brutal  soldiery, 
quartered  in  the  homes  of  the  defenseless  people,  reduced  them  to  de- 
spair. Many  thousands  sent  in  their  submission ;  and  the  pride  of  Louis 
or  the  flattery  of  his  courtiers  declared  him  as  great  a  conqueror  of  the 
souls,  as  of  the  bodies  and  possessions  of  men. 

65.  A  more  decisive  and  fatal  blow  was  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  given  by  Henry  IV.,  and  esteemed  by  the  Huguenots  as  the 
great  charter  of  their  liberties.  It  was  commanded  that  all  protestant 
churches  should  be  demolished,  all  ministers  exiled,  and  the  children  of 
protestant  parents  instructed  by  the  parish  priest  in  the  Catholic  doc- 
trines. These  orders  were  executed  with  even  greater  severity  than  the 
letter  of  the  Kevocation  demanded  or  permitted.  The  best  of  the  Hugue- 
nots were  imprisoned  in  damp  and  noisome  dungeons;  those  who  at- 
tempted resistance  were  shot  without  mercy.  Though  the  severest  pen- 
alties were  denounced  against  those  who  should  leave  France,  hundreds 
of  thousands  found  means  of  emigrating;  and  England,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  even  America,  gained  what  France  lost  —  the  most 
valuable  source  of  wealth  that  any  country  can  possess  —  an  enlightened, 
industrious,  and  skillful  class  of  citizens.  The  great  elector,  Frederic 
William  of  Brandenburg,  distinguished  himself  by  his  liberality  to  the 
refugees — providing  them  with  land  and  materials  for  building,  and 
capital  for  their  manufactures.  Twenty  thousand  found  refuge  in  his 
dominions,  and  their  diligence  soon  transformed  the  waste  sands  about 
Berlin  into  a  well  cultivated  garden.  Among  the  exiles  were  literary 
men  of  high  reputation ;  and  Marshal  Schomberg,  who  after  a  short  resi- 
dence in  Brandenburg,  entered,  with  a  multitude  of  his  compatriots,  the 
service  of  William  of  Orange. 

66.  The  greatest  opponent  of  Louis  XIV.  was  not  slow  to  perceive  the 
blunder  which  that  sovereign  had  committed,  nor  unwilling  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  it.     Through  his  exertions  the  League  of  Augs- 
burg combined  the  emperor  and  the  chief  German  states, 

with  the  kings  of  Spain  and  Sweden  as  princes  of  the  Empire,  in  oppo- 
sition to  France.  The  affairs  of  Cologne  and  the  Palatinate  soon  afforded 
a  pretext  for  hostilities.  French  gold  secured  the  election  of  a  partisan 
of  Louis  to  the  archbishopric,  while  the  Pope  and  the  League  of  Augs- 
burg supported  the  candidature  of  a  Bavarian  prince.  The  Duke  of 
Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  had  married  the  sister  of  the  last  elector 
palatine  of  the  House  of  Simmern.  The  duchess  at  her  marriage  re- 
nounced all  feudal  rights  in  the  Palatinate,  but  not  her  hereditary  claim 
to  the   movable  property  or  allodial  possessions  of  her  family.     Louis 


292  MODERN  HISTORY. 

now  claimed  as  "movables"  all  the  cannon  of  the  electoral  fortresses; 
and  his  lawyers  so  interpreted  the  allodial  tenure  as  to  make  it  include 
nearly  the  entire  province.  The  new  elector,  Philip  William  of  Neu- 
burg,  appealed  to  the  emperor ;  and  the  alarm  excited  by  these  arrogant 
assumptions,  gave  new  importance  to  the  League  of  Augsburg. 

67.  War  began  in  the  autumn  of  1688,  when  French  troops  in  two 
divisions  moved  from  Flanders,  and  while  one  under  Vauban  besieged 
Philipsburg,  the  other  under  Boufflers  occupied  the  electoral  territories 
of  Mentz  and  the  Palatinate  on  the  left  of  the  Ehine.  The  Prince  of 
Orange  availed  himself  of  the  French  movement  to  prosecute  his  views 
in  England. 

To  understand  the  great  revolution  in  that  country,  we  must  briefly 
resume  its  history  under  Charles  II.  The  dismissal  of  Clarendon  in 
1667  left  the  government  in  the  hands  of  a  corrupt  ministry,  which 
interposed  no  obstacle  to  the  king's  subserviency  to  France.  Louis 
XIV.  already  inscribed  in  his  prospective  merit-roll  the  restoration  of 
England  as  well  as  the  Huguenots  to  the  Catholic  Church.  But  this 
prospect  was  in  the  highest  degree  alarming  to  a  majority  of  the  English 
nation,  and  the  general  apprehension  secured  the  passage 
of  the  Test  Act,  requiring  all  persons  in  either  civil  or 
military  office  to  conform  to  the  rites  of  the  national  church  and  ac- 
knowledge the  supremacy  of  the  king. 

68.  The  popular  excitement  was  skillfully  used  by  one  Titus  Gates,  who 
invented  or  greatly  exaggerated  the  evidences  of  a  "  Popish  Plot "  to  kill 
the  king  and  raise  the  Duke  of  York  to  the  throne.  Such  credence  was 
lent  to  the  wicked  fabrications  of  Oat^s,  that  he  even  dared  accuse  the 
queen  herself  as  accessary  to  the  plot.  Lord  Stafford,  a  Catholic  peer, 
was  executed  on  the  same  charge.  A  bill  to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York, 
as  a  papist,  from  the  succession,  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  rejected  by  the  Lords.  The  duke  was  sent  to  "  try  his  hand  at  gov- 
erning" Scotland,  where  the  brutal  proceedings  of  Claverhouse  against 
the  Covenanters  were  only  exasperating  without  subduing  the  resistance 
of  the  people  to  the  law  prohibiting  "  conventicles."  No  great  ameliora- 
tion was  wrought  by  the  new  Lord  High  Commissioner,  unless  the  sub- 
stitution of  judicial  murder  for  military  execution  may  be  so  considered. 

69.  The  wicked  and  notorious  George  Jeffreys,  Chief  Justice  of  Eng- 
land, now  began  to  distinguish  himself  in  his  circuit  through  the  north- 
ern and  western  counties.  The  king  had  already  violated  the  ancient 
privileges  of  London  by  making  the  election  of  mayor  and  sheriffs  de- 
pendent only  upon  his  will.  Other  towns  were  forced  by  Jeffreys  to 
surrender  their  charters.  The  indignation  aroused  by  these  proceedings 
led  to  another  real  or  supposed  conspiracy  to  destroy  both  the  king  and 
the  Duke  of  York. 


REIGN  OF  JAMES  II.  293 

This  "Eye  House  Plot" — if,  indeed,  it  had  any  real  existence  —  was 
the  work  of  obscure  persons;  but  the  government  —  now  as  credulous  and 
unjust  as  the  people  had  been  in  the  opposite  case  of  the  Popish  Plot  — 
accused  lords  Essex  and  Eussell  and  Mr.  Algernon  Sidney  of  having  part 
in  the  treason.  Essex  died  in  prison,  whether  by  his  own  hand  or  by 
another,  has  never  been  proved.  Eussell  and  Sidney  perished  on  the 
scaiFoId.  Both  were  illegally  convicted,  in  defiance  of  the  clearest  de- 
mands of  the  law.  No  overt  act  of  treason  was  charged  upon  either. 
Sidney  was  republican  by  theory  —  the  last  of  the  "Commonwealth-men" 
who  had  opposed  the  protectorate  of  Cromwell  as  well  as  the  restoration 
of  Charles  —  but  he  was  not  an  assassin  nor  a  patron  of  assassins.  Only 
one  witness  could  be  produced  against  him ;  the  law  required  two.  A 
manuscript  found  among  his  papers,  justifying  conspiracy  against  Cali- 
gula and  Nero  was  admitted  as  evidence.  It  was  never  fully  proved  to 
have  been  written  by  him ;  but  in  any  case,  acts  and  not  opinions  are 
the  subjects  of  judicial  inquiry. 

70.  Charles  II.  died  in  February,  1G85,  and  the  Duke  of  York  became 
king  without  open  opposition.  James  II.  was  a  better  man  than  his 
brother ;  but  his  views  both  of  civil  and  religious  affairs  were  even  more 
firmly  opposed  to  those  of  the  most  enlightened  of  his  subjects.  The 
principle  that  governments  exist  for  the  good  of  the  people,  not  the 
people  for  the  government  —  self-evident  as  it  now  appears  —  was  only 
approaching  its  triumph  in  the  English  Eevolution,  It  was  affirmed  by 
the  Whig  party,  then  just  rising  into  importance;  while  the  Tories 
upheld  the  sacred  right  of  kings,  whatever  their  personal  character, 
to  the  unalterable  allegiance  of  their  people. 

71,  James  began  his  reign  by  ordering  the  release  of  all  persons  who 
had  been  imprisoned  for  refusing  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  commanded 
his  judges  to  discourage  further  prosecutions  in  matters  of  religion.  This 
act,  though  apparently  just  and  liberal,  w^as  regarded  with  distrust  by 
the  mass  of  the  nation,  who  saw  in  it  a  first  step  toward  the  introduc- 
tion of  popery.  The  general  discontent  favored  a  concerted  invasion  of 
England  and  Scotland  in  the  interest  of  a  rival  claimant  to  the  crown. 
The  banished  Earl  of  Argyle  landed  in  the  western  Highlands ;  and  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  a  son  of  Charles  II.,  invading  England,  was  pro- 
claimed king  at  Taunton.  Both  movements  failed.  Argyle,  deserted  by 
his  followers,  was  captured  and  put  to  death  at  Edinburgh;  Monmouth, 
though  joined  by  several  thousands  of  Whigs,  was  defeated  in  battle  at 
Sedgemoor,  and  beheaded  at  London.  The  revenge  of  the  court  was  grati- 
fied by  a  series  of  brutal  massacres  perpetrated  by  Colonel  Kirke  in  the 
western  counties;  and  by  the  not  less  barbarous  proceedings  of  Jeffreys 
under  forms  of  law.  The  chief  justice  boasted  that  he  had  hanged  more 
persons  for  high  treason  than  all  English  judges  since  the  Norman  Conquest. 


294  MODERN  HISTORY. 

72.  Presuming  upon  his  success,  the  king  increased  his  standing  army, 
nullified  the  Test  Act  by  his  own  authority,  and  received  a  nuncio  from 
the  Pope  with  ceremonious  homage.  The  primate,  Dr.  Sancroft,  and  six 
other  bishops  venturing  to  remonstrate,  were  imprisoned  in  the  Tower. 
The  people,  though  alarmed,  waited  in  patience  ;  for  the  king  was  grow- 
ing old,  and  his  eldest  daughter,  the  heiress-apparent,  was  the  wife  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  the  great  opponent  of  absolutism  in  civil  and  re- 
ligious affairs.  Many  years  before  his  accession,  James  had  contracted  a 
second  marriage  with  an  Italian  princess,  Mary  of  Modena.  In  June, 
1688,  his  first  son  was  born.  This  event  hastened  the  revolution.  De- 
spairing of  a  return  of  just  government  by  constitutional  means,  many 
men  of  rank  and  influence  sent  an  invitation  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  to 
lead  an  army  into  England. 

73.  It  was  accepted,  and  William  landed  in  Torbay.     The  common 

people  flocked  about  him  from  the  first ;    and  soon  officers 
°^''      '*  of  the  army  and   the  government,  with  their  dependents, 

began  to  arrive  in  his  camp.  The  king,  whose  late  repentance  had  failed 
to  retrieve  his  errors,  sent  his  wife  and  son.  to  France,  and  then  himself 
fled  from  the  capital,  throwing  the  Great  Seal  into  the  Thames,  and 
leaving  England  without  a  government.  The  Prince  of  Orange  summoned 
a  convention  of  the  Estates  of  the  realm  according  to  the  usual  parlia- 
mentary forms.  This  body  having  recognized  the  flight  of  James  II.  as 
an  abdication,  proceeded  to  "secure  the  religion,  laws,  and  liberties"  of 
England  by  a  Declaration  of  Rights,  and  then  offered  the  crown  to  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  in  joint  sovereignty.  Their  reign  began  Feb.  13,  1689, 
the  two  preceding  months  being  called  an  Interregnum. 

74.  Scotland  followed  the  example  of  England,  though  several  clans  of 
Highlanders  made  armed  resistance.  They  defeated  General  Mackay  in 
the  pass  of  Killiecrankie ;  but  their  leader,  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  now 
better  known  as  Viscount  Dundee,  was  slain,  and  the  victory  was  without 
effect.  In  Ireland  the.  contest  was  conducted  by  James  II.  in  person, 
with  forces  furnished  by  his  cousin,  the  king  of  France.     But  the  heroic 

defense  of  Londonderry,  his  defeat  at  New^ton  Butler,  and 
^  ^'       '  the  still  more  decisive  battle  of  the  Boyne  gained  by  Wil- 

liam III.,  wrecked  the  hopes  of  the  Stuarts.  James,  once  more  a  fugitive, 
became  a  pensioner  for  the  rest  of  his  days,  on  the  generosity  of  Louis 
XIV.  So  altered  were  the  relations  of  European  powers,  that  the  king 
of  Spain,  the  emperor,  and  even  the  Pope,  joined  in  congratulating  Wil- 
liam on  his  accession  to  the  throne  ;  for  this  event,  by  turning  the  last 
remaining  ally  of  Louis  into  an  enemy,  imposed  a  check  upon  that  ex- 
travagant ambition  which  was  dreaded  by  all  Europe  alike. 

75.  Unable  to  defend  his  conquests  beyond  the  Rhine,  the  French  king 
had  commanded   his  generals  to  burn   all  the  towns  and  villages  which 


Git  AND  ALLIANCE  AGAINST  LO  VIS  XIV,  295 

they  could  not  garrison.  By  this  brutal  order  100,000  human  beings 
were  made  homeless,  and  rich  and  thriving  cities,  not  less  than  farms, 
orchards,  and  vineyards,  were  changed  into  a  blackened  and  desolate 
wilderness.  The  emperor  Leopold,  in  declaring  war  against  Louis,  de- 
nounced him  as  the  enemy  of  Christendom.  England, 
Holland,  Spain,  and  Savoy  now  joined  in  the  Grand 
Alliance  with  the  emperor  and  the  German  states.  The  war  which 
followed  can  not  be  related  in  detail.  The  greatest  generals  on  the  side 
of  France  under  the  king  himself,  were  the  Duke  of  Luxembourg,  a 
pupil  of  Conde,  Catinat,  who  rather  resembled  Turenne  in  the  caution 
and  scientific  complexity  of  his  movements,  and  Vauban  who  still  occu- 
pies a  first  rank  among  military  engineers.  On  the  other  side  were  the 
consummate  tactics  of  William  of  Orange,  Eugene  of  Savoy,  the  Earl  of 
Marlborough,  and  the  Dutch  engineer,  Cohorn.  The  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
the  emperor's  best  general,  died  in  1690,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  chief 
command  by  the  Bavarian  elector,  Maximilian  Emanuel. 

76.  In  June,  1690,  Luxembourg  gained  a  great  and  decisive  victory  at 
Fleurus,  over  the  Prince  of  Waldeck.  The  next  year  was  marked  by 
the  death  of  the  French  war-minister,  Louvois.  Though  his  insolence 
had  been  almost  as  intolerable  to  his  master  as  his  inhuman  atrocities 
to  the  conquered  peoples,  the  loss  of  his  great  abilities  was  severely  felt. 
In  1692,  by  extraordinary  efforts,  Louis  XIV.  had  under  his  control  the 
largest  military  and  naval  forces  that  France  had  ever  raised.  His  first 
object  was  the  restoration  of  James  II.  to  the  throne  of  England;  and 
30,000  British  exiles  were  assembled  at  Havre,  La  Hogue,  and  Cherbourg 
in  readiness  to  embark  for  their  native  land.  A  great  victory  gained  by 
Admiral  Russell  over  the  French  fleet  annihilated  their  hopes.  As  James 
11.  watched  the  combat  from  the  heights  near  La  Hogue>  his  pride  as  an 
English  admiral  is  said  to  have  surmounted  his  disappointment  as  a 
banished  king,  and  he  expressed  his  delight  in  the  skill  and  bravery  of 
the  forces  of  William. 

77.  The  king  of  France  was  more  fortunate  on  land.  Namur  was 
taken  after  ten  days'  siege,  though  king  William  was  approaching  with 
a  large  army  to  its  relief.  In  the  battle  of  Steinkirk,  which  soon  fol- 
lowed, both  sides  suffered  enormous  losses,  but  the  chief  advantage  re- 
mained with  the  French.  The  next  year,  the  two  kings  were  at  the 
head  of  their  respective  armies  near  Louvain.  Louis  had  more  than 
double  the  numbers  of  his  opponent,  and  the  whole  Spanish  Netherlands 
seemed  within  his  grasp.  But  fearful  of  risking  his  reputation,  he  with- 
drew and  disbanded  part  of  his  forces,  thus  exposing  himself  to  the 
derision  not  only  of  the  enemy  but  of  his  own  officers ;  which  the  glory- 
loving  king  felt  so  keenly  that  he  never  more  appeared  in  the  field. 
In  Piedmont,  however,  Marshal  Catinat  gained  the  great  battle  of  Mar- 


296  MODERN  HISTORY. 

saglia,  and  in  Catalonia  the  Duke  of  Noailles  captured  Rosas ;  while 
Admiral  Tourville  in  the  Bay  of  Lagos  defeated  the  English  squadron 
of  Rooke,  who  was  convoying  an  English  and  Dutch  merchant  fleet 
toward  Smyrna. 

78.  In  spite  of  these  successes,  the  king  of  France  was  desirous  of 
peace.  "The  people  were  perishing  to  the  sound  of  Te  DewnisP  The 
peasantry  had  been  largely  drafted  into  the  armies,  and  the  lands  lay 
uncultivated.  Taxes  upon  industry  dried  up  the  very  sources  of  revenue, 
while  the  kingdom  was  burdened  with  an  enormous  debt.  A  still  stronger 
motive  for  peace  was  found  in  Louis'  views  concerning  Spain,  whose  child- 
less king,  Charles  II.,  was  evidently  near  his  death.  An  understanding 
had  long  before  existed  between  Louis  and  the  emperor  Leopold  —  who, 
by  a  singular  coincidence,"*^  sustained  precisely  the  same  relation  to  the 
Spanish  royal  family  —  respecting  a  partition  of  King  Charles'  dominions 
in  the  event  of  his  death.  But  Louis  could  not  hope  for  a  realization 
of  this  scheme,  if  the  fatal  moment  should  arrive  while  all  Europe  was 
combined  in  arms  against  him.  He  therefore  sought  the  mediation  of 
the  Pope  —  now  Innocent  XII. — and  of  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark ;  and  offered  ample  concessions  as  the  price  of  peace.  The  emperor 
and  the  king  of  England,  well  aware  of  his  exhaustion,  opposed  and  neu- 
tralized all  his  efforts,  and  the  war  went  on  four  years  longer. 

79.  Few  of  its  events  deserve  to  be  recorded.  French  privateers  preyed 
upon  Dutch  and  English  commerce ;  and  the  French  armies  renewed  their 

devastations  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.    Namur  was  retaken 
^  ^'      ^'  by  King  William  ;  and,  as  it  was  the  first  of  Louis'  conquests 

that  had  been  wrested  from  him  by  force,  great  encouragement  was  felt 
by  the  allies.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  was  the  first  to  desert  the  Grand  Al- 
liance, and  reunite  himself  with  France.  The  emperor  was  most  averse 
to  peace;  but  on  the  intimation  that  England  and  Holland  would  make 
a  separate  treaty  with  Louis,  he  consented  at  last  to  negotiate.  The 
ministers  of  all  the  powers  of  Europe  met  in  May,  1697,  at  Ryswick,  a 
little  village  near  the  Hague;  and  in  the  following  September,  the 
French    embassadors    concluded   three   distinct    treaties    with    England, 


*  For  a  table  of  this  faijiily  connection,  see  Appendix.  Each  monarch  was  a  grandson, 
by  his  mother's  side,  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain;  each  had  married  a  daughter  of  Philip  IV. 
and  was  therefore  a  brother-in-law  of  Charles  II.  The  mother  and  the  wife  of  Louis  XIV. 
were  the  eldest  of  their  respective  families;  but  each,  on  the  other  hand,  had  solemnly 
renounced  her  claim  to  the  Spanish  dominion.  Louis  insisted  that  the  Low  Countries 
belonged  of  right  to  the  eldest  child,  whether  son  or  daughter;  and  this  theory  had  led 
to  the  War  of  Devolution  described  in  g?  28,  30. 

The  electoral  prince  of  Bavaria,  a  grandson  of  Leopold  and  his  Spanish  wife,  was  held 
by  many  to  have  the  best  right  to  the  Spanish  crown  on  strictly  hereditary  principles, 
the  renunciation  by  the  two  Infantas  being  considered  binding.  But,  having  been  bom 
in  lf)9r>,  the  Bavarian  prince  was  too  young  to  have  a  personal  share  in  the  dispute. 


LAST  OF  THE  SPANISH  HAPSBURGS.  297 

Holland,  and  Spain.  By  the  first,  Louis  bound  himself  to  acknowledge 
William  III.  as  rightful  king  of  England,  and  to  render  no  further  aid 
to  James  Stuart  or  his  family.  Thus  forever  withdrawn  from  French 
influence,  England  became  in  the  European  system  the  chief  counterpoise 
to  France.  Spain  received  back  all  the  towns  taken  by  the  French  in 
Catalonia,  and  most  of  those  in  the  Netherlands  of  which  Louis  had  ob- 
tained possession  in  various  ways  since  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen.  The 
following  month  a  treaty  was  also  concluded  with  the  emperor  on  the 
basis  of  those  of  Nimeguen  and  Westphalia.  The  Duke  of  Lorraine  — 
Leopold,  son  of  Charles  V.  (see  §§  24,  38,  75)  —  was  restored  to  his  pa- 
ternal dominions,  but  Alsace  remained  to  France.  Joseph  Clement  of 
Bavaria  was  confirmed  in  the  electorate  of  Cologne ;  and  the  Duchess  of 
Orleans  resigned  all  her  claims  in  the  Palatinate  upon  receiving  a  sum 
of  money  from  the  new  elector. 

80.  All  Europe,  during  the  next  three  years,  watched  the  declining 
health  of  the  king  of  Spain.  That  kingdom  seemed  in  fact  almost  as 
near  its  dissolution  as  the  king ;  for  earthquakes,  hurricanes,  inundations, 
and  famine  were  added  to  the  more  avoidable  sources  of  misery  in  a 
bankrupt  treasury  and  the  general  neglect  of  public  discipline.  To  dis- 
arm the  opposition  of  all  Europe  to  the  combination  of  two  such  domin- 
ions as  those  of  Spain  and  the  Empire  in  one  person,  Leopold  assigned 
his  Spanish  claims  to  his  second  son,  the  archduke  Charles,  while  Louis 
for  a  similar  reason  proposed  as  his  candidate  his  grandson,  Philip  of 
Anjou,  second  son  of  the  Dauphin. 

81.  Since  the  emperor,  disregarding  his  former  compact,  assumed  to 
dispose  of  the  whole  dominion  of  Spain  at  home  and  abroad  —  not  less 
as  the  head  of  the  House  of  Austria,  than  as  the  grandson  of  a  Spanish 
king  —  Louis  sought  an  ally  in  his  late  most  bitter  enemy,  the  king  of 
England.  To  prevent  the  absorption  by  Louis  of  the  entire  patrimony 
of  Charles  II.,  and  the  consequent  enormous  increase  of  French  power, 
William  III.  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  of  partition,  con- 
cluded   at    the    Hague    between    England,    Holland,    and 

France,  by  which  the  Bavarian  prince  was  to  receive  the  kingdom  of 
Spain,  with  its  possessions  in  the  Low  Countries  and  in  America;  only 
its  Italian  dependencies  being  divided  between  the  Dauphin  and  the 
archduke  Charles.  No  territorial  advantage  was  sought  by  either  Eng- 
land or  Holland,  their  action  being  purely  defensive.  This  treaty  com- 
ing to  the  knowledge  of  Charles  II.,  he  was  naturally  incensed,  and  re- 
taliated by  a  will  in  which  he  made  the  Prince  of  Bavaria  his  sole  heir. 
The  little  prince  died  suddenly,  however,  in  1699 ;  and  both  the  will  and 
the  treaty  were  rendered  void. 

82.  A  new  partition  was  arranged  in  1700  by  William  and  Louis,  as- 
signing to  the  Dauphin  Lorraine  and  all  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy, 


298  MODERN  HISTORY. 

except  Milan ;  while  Spain  itself  was  allotted  to  the  archduke  Charles  on 
condition  of  its  being  forever  kept  separate  from  the  Empire.  The  Duke 
of  Lorraine  was  to  have  Milan  in  exchange  for  his  hereditary  duchy. 
If  the  emperor  rejected  this  arrangement,  Spain  was  destined  for  a  third 
party,  supposed  to  be  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  The  unseemly  dispute  was 
carried  on  in  the  very  court  of  Madrid,  where  the  envoys  of  the  several 
conflicting  powers  obtained  ascendency  by  turns  over  the  feeble  and 
vacillating  mind  of  Charles  II.  The  French  interest  prevailed  at  length, 
and  the  king  made  a  new  will,  bequeathing  his  undivided  dominions  to 
the  Duke  of  Anjou.  A  month  later  he  died,  in  the  39th  year  of  his 
age  and  the  37th  of  his  reign. 

Strasbourg  and  many  other  towns  annexed  by  Louis  XIV.  after  the  peace  of  Nimeguen. 
A  fresh  coalition  of  the  Treaty  Powers  compels  a  truce.  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes ; 
dragonnades ;  emigration  of  nearly  half  a  million  Huguenots  to  protestant  countries. 
League  of  Augsburg  unites  the  German  states  against  Louis. 

Discontent  in  England  with  the  French  policy  of  Charles  II.  Popish  and  Eye  House 
Plots  lead  to  the  execution  of  Stafford,  Russell,  and  Sidney.  Accession  of  James  II.  Rise 
of  the  "  Whigs  "  and  "  Tories."  Failure  of  Monmouth's  rebellion.  Birth  of  a  Prince  of 
Wales  disappoints  the  Whigs,  who  invite  the  Prince  of  Orange  into  England.  James  de- 
serts his  capital ;  William  and  Mary  are  proclaimed,  upon  their  acceptance  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Rights.  James  is  defeated  in  Ireland  —  most  signally  in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 
Grand  Alliance  of  all  Europe  against  Louis  XIV.  The  allies  are  defeated  at  Fleurus; 
victorious  in  a  naval  battle  off  La  Hogue ;  defeated  at  Steinkirk.  Namur  taken  by  Louis 
XIV. ;  recaptured  after  three  years  by  William  III.  Louis  seeks  peace  in  order  to  secure 
the  inheritance  of  Spain.  Treaty  of  Ryswick,  A.  D.  1G97.  Treaty  for  partition  of  the 
Spanish  possessions  signed  by  the  kings  of  France  and  England.  Death  of  the  Prince  of 
Bavaria  occasions  a  new  Partition  Treaty.  The  king  of  Spain  bequeaths  his  dominions 
to  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV. 


War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

83.  Less  than  three  months  from  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  Philip  V. 
was  welcomed  with  acclamations  to  his  capital  of  Madrid ;  and  most  of 
the  European  powers  hastened  to  acknowledge  him.  The  emperor's  in- 
terference was  delayed  by  symptoms  of  a  Hungarian  insurrection,  and 
by  disturbances  in  northern  Germany  occasioned  by  the  creation  of  a 
ninth  electorate  —  that  of  Hanover.  All  seemed  to  favor  the  interests 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  by  a  conciliatory  policy  he  might  perhaps  have  se- 
cured the  advantages  which  he  had  gained.  But  he  gave  needless  offense 
to  England  and  the  Spanish  nation,  and  alarmed  the  Dutch  by  expelling 
their  garrisons  from  several  towns  in  the  Netherlands  which  had  been 
guaranteed  to  them  as  a  frontier  on  the  side  of  France.  Thus  several 
nations  were  ready  to  combine  against  him  when  the  favorable  moment 
should  arrive.    The  emperor  listened  to  the  urgent  advice  of  Eugene  of 


KINGDOM  OF  PRUSSIA.  299 

Savoy,  who  represented  that  the  Empire  could  never  be  safe  while  the 
French  held  entrances  to  it  through  northern  Italy  and  Belgium. 

84.  By  the  Treaty  of  the  Crown,  executed  at  Vienna,  Leopold  gained 
a  powerful  ally  without  cost.  Frederic  III.,  elector  of  ^^  ^^^^ 
Brandenburg,  coveted  the  title  of  king.  The  emperor  en- 
gaged to  recognize  his  royal  dignity,  in  consideration  of  certain  aids  to 
be  rendered  in  the  field,  the  Diet,  and  the  electoral  Council;  and  the 
elector,  hastening  to  Konigsberg,  assumed  with  great  ceremony  the  crown 
and  title  of  "King  of  Prussia."  The  new  kingdom,  from  the  necessity 
of  its  position,  assumed  from  the  first  that  military  character  which  it 
still  retains.  Owing  its  rise  to  the  energetic  war-policy  of  the  Great 
Elector — father  of  the  first  king  —  it  was  raised  by  a  progressive  mili- 
tary organization  during  the  next  two  reigns  to  a  rank  among  the 
"Great  Powers"  of  Europe.  Prince  Eugene,  having  massed  his  forces 
near  Trent,  descended  in  May,  1701,  upon  the  plain  of  Lombardy.  Catinat 
was  defeated,  and  the  imperialists  occupied  the  whole  country  between 
the  Adige  and  the  Adda.  Villeroy,  succeeding  to  the  command  of  the 
French  forces,  was  still  more  signally  worsted  at  Chiari  and  Cremona. 

85.  A  second  Grand  Alliance  of  the  emperor  with  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land and  Prussia,  the  States-General,  and  the  elector  palatine,  avowed 
its  determination  to  secure  the  reasonable  claims  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
as  well  as  the  colonies  and  commerce  of  Holland  and  England,  against 
French  aggression.  As  before,  William  of  Orange  was  the  soul  of  the 
movement.  To  his  rupture  of  the  Partition  Treaty,  Louis  XIV.  now 
added  a  more  flagrant  insult  to  that  prince,  by  recognizing  James  Stuart, 
upon  the  death  of  his  father,  the  late  king  James  II.,  as  king  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  This  act  aroused  the  slumbering  loyalty  of  the 
English  Parliament,  which  immediately  voted  liberal  supplies  for  the  war, 
with  the  petition  that  "  no  peace  shall  be  made  with  France,  until  his 
Majesty  and  the  nation  have  made  reparation  for  the  great  indignity  offered 
by  the  French  king."  An  "Act  for  adjuring  the  pretended  Prince  of 
Wales"  passed  a  few  months  later. 

86.  The  death  of  William  in  March  for  a  moment  disconcerted  the 
allies.  His  sister-in-law  and  successor,  Queen  Anne,  how-  ^  ^  ^^^^^ 
ever,   declared   her   intention   to   pursue   the   same   policy 

which  he  had  begun ;  and  the  Earl  of  Marlborough  proceeded  with  an 
army  to  Holland.  By  a  peaceful  revolution,  the  United  Provinces  — or 
rather  the  five,  exclusive  of  Friesland  and  Groningen  — abolished  the 
office  of  Stadtholder,  which  had  been  borne  by  William  until  his  death, 
and  resumed  the  more  purely  republican  government,  supported  by  the 
De  Witts.  Heinsius,  Grand  Pensionary  of  Holland  —  a  firm  adherent  to 
the  policy  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  — had  the  chief  voice  in  the  affairs 
of  the  United  Netherlands,  and  with  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene 


300  MODERN  HISTORY. 

constituted  what  was  called  the  Triumvirate  of  the  Second  Grand  Al- 
liance. 

87.  England,  Holland,  and  the  Empire  declared  war  against  France 
and  Spain  in  May,  1702.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  and  his  brother,  the 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  whose  investiture  had  been  so  strenuously  opposed 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1688,  were  nevertheless  allies  of  France ;  and  the  terri- 
tory of  Cologne  was  the  first  object  of  attack  by  the  English  and  Dutch. 
Kaiserswerth,  Venloo,  Stephanswerth,  Ruremond,  and  finally  Liuge,  were 
successively  captured  during  the  campaign  of  1702.  The  king  of  the  Ro- 
mans meanwhile  commanded  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  where  Prince  Louis 
of  Baden,  his  associate  in  command,  took  Landau  in  September.  Prince 
Eugene,  as  before,  conducted  the  campaign  in  Piedmont,  where  Philip  V. 
appeared  for  a  few  months  at  the  head  of  the  French  and  Spanish  forces. 
On  the  sea,  the  allied  fleet  succeeded  in  sinking  or  capturing  the  entire 
Spanish  West  India  squadron,  laden  with  gold  and  silver. 

88.  The  next  year,  Marlborough,  now  duke,  completed  the  conquest  of 
the  electorate  of  Cologne,  while  the  allies  captured  Limburg,  and  Guel- 
ders.  The  French  party  was  more  successful  in  Germany,  where  the 
elector  of  Bavaria  not  only  repulsed  a  two-fold  invasion  of  his  dominions, 
but  seized  Ratisbon  and  with  Marshal  Villars  defeated  the  imperialists  at 
Hochstiidt.  An  insurrection  in  Hungary  under  Prince  Ragotzki  diverted 
the  Austrian  forces,  and  Vienna  might  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
elector,  had  he  not  delayed  his  attack  until  the  season  was  too  far  ad- 
vanced. The  French  on  the  Rhine  had  meanwhile  taken  Breisach,  de- 
feated the  emperor's  army  at  Spirebach  and  recaptured  Landau.  The 
Duke  of  Savoy,  offended  by  not  receiving  the  command  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  forces,  now  deserted  the  cause  of  his  son-in-law,  the  king 
of  Spain,  and  joined  the  Grand  Alliance,  thus  cutting  off  the  communi- 
cation between  France  and  Italy.  Pedro  II.  of  Portugal,  also  —  led  by 
the  admiral  of  Castile,  who  found  himself  slighted  by  Philip  V.  —  entered 
into  a  perpetual  alliance  with  England  and  the  United  Netherlands. 
These  accessions  emboldened  the  allies  to  extend  their  plans,  and  not 
only  push  the  Austrian  claims  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  but  substi- 
tute the  archduke  Charles  for  Philip  of  Bourbon  upon  the  thVone  of 
Spain. 

89.  In  1704,  Marlborough  was  in  Germany.  His  army  having  joined 
that  of  Louis  of  Baden  near  Ulm,  he  took  the  heights  of  Schellenberg 
by  slorm,  and  thus  gained  an  important  control  of  the  Danube.  A  junc- 
tion was  now  effected  with  Prince  Eugene,  and  in  the  great  battle  of 
Blenheim  near  Hochstiidt,  the  allies  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
French  and  Bavarians.  A  great  mass  of  infantry  who  had  taken  no  part 
in  the  action,  surrendered  themselves  prisoners,  and  the  French  were 
compelled  to  evacuate  Germany.     They  were  pursued  across  the  Rhine; 


WAR    OF  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION.  301 

aud  Marlborough,  after  taking  Treves  and  several  other  towns,  fixed  his 
advanced  posts  upon  the  Sarre.  All  the  Bavarian  fortresses  were  sur- 
rendered to  the  emperor,  except  Munich,  which  was  dismantled,  but  con- 
tinued to  be  the  residence  of  the  electress ;  while  the  elector  retained  only 
his  appointment  as  governor-general  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

90.  In  Italy,  fortune  favored  the  French,  who  regained  their  communi- 
cation with  the  Milanese  by  reconquering  the  northern  part  of  Piedmont. 
Meanwhile,  Charles  III.,  the  Austrian  candidate  for  the  Spanish  crown, 
landed  in  Portugal  with  a  Dutch  and  English  army ;  but  his  progress  was 
checked  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  a  son  of  James  II.,  who  was  in  the 
French  service.  The  English  fleet  of  Admiral  Kooke  gained  possession, 
almost  by  accident,  of  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar.  It  had  been  but  slightly 
garrisoned  by  the  Spaniards,  who  presumed  upon  its  enormous  natural 
strength.  A  party  of  English  sailors,  availing  themselves  of  a  holiday, 
when  the  eastern  side  had  been  left  unguarded,  scaled  that  precipitous 
height,  while  another  party  stormed  the  South  Mole;  and  Rooke  occu- 
pied the  fortress  in  the  name  of  the  queen  of  England.  The  campaign 
closed  favorably  to  the  allies.  Louis  XIV.,  expelled  from  Germany,  had 
lost  the  alliance  of  Bavaria;  the  key  to  the  Mediterranean  v/as  in  the 
hands  of  the  English;  and  France  herself  was  threatened  with  invasion 
by  the  allied  army  on  the  Moselle. 

91.  The  next  year  was  marked  by  the  death  of  the  emperor  Leopold 
and  the  accession  of  his  son,  Joseph  I.,  a  prince  of  more 

energetic  and  decisive  character.  The  Hungarians  under 
Ragotzki  were  still  in  revolt;  and  in  spite  of  all  Joseph's  concessions, 
demanded  a  return  to  their  former  elective  constitutions.  A  rebellion 
in  Bavaria  was  suppressed  by  force,  and  the  emperor  resolved  to  blot  out 
that  electorate  from  the  map  of  Germany.  Its  territories  were  divided 
among  several  princes,  the  Upper  Palatinate  being  restored  to  the  elector- 
palatine,  from  whose  dominions  it  had  been  separated  since  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  The  main  actions  of  1705  were  in  Italy  and  Spain.  Prince 
Eugene  was  defeated  at  Cassano  by  the  Duke  of  Vendome;  but  on  the 
other  hand,  the  French  w^re  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of  Gibraltar, 
and  the  Earl  of  Peterboro',  having  captured  Barcelona,  secured  the  alle- 
giance of  Catalonia  and  a  great  part  of  Valencia  for  Charles  III.  The 
archduke  w\as  present  at  the  surrender,  and  was  hailed  with  acclamations 
as  king  of  Spain. 

92.  The  next  year  Aragon  also  proclaimed  him ;  and  from  the  western 
border,  the  allies  marched  upon  Madrid,  which,  deserted  by  Philip  and 
his  court,  fell  easily  into  their  hands.  The  people,  however,  preferring 
the  French  to  the  Austrian  succession,  rose  against  their  invaders,  ex- 
pelled the  garrisons,  and  forced  the  two  allied  armies,  now  united,  to  retire 
into  Valencia.     Alicant  and  Cartagena  were  taken  by  the  English,  but 


302  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  latter  was  recaptured   by  the   Duke  of  Berwick.     The  same  year, 
Prince   Eugene,   having  joined    his   cousin,   the    Duke   of 
''   '  Savoy,  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  French  before 

Turin.  Charles  III.  was  proclaimed  in  Milan,  and  all  Lombardy  sub- 
mitted to  the  imperialists.  Marlborough  in  the  Netherlands  had  gained 
in  May  the  no  less  brilliant  and  decisive  victory  of  Ramillies,  by  which 
Brabant  and  the  greater  part  of  Flanders  were  conquered  for  the  allies; 
and  liad  taken  Menin,  Dendermonde,  and  Ath.  \ 

93.  Humiliated  by  these  reverses,  Louis  XIV.  offered  to  abandon  Spain 
and  the  Indies  to  Charles  III.  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands  to  Holland, 
on  condition  of  the  Italian  possessions  being  secured  to  Philip  of  Anjou. 
The  allies  refusing  to  accept  less  than  the  whole  Spanish  inheritance,  the 
war  went  on,  and  in  the  spring  of  1707,  fortune  began  to  favor  the 
French.  In  the  fatal  battle  of  Almanza,  the  allies  lost  all  their  infantry, 
with  their  standards,  baggage,  and  artillery.  Valencia  and  Aragon  sub- 
mitted to  Philip  V. ;  Lerida  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Catalonia  and  Portugal,  respectively,  were  recaptured.  The  allies  were 
scarcely  more  successful  in  northern  Italy  or  in  their  invasion  of  France. 
Toulon  was  blockaded  by  the  united  forces  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  on  tHe  land,  and  by  the  fleet  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel 
on  the  sea,  but  the  approach  of  a  French  army  compelled  the  raising  of 
the  siege.  In  southern  Italy,  however,  the  whole  kingdom  of  Naples 
was  gained  for  Charles  III.  by  a  small  imperial  army  under  Marshal 
Daun. 

94.  The  union  of  England  and  Scotland  this  year  excited  some  dis- 
content in  the  latter  kingdom,  of  which  Louis  XIV.  attempted  to  avail 
himself  by  sending  a  fleet  and  5,000  men  to  escort  the  Pretender,  James 
III.,  to  the  Firth  of  Forth.  His  design  was  frustrated  by  Admiral  Byng ; 
and  it  is  only  worthy  of  mention  as  the  first  of  a  series  of  similar 
attempts,  some  of  which  were  more  formidable,  but  all  equally  in  vain. 
Loyalty  to  the  Stuarts  naturally  lingered  longer  in  Scotland,  their  ancient 
home,  than  in  England,  their  recently  acquired  dominion. 

In  the  Netherlands,  this  year,  the  French  gained  possession  of  Ghent 
and  Bruges;  but  the  armies  of  Marlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Oudenarde  over  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Vendome,  captured  Lille  by  a  long  and  difficuli; 
siege,  rescued  Brussels  from  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  and  reconquered  the 
two  revolted  cities,  thus  regaining  all  Spanish  Flanders,  and  occupying 
part  of  that  which  had  belonged  to  France.  In  the  Mediterranean,  Ad- 
miral Leake  received  the  submission  to  Charles  III.  of  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  and  established  a  British  garrison  at  Port  Mahon.  Majorca  and 
Iviga  had  already  declared  for  the  archduke. 

95.  The  exhaustion  and  ruin  of  France  at  the  end  of  1708,  were  ag- 


TREATY  OF  UTRECHT. 


303 


gravated  by  a  winter  of  extraordinary  severity,  which  destroyed  vine- 
yards, orchards,  and  the  grain  already  sown,  and  produced  for  the  ensu- 
ing season  a  terrible  famine.  Whole  families  of  the  poor  were  found 
frozen  to  death  in  their  wretched  hovels ;  the  rapid  current  of  the  Khone 
was  arrested,  and  the  Mediterranean  seemed  almost  transformed  into  a 
polar  sea.  The  misery  of  the  people  produced  a  universal  outcry  against 
the  war,  and  Louis  was  compelled  to  offer  still  more  humiliating  terms 
than  before,  as  the  price  of  peace.  But  his  sincerity  was  doubted,  and 
the  allies  demanded  that  he  should  himself  aid  in  expelling  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  from  Spain.  The  pride  of  the  French,  even  in  the  depth  of 
their  distress,  revolted  at  this  indignity,  and  they  resolved  to  continue 
the  war. 

06.  In  the  next  campaign,  Marlborough  and  Eugene  captured  Tournay, 
and  by  a  dearly-bought  victory  at  Malplaquet  obtained  the  surrender  of 
Mons.  The  Pope  recognized  Charles  III.  as  king  of  Spain.  In  1710  Louis 
renewed  his  former  proposals  of  peace,  and  even  offered  a  million  livres  a 
month  to  aid  the  allies  in  expelling  Philip  from  the  peninsula.  Their 
haughty  rejoinder  required  him  to  use  his  own  armies  for  that  purpose. 
The  old  king  exclaimed,  "If  I  must  needs  fight,  I  will  war  against  my 
enemies,  not  my  children!"  His  determination  was  justified  by  two 
brilliant  victories,  gained  by  his  armies  at  Brihuega  and  Villa  Viciosa, 
which  confirmed  the  power  of  Philip  V.  in  Spain. 

97.  England  by  this  time  was  weary  of  a  w^ar  in  which  she  bore  the 
chief  burdens  and  reaped  few  advantages.  A  Tory  ministry  succeeded 
the  party  of  which  Marlborough  was  a  leading  member;  and  in  1711  the 
early  and  unexpected  death  of  the  emperor  Joseph  changed  the  whole 
interest  of  Europe  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  The  archduke 
Charles  was  the  foremost  candidate  for  the  imperial  crown,  and  if  he 
should  also  obtain  that  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  Europe  would  again  be 
threatened  with  a  universal  monarchy,  the  dread  of  which  had  armed  all 
the  nations  against  Louis  XIV.  Preliminary  articles  between  England 
and  France  were  signed  at  London  in  October,  1711.  In  December,  the 
archduke  was  crowned  at  Frankfort  as  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  Not- 
withstanding the  discontent  of  the  allies  at  the  desertion  of  their  cause 
by  England,  the  new  ministry  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  dismissal  of 
Marlborough  from  all  his  appointments,  and  the  chief  supporter  of  the 
war-policy  thus  lost  his  influence  in  public  affairs. 

98.  A  congress  for  the  conclusion  of  peace  was  opened  at  Utrecht  in 
January,  1712.  Eighty  ministers  on  the  part  of  the  allies  conferred  with 
three  representatives  of  the  French  king.  During  the  progress  of  nego- 
tiations, a  series  of  domestic  calamities  befell  Louis  XIV.,  which  compli- 
cated the  tasks  of  the  diplomatists.  By  the  death  of  his  eldest  son  in 
1711,  the  title  of  Dauphin  and  successor  to  the  throne  had  descended  to 


304       ^  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  prince  of  the  greatest  promise,  whose  talents 
and  virtues  had  been  strengthened  and  improved  by  tlie  wise  instructions 
of  Fenelon.  In  February,  1712,  the  young  Dauphin  suddenly  died  of 
a  fever  which  had  robbed  him,  a  few  days  before,  of  his  wife,  and  which 
now  attacked  their  two  little  children.  The  elder  of  these,  the  Duke  of 
Bretagne,  died;  but  the  younger,  only  two  years  of  age,  his  infant  con- 
stitution weakened  by  the  disease,  survived ;  and  his  feeble  life  was  the 
only  barrier  —  except,  indeed,  an  oath  of  renunciation,  which  experience 
showed  could  be  too  easily  disregarded  —  between  Philip  V.  of  Spain  and 
the  throne  of  France.  Upon  the  demand  of  England,  the  Spanish  king 
ceded  his  French  claims  to  his  younger  brother,  the  Duke  of  Berri. 

99.  The  emperor  refused  to  join  in  the  conference  at  Utrecht,  and  con- 
tinued the  war,  though  it  brought  him  only  disaster.  At  length  he  con- 
sented to  a  separate  treaty  with  France ;  and  Prince  Eugene  met  Marshal 

Villars,  his  former  opponent  in  arms,  for  a  conference  at 
Eastadt,  in  which  military  directness  took  the  place  of  the 
slow  and  ceremonious  action  of  the  diplomatists.  The  Peace  of  Eastadt 
restored  the  entire  right  bank  of  the  Ehine  to  the  Empire.  All  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  Italy  —  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Sardinia,  Milan, 
and  the  fortresses  on  the  Tuscan  coast  —  with  all  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, except  certain  frontier  towns  which  were  secured  to  the  Dutch, 
were  ceded  to  Charles  VI.  In  a  subsequeat  Barrier  Treaty  between  the 
emperor  and  the  States,  it  was  agreed  that  a  standing  army  should  be 
maintained  in  the  "  Austrian  Netherlands,"  as  they  are  now  to  be  called ; 
three-fifths  of  the  men  being  in  the  imperial,  and  two-fifths  in  the  Dutch 
service.  The  electors  of  Cologne  and  Bavaria  were  restored  to  their 
estates,  on  consenting  to  acknowledge  the  new  electorate  of  Hanover. 

100.  The  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  regulated  almost  all  the 
boundary  lines  in  Europe,  can  only  be  generally  indicated.  The  succes- 
sion of  the  elector  of  Hanover*  to  the  English  crown  after  the  death 
of  Queen  Anne,  was  acknowledged  by  the  king  of  France,  who  engaged 
also  to  dismantle  Dunkirk,  and  to  cede  to  England  the  whole  tract  in 
North  America  including  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  Hudson's  Bay. 
Louis  recognized  the  royal  title  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  ceded  to  him, 
as  representative  of  the  House  of  Orange,  the  principality  of  Neuchatel 
in  Switzerland,  v/hile  Frederic  I.  relinquished  his  claims  to  the  principal- 
ity of  Orange.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  received  back  his  territories,  which 
were  divided  from  those  of  France  by  the  water-shed  of  the  Alps.  He 
was  invested  by  Spain  with  the  island-kingdom  of  Sicily,  and  the  ultimate 
succession  to  the  Spanish  crown  in  case  of  the  failure  of  the  line  of 
Philip  V.    The  duke  was  crowned  at  Palermo,  November,  1713.    Philip 


♦See  Appendix— for  the  derivation  of  the  Hanoverian  from  the  Stuart  dynasty. 


i 


DEATH  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  305 

V.  was  formally  recognized  by  the  other  powers,  as  king  of  Spain.  He 
ceded  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  to  England  on  the  condition  that  neither 
Moors  nor  Jews  should  be  tolerated  in  either ;  recognized  the  Hanoverian 
succession,  and  assigned  to  England  a  monopoly  of  the  slave-trade  with 
the  Spanish  colonies  for  thirty  years.  Spain  and  Portugal  resumed  their 
former  boundaries.  The  remaining  articles  of  the  treaty  related  chiefly 
to  commercial  and  colonial  matters,  and  though  important  to  the  nations 
concerned,  were  too  niinute  to  be  detailed  here. 

101.  Two  of  the  high  contracting  parties  to  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  died 
soon  after  its  completion.  Anne  was  succeeded  upon  the  English  throne, 
in  1714,  by  George  Lewis,  elector  of  Hanover,  a  prince  whose  ruling 
motive  was  hatred  of  France,  and  who  immediately  recalled  the  Whig 
ministry  and  reinstated  Marlborough  as  captain-general  of  the  armies. 
Louis  XIV.  died,  Sept.  1,  1715,  after  a  reign  of  72  years,  which  had 
formed  a  most  memorable  era  in  European  history.  His  great  talents 
and  his  rich  inheritance  would  have  given  him,  in  any  case,  a  leading 
power  among  the  nations;  but  his  immoderate  desire  of  conquest  made 
him  the  scourge  rather  than  the  benefactor  of  Europe.  His  treasury  — 
which  in  the  earlier  years  of  his  active  reign  had  been  always  well  filled 
by  his  own  thrift  and  the  able  management  of  his  ministers  —  was  long 
ago  drained  by  ruinous  wars,  and  he  resorted  to  the  most  oppressive 
measures  to  wring  further  supplies  from  a  starving  and  exhausted  people. 
Conscious  of  his  failures,  and  of  the  worthlessness  of  that  "glory"  which 
had  been  the  idol  of  his  youth,  the  king  sought  refuge  in  an  abject 
superstition  which  inflicted  a  last  injury  upon  his  realm.  He  committed 
the  keeping  of  his  conscience  to  the  Jesuit  Le  Tellier,  who  engaged  him 
in  a  bitter  persecution  of  the  Jansenists  —  the  steadfast  opponents  of  the 
moral  and  political,  no  less  than  the  doctrinal  system  of  the  Jesuits. 

102.  If  Louis'  life  had  been  prolonged,  his  evasion  of  several  articles 
of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  —  especially  the  aid  which  he  rendered  to  James 
Stuart  in  his  invasion  of  Scotland  in  1715  —  would  probably  have  again 
broken  the  peace  of  Europe.  But  a  fever  ended  his  days,  and  the  ad- 
monition which  he  addressed  to  his  great-grandson  from  his  death-bed, 
contained  a  condemnation  of  his  life-long  policy :  "  Live  at  peace  with 
your  neighbors;  do  not  imitate  me  in  my  fondness  for  war,  nor  in  my 
exorbitant  expenditure.  .  .  Endeavor  to  relieve  the  people  at  the  earliest 
possible  moment,  and  thus  accomplish  what,  unfortunately,  I  myself  am 
unable  to  do."  It  would  be  unjust,  however,  to  omit  the  more  favorable 
view  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  He  encouraged  and  rewarded  the  in- 
dustries of  his  people.  The  wise  economy  of  Colbert  fostered  the  colonial 
system,  and  while  stimulating  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce, 
did  not  neglect  the  moral  and  intellectual  interests  of  the  nation.  The 
French   Academy,  founded  by  Richelieu,  became  a  great  institution  of 

M.  H.— 20. 


306  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  state.  Four  other  academies,  established  during  this  reigu — those 
of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  of  Sciences,  of  Architecture,  and  of 
Painting  and  Sculpture  —  have  been  distinguished  ever  since  by  the  zeal, 
industry,  and  learning  of  their  members. 

103.  Colbert  first  connected  ihQ  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic  by 
the  Canal  of  Languedoc,  enlarged  and  improved  several  harbors,  formed 
great  marine  arsenals  at  Toulon,  Brest,  Havre,  and  Dunkirk,  and  aug- 
mented the  naval  power  of  France  by  his  unremitting  attention  to  the 
fleet.  According  to  the  notions  of  the  time,  he  thought  to  promote  com- 
merce by  the  formation  of  great  monopolies,  such  as  the  trading  com- 
panies of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  the  North  and  the  Levant. 

The  "  Age  of  Louis  XIV."  is  remarkable  as  a  great  literary  era.  The 
dramas  of  Corneille,  Racine,  and  Moliore,  the  letters  and  "Thoughts"  of 
Pascal,  the  sermons  of  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Fenelon,  and  Massillon,  are 
masterpieces  in  their  several  departments  of  literature.  The  court  of 
Louis  was  the  model  to  all  Europe  of  elegance  and  refinement;  and 
though  deficient  in  the  substantial  virtues — more  especially  during  the 
first  half  of  his  reign  —  it  has  never  been  surpassed  in  the  charms  of 
graceful  conversation,  or  of  that  delicate  and  chivalrous  courtesy  of  which 
the  king  himself  was  the  most  illustrious  example.  It  was  at  this  period 
that  French  taste,  manners,  and  modes  of  living  and  thinking  gained 
their  ascendency  in  Europe. 

Philip  of  Bourbon  receives  the  Spanish  crown  by  the  will  of  the  late  king  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  people.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  begun  by  victories  of  Prince 
Eugene  over  the  French  in  Lombardy.  Second  Grand  Alliance  organized  by  William  III. 
of  England.  James  Stuart  acknowledged  as  king  by  France,  but  abjured  by  England. 
Queen  Anne  continues  the  war-policy  of  William  III.  Marlborough,  Ileinsius,  and  Eu- 
gene of  Savoy  are  the  Triumvirate  of  the  Grand  Alliance.  Victories  of  Marlborough  on 
the  lower  Rhine.  Rebellion  of  Ragotzki  in  Hungary.  Savoy  and  Portugal  join  the  Grand 
Alliance,  which  now  aims  to  wrest  Spain  itself,  as  well  as  its  foreign  dependencies,  from 
the  French.  Victories  of  the  allies  at  Schellenberg  and  Blenheim.  Elector  of  Bavaria 
loses  all  his  fortresses  and  most  of  his  territories.  Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English.  Em- 
peror Joseph  I.  succeeds  Leopold.  Charles  III.  proclaimed  King  in  Catalonia,  Valencia, 
Aragon,  and  Lombardy  ;  the  next  two  years  in  Naples  and  Sardinia.  Victories  of  :Marl- 
borough  at  Ramillies  and  of  Eugene  at  Turin.  Victory  of  the  French  at  Almanza,  and 
reconquest  of  Valencia  and  Aragon.  Act  of  Union  between  England  and  Scotland ;  in- 
effectual invasion  by  James  III.  Victory  of  the  allies  at  Oudenarde  and  capture  of  Lille, 
Ghent,  and  Bniges.  Misery  of  the  French  people ;  unavailing  concessions  of  Louis  for  the 
sake  of  peace.  The  allies,  victorious  at  Malplaquet,  capture  Tournay  and  ^Mons.  Fall  of 
Marlborough's  party  detaches  England  from  the  alliance.  Death  of  the  emperor  Joseph 
and  of  the  son  and  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  alters  the  conditions  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
Treaties  of  peace,  negotiated  at  Utrecht  and  Rastadt,  convert  the  Spanish  into  the  Austi'ian 
Netherlands ;  recognize  the  Hanoverian  succession  in  England  and  that  of  the  Bourbons 
in  Spain  ;  acknowledge  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  as  King  of  Prussia  and  Prince  of  Neu- 
chatel;  confirm  England  in  the  possession  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  and  a  vast  region 
of  North  America ;  secure  Sicily  (afterward  exchanged  for  Sardinia)  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 


WARS  OF  THE  NORTHERN  NATIONS.  307 

Death  of  Anne  of  England  and  of  Louis  of  France.  Bigotry  of  Lonis  XIV.  in  his  later  years ; 
ascendency  of  French  taste  in  Europe,  owing  to  the  material  and  intellectual  activity  of 
his  reign. 

Chaeles  XII.  AND  Peter  the  Great. 

104.  The  first  twenty-one  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  occu- 
pied by  the  great  Northern  War,  in  wliich  the  two  chief  actors  were 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  and  Peter  I.  of  Russia.  The  accession  of  Charles 
in  1G97,  when  only  fifteen  years  of  age,  inspired  his  neighbors  with  the 
hope  of  wresting  from  Sweden  her  possessions  east  and  south  of  the 
Baltic."^  The  mover  of  the  conspiracy  was  Augustus  II.  of  Poland  and 
I.  of  Saxony ;  but  hostilities  were  actually  begun  by  his  ally,  Frederic 
IV.  of  Denmark,  who,  in  March,  1700,  invaded  the  territories  of  the 
Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  a  brother-in-law  and  intimate  friend  of  Charles. 
The  young  king  of  Sweden  displayed  at  this  crisis  a  firmness  and  energy 
which  surprised  both  his  enemies  and  his  counselors.  He  reassured  his 
senate  by  the  spirited  declaration :  "  I  have  resolved  never  to  wage  an 
unjust  war,  nor  ever  to  close  a  just  one  except  by  the  destruction  of  my 
enemies."  The  sentiment  was  doubtless  sincere,  but  it  was  doubly  con- 
tradicted by  events.  He  allied  himself  with  Holland  and  England  — 
now  known  by  preeminence  as  the  Maritime  Powers  —  and  their  fleet 
combined  with  his  own  covered  his  descent  upon  Denmark.  Frederic 
IV.  was  compelled  to  treat  for  the  preservation  of  his  capital.  By  the 
Peace  of  Travendal,  he  renewed  his  ancient  treaties  with  the  Duke  of 
Holstein,  and  engaged  to  pay  a  large  indemnity  for  the  losses  he  had 
inflicted. 

105.  His  first  war  being  thus  ended  without  a  blow,  Charles  was  at 
liberty  to  meet  the  Czar,  who,  with  80,000  men  drawn  from  his  provinces 
in  Asia  and  Europe,  had  commenced  the  siege  of  Narva.  The  Swedish 
army  of  scarcely  one-tenth  the  number  of  the  Russians,  forced  a  defile 
hitherto  deemed  impregnable,   and  inflicted  a  severe  and 

total  defeat  upon  the  besieging  host.  Peter  had  fled  before 
the  battle,  but  he  learned  from  it  a  useful  lesson  ;  and  strove  with  untiring 
energy  to  bring  his  vast,  undisciplined  masses  of  troops  into  a  condition 
to  meet  the  more  civilized  armies  of  Europe.  To  this  end  he  sent  nearly 
20,000  men  to  serve  under  the  king  of  Poland,  who  had  to  sustain  the 
next  attack.  In  1701,  Charles  defeated  the  Saxon  troops  near  Riga  and 
occupied  all  Courland.  The  Maritime  Powers,  now  on  the  eve  of  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  desiring  peace  in  northern  Europe, 
attempted  to  mediate;  but  Charles  refused  to  treat  until  he  had  more 
signally  avenged  the  perfidy  of  Augustus.     He   marched  in  May,  1702, 


*  These  were  Finland,  Carclia,  Tngria,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia;  most  of  Pomerania ;  the 
fortresses  of  Stettin,  Wismar,  and  Stralsund ;  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Vcrden. 


308  MODERN  HISTORY. 

upon  Warsaw  and  entered  it  without  opposition,  while  the  king  fled  to 
Cracow ;  and  in  July  the  combined  army  of  Poles  and  Saxons  suffered  a 
decisive  defeat  at  Clissow  between  the  two  capitals.  The  next  year 
Charles  again  defeated  the  Saxons  at  Pultusk,  and  captured  Thorn,  whose 
fortifications  he  demolished. 

106.  As  usual,  a  strong  party  of  the  Polish  nobility  was  opposed  to 
the  king;  and  with  it,  though  indecisively,  acted  the  Primate  Eadzie- 
jowski.  In  a  diet  called  by  this  prelate  at  Warsaw,  Augustus  was  de- 
clared to  have  forfeited  his  crown  by  attempting  to  purchase  peace  with 
the  cession  of  some  Polish  provinces  to  Sweden.  The  desire  of  this  party 
was  to  raise  James  Sobieski  to  the  throne,  but  Augustus  had  anticipated 
their  movement  by  imprisoning  that  prince  with  his  younger  brother. 
The  Swedish  influence  was  exerted  in  favor  of  Count  Stanislaus  Leczin- 
ska,who  in  July,  1704,  was  proclaimed  King  of  Poland.  He  was  crowned, 
under  a  guard  of  Swedish  soldiers,  the  following  October,  and  soon  signed 
a  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  with  Charles  XII.  Augustus  retired  to 
Dresden,  his  ancient  Saxon  capital,  whither  he  was  followed  in  1706,  by 
the  king  of  Sweden  and  20,000  men.  Unable  to  resist,  he  signed  the 
treaty  of  Altranstadt,  by  which  he  renounced  the  crown  of  Poland  for 
himself  and  his  descendants,  abandoned  his  alliance  with  Eussia,  and  re- 
leased the  princes  Sobieski  from  their  captivity. 

107.  During  the  interval  since  his  defeat  at  Narva,  the  Czar  had  been 

busily  improving  his  army  and  navy,  and  had  taken  possession   of  the 

provinces  of  Ingria  and  Carelia,  which  had  been  lost  to  his  empire   in 

1617.     The  foundations  of  his  new  capital,  St.  Petersburg, 

May,  1703.  ^        '  *^* 

were  laid  upon   an  island  in  the  Neva  which,  by  treaties 

still  in  force,  belonged  to  Sweden.;  but  the  Czar's  confidence  in  himself 
and  presentiment  of  his  adversary's  failure,  were  justified  by  the  results. 
For  the  protection  of  the  new  city,  the  fortress  of  Cronstadt  was  founded 
near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Kiga.  During  1704,  Dorpat  and  Narva 
were  captured,  Lithuania  and  Courland  occupied;  though  in  the  latter 
province  the  Kussian  general  was  defeated  by  the  Swedes  at  Gemauers. 
Learning  at  Narva  of  the  Peace  of  Altranstadt,  Peter  hastened  into 
Poland,  hoping  to  retain  the  alliance  of  the  nobles,  without  whose  knowl- 
edge or  consent  that  treaty  had  been  concluded.  A  diet  at  Lublin,  July, 
1707,  declared  the  throne  vacant  since  the  abdication  of  Augustus,  and 
summoned  the  electors  to  the  choice  of  a  king.  Charles  marched  from 
Saxony  to  defeat  this  movement;  but  the  Czar,  now  too  wise  to  meet 
him  in  regular  battle,  harassed  and  fatigued  him  by  long  and  fruitless 
marches,  and  effectually  disconcerted  his  plans. 

108.  In  1708,  the  Swedish  king  invaded  Eussia,  probably  intending  to 
march  upon  Moscow.  But  he  found  the  country  destitute  of  forage  for 
man  or  beast,  the  roads  well  guarded,  and  the  enemy's  cavalry  constantly 


BATTLE  OF  PULTA  WA.  309 

ready  to  harass  his  columns,  though  they  could  never  be  brought  to  a 
general  engagement.  Without  waiting  for  his  reinforcements  which  were 
on  the  way,  Charles  suddenly  marched  toward  the  Ukraine,  where  Ma- 
zeppa,  the  aged  Hetman  of  the  Cossacks,  was  plotting  with  his  aid  to 
become  independent  of  the  Czar.  Peter,  marching  to  meet  the  Swedish 
re»Sforcements,  defeated  General  Loweuhaupt  at  Liesna,  destroyed  half 
his  men  and  captured  his  entire  convoy ;  while  Charles,  to  his  disap- 
pointment, found  Mazeppa,  not  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  30,000  which 
he  had  promised,  but  a  suppliant  fugitive,  with  only  a  few  personal  at- 
tendants. 

109.  The  Swedes,  worn  out  by  their  march  through  forests  and  marshes, 
were  ragged  and  many  of  them  shoeless,  but  their  king,  disdaining  retreat 
by  a  shorter  route  into  Poland,  insisted  on  laying  siege  to  Pultawa.  Here 
he  was  overtaken  by  60,000  Russians  under  their  best  generals,  the  Czar 
himself  serving,  according  to  his  custom,  in  a  subordinate  rank.  With 
only  one-third  the  number,  Charles  resolved  to  give  battle,  though  a 
wound  in  his  foot  compelled  him  to  devolve  the  chief  •  command  upon 
his  general  Ehenskicild.  He  was  present  in  a  litter,  but  the  movements 
of  his  men  lacked  the  precision  which  he  was  accustomed  to  give  them. 
They  fought  with  great  valor,  but  were  overpowered  by  superior  num- 
bers, and  nearly  half  were  left  dead  upon  the  field.  The  king  escaped 
with  difficulty.  Ehenskiold  with  the  most  distinguished  officers  were 
prisoners. 

110.  The  battle  of  Pultawa  ended  the  Swedish  superiority  in  northern 
Europe,  while  it  marked  the  rise  of  Russia  as  a  great  European  power. 
Leaving  L(>wenhaupt  in  command  of  the  shattered  remnant  of  his  forces, 
the  king  crossed  the  Dnieper  and  sought  refuge  with  the  Turkish  com- 
mandant of  Bender.  Lowenhaupt  capitulated,  and  Sweden  was  left  with- 
out king  or  army,  at  the  mercy  of  her  foes;  The  treaties  of  Travendal 
and  Altranstadt  were  speedily  broken.  Augustus  II.  resumed  the  crown 
of  Poland,  which  was  abandoned  by  Stanislaus,  and  renewed  his  con- 
nections with  Russia  and  Denmark.  Frederic  IV.  invaded  Sweden  and 
captured  Helsingborg,  but  was  thwarted  in  his  further  designs  by  the 
good  conduct  of  General  Stenbock.  At  the  same  time  the  Swedish-Ger- 
man provinces  were  attacked  by  a  combined  force  of  Saxons,  Poles,  and 
Russians.  The  emperor  and  the  Maritime  Powers  then  interfered,  and 
by  the  Treaty  of  the  Hague  secured  at  least  a  brief  neutrality  to  those 
provinces,  as  well  as  to  Schleswig  and  Jutland. 

111.  Through  the  instigation  of  Charles  XII.,  the  Sultan  Achmet  had 
meantime  been  moved  to  declare  war  against  the  Czar.  Encouraged  by 
the  flattering  promises  of  the  Hospodar  of  Moldavia,  Peter  invaded  that 
province  in  the  spring  of  1711.  But  the  promises  were  unfulfilled,  and 
the  Czar  found  himself  surrounded  by  a  Turkish  army  more   numerous 


310  MODERN  HISTORY. 

than  his  own,  cut  off  from  supplies,  and  unable  either  to  advance  or  re- 
treat. In  this  desperate  case,  relief  was  only  obtained  through  the  tact 
and  resolution  of  the  Czarina  Catherine.''^  Sending  all  her  jewels  as  a 
present  to  the  Grand  Vizier  who  was  in  command  of  the  Turks,  she  in- 
duced him  to  listen  to  terms  of  peace.  Peter  surrendered  Azov,  and 
engaged  to  withdraw  his  army  from  Poland,  whereupon  he  was  permitted 
to  recross  the  Pruth  without  molestation. 

112.  Charles  XII.  was  no  longer  a  welcome  guest  in  the  Turkish  do- 
minions ;  while  the  progress  of  the  Czar  in  Finland  and  the  Baltic  prov- 
inces urgently  demanded  his  presence.  He  waited,  however,  to  be  forci- 
bly dislodged  by  the  Janizaries  from  his  camp  at  Varnitz,  and  conveyed 
as  a  prisoner  to  Adrianople,  before  he  accepted  the  Turkish  escort  to  the 
frontier  and  the  emperor's  safe-conduct  for  his  passage  through  Germany. 
His  face  being  once  turned  homeward,  his  characteristic  impatience  led 

him  to  make  the  journey  of  1,100  miles  on  horseback  in 
less  than  seventeen  days.  Arriving  at  Stralsund,  he  imme- 
diately renewed  hostilities  with  Frederic  William  I.  of  Prussia  for  the 
possession  of  Pomerania.  But  the  alliance  against  him  now  included  Eus- 
sia,  Poland,  Denmark,  and  England ;  Wismar  and  Stralsund,  besieged  by 
their  united  forces,  surrendered ;  and  Sweden  was  thus  driven  from  her 
last  remaining  possession  south  of  the  Baltic.  Having  humbled  their 
common  enemy,  the  allies  began  to  distrust  each  other,  and  preliminaries 
of  peace  between  Sweden  and  Russia  were  already  signed,  when  in  De- 
cember, 1718,  Charles  met  his  death  in  the  siege  of  Fredericshall  in 
Norway. 

113.  His  nephew,  the  young  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  was  the  rightful 
heir,  but  a  revolution  made  the  Swedish  crown  elective,  and  elevated 
Ulrica  Eleanora,  the  second  sister  of  Charles,  to  tlie  throne.  Her  hus- 
band, Frederic  of  Hesse  Cassel,  was  already  in  command  of  the  army  and 
became  really  the  head  of  the  state.  The  peace  with  Russia  was  broken 
off,  but  treaties  were  made  successively  with  England,  Poland,  Prussia, 
and  Denmark.  The  latter  kingdom  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of 
Schleswig.  Prussia  received  Stettin  and  the  district  between  the  Oder 
and  Peene,  with  the  islands  of  Usedom  and  Wollin ;  Hanover  retained 
the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  The  war  with  Russia  continued 
three  years  longer  by  sea  and  land ;  but  at  length,  through  the  mediation 
of  France,  the  Peace  of  Nystadt  was  concluded  in  September,  1721.  Rus- 
sia restored  Finland  but  retained  the  other  provinces  east  of  the  Baltic. 
The  Czar  wrote  to  his  embassador  in  Paris:  "Apprenticeships  usually  end 


*  This  extraordinary  woman  had  been  an  Esthonian  peasant.  Taken  prisoner  by  the 
Russians  in  the  siege  of  T^Iarienbnrg,  she  had  won  the  admiration  of  the  Czar  by  her  native 
talents,  and  had  recently  been  raised  to  the  throne. 


EUROPEAN  COLONIES.  311 

in  seven  years;  ours  has  lasted  thrice  as  long;  but,  thank  God,  it  is  at 
length  brought  to  the  desired  termination."  In  the  twenty-one  years 
which  he  had  spent  in  learning  —  chiefly  from  his  adversaries — the  arts 
of  conquering  and  governing,  Peter  had  reorganized  an  army  and  created 
a  navy,  had  built  a  city  of  palaces  among  the  marshes  of  the  Neva,  and 
had  raised  himself  by  his  personal  energy  and  industry  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  monarchs  in  Europe.  The  Senate  and  Synod  conferred  upon  him 
the  title  of  "Emperor  of  all  the  Kussias;"  and  the  nobles  and  people  of 
the  capital  hailed  him  as  the  Father  of  his  country,  Peter  the  Great. 

Accession  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  His  dominions  attacked  or  menaced  by  Denmark, 
Poland,  and  Russia.  The  first  is  humbled  by  the  Peace  of  Travendal ;  the  Czar  with  vastly 
superior  numbers  is  defeated  at  Narva;  the  king  of  Poland  at  Riga,  ClissoAv,  and  Pultusk. 
By  Treaty  of  Altranstadt,  Augustus  resigns  the  Polish  crown,  which  the  Swedes  bestow 
upon  Stanislaus  Leczinski.  Peter  of  Russia  seizes  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  lays  the  foun- 
dation of  St.  Petersburg;  protects  Moscow  by  devastating  the  country ;  defeats  the  Swedes 
at  Liesna  and  Pultawa.  Charles  takes  refuge  with  the  Turks;  the  remnant  of  his  army 
is  surrendered.  Sweden  is  attacked  by  Danes,  Saxons,  Poles,  and  Russians.  The  Sultan 
declares  war  upon  the  Czar,  who  obtains  peace  by  the  surrender  of  Azov.  Charles,  re- 
turning to  his  kingdom,  is  killed  before  Fredericshall ;  is  succeeded  by  his  sister,  who 
resigns  public  affairs  to  her  husband,  Frederic  of  Hesse  Cassel.  Cessation  of  the  Northern 
■^^"ar  completed  by  the  Treaty  of  Nystadt,  which  recognizes  the  rank  of  Russia  among  the 
Great  Powers  «f  Europe. 

European  Colonies. 

114.  It  is  time  for  a  view  of  those  foreign  settlements  which  had  ex- 
tended the  fame  and  power  of  several  European  nations  to  the  remotest 
regions  of  the  globe.  Their  purposes  were  four:  mining,  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  increase  of  dominion  ;  and  though  these  may  have  been 
to  a  certain  degree  combined,  yet  in  general  it  may  be  said,  that,  while 
America  became  the  seat  of  extensive  mining  and  agricultural  colonies, 
western  Africa  and  the  East  Indies  —  owing  to  the  noxious  climate  of  all, 
and  the  dense  population  and  powerful  Mogul  government  of  Hindustan 
—  admitted  little  more  than  the  forts  and  factories  of  European  traders. 
The  colonial  system  of  all  the  European  states  was  narrowly  restrictive. 
The  colonies  existed  for  the  advantage  of  the  parent  state,  never  for  their 
own.     But  this  policy  was  carried  to  its  extreme  by  Spain. 

115.  Three  Spanish  viceroys  governed  her  possessions  in  the  New 
World.  The  Eoyal  Court  of  the  Indies  appointed  all  officers,  civil,  mil- 
itary, or  ecclesiastical,  almost  uniformly  from  natives  of  the  mother 
country.  These  must  prove  their  descent  from  "old  Christians,"  i.  e., 
from  families  untainted  with  Jewish  or  Mohammedan  blood,  and  never 
censured  by  the  Inquisition.  Long  residence  in  America,  being  supposed 
to  weaken  their  affection  for  Spain,  was  held  as  sufficient  reason  for  dis- 


312  MODERN  HISTORY. 

trust  and  exclusion  from  office.  Hence  the  officers  of  government,  having 
no  community  of  interest  with  the  colonists,  were  in  haste  to  make  their 
own  fortunes,  often  by  means  of  extortion  and  oppression. 

116.  To  prevent  any  sort  of  independence,  those  branches  of  agricul- 
ture and  manufactures  which  supply  the  common  wants  of  life,  were 
expressly  forbidden  to  the  colonists.  Their  clothes,  furniture,  tools,  even 
a  considerable  part  of  their  food,  were  brought  from  Spain,  and  only  by 
Spanish  ships,  for  the  colonists  were  not  permitted  vessels  of  their  own. 
Intercolonial  trade  was  either  forbidden  or  so  jealously  restricted  that  its 
motives  were  destroyed.     The  only  exception  was  the  commerce  with  the 

Philippine  Islands,  the  sole  Spanish  possession  in  Asia,  which 

had    been    settled   by   a   eolony   from  Mexico.      By   their 

active  trade  with  the  Chinese,  the  Philippines  were  supplied  with  Asiatic 

fabrics,  and  these  were  permitted  to  be  carried,  though  only  by  one  or 

two  ships  yearly,  to  the  port  of  Acapulco. 

117.  Beside  the  precious  metals,  of  which  an  annual  average  value  of 
$20,000,000  was  for  three  hundred  years  regularly  entered  at  the  Spanish 
ports,  the  most  important  products  of  the  colonies  were  the  cochineal  of 
Central  America,  the  indigo  of  Guatemala,  the  chocolate  of  that  province 
and  Caraccas,  the  sugar  of  Hayti,  the  tobacco  of  Cuba,  the  quinine 
of  Peru,  and  hides  from  the  herds  of  cattle  roaming  on  the  vast  plains 
south  of  the  La  Plata.  Commerce  with  the  three  American  viceroyalties 
was  carried  on  by  a  fleet  sent  once  in  each  year  to  the  ports  of  Carta- 
gena, Porto  Bello  and  Vera  Cruz.  The  annual  fair  of  forty  days  at  Porto 
Bello  witnessed  the  most  lucrative  trade  in  the  world.  At  the  season 
when  the  galleons  were  expected,  this  squalid  negro  village  —  whose 
atmosphere  was  almost  fatal  to  Europeans,  from  its  excess  of  heat,  moist- 
ture,  and  vegetable  decay  —  was  suddenly  transformed  into  a  busy  mer- 
cantile exchange,  crowded  with  merchants  and  wares  from  the  whole 
western  portion  of  South  America.  A  few  commercial  houses  in  Seville 
had  not  only  control  but  entire  possession  of  the  American  market;  the 
colonists,  deprived  of  all  share  in  the  enterprise,  were  compelled  to  buy 
at  the  most  enormous  prices,  or  forego  the  opportunity  to  dispose  of  their 
products. 

118.  When  the  colonies  were  founded,  Spain  was  able  to  supply  their 
wants  from  her  own  manufactures,  and  thus  greatly  increase  her  wealth. 
This  state  of  things  altered  when  Philip  HI.  expelled  nearly  a  million 
of  his  most  industrious  subjects  from  the  kingdom  (see  Book  HI.,  §  292) ; 
the  Spanish  merchants,  unable  longer  to  keep  up  the  exchange  with  the 
colonists,  eluded  the  law  by  sending  foreign  goods  under  their  own  names, 
and  the  treasures  received  in  return  went  to  reward  and  improve  the  skill 
of  English,  French,  and  Dutch  artisans.  Spain,  possessing  lands  greater 
than  all  Europe  and  unsurpassed  by  any  in  the  world  in  the  value  of 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  COLONIES.  313 

their  products,  became  destitute  of  either  money  or  industry.  Upon  the 
extinction  of  the  Austrian  line  in  Charles  II.,  the  attempts  of  foreign 
nations  to  control  the  succession  to  the  throne  brought  back  a  portion 
of  the  gold  and  silver  which  had  been  diverted  into  other  lands,  and 
occasioned  some  revival  of  prosperity.  Philip  V.  opened  the  American 
trade  to  France,  and,  under  stringent  limitations,  to  England.  The  lim- 
itations were  evaded,  and  the  superior  enterprise  of  the  English  merchants 
gave  them  almost  the  control  of  the  South  American  markets. 

119.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  before,  the  jealous  attempts  of  the  Span- 
iards to  prevent  the  approach  of  foreigners  to  their  colonies  had  caused 
the  West  Indian  seas  to  swarm  with  buccaneers.  A  pirate-state  was 
formed  on  Tortuga;  and  similar  settlements  on  the  western  portion  of 
Hayti  or  St.  Domingo  were  recognized  as  French  possessions  in  1664. 
Ten  or  a  dozen  of  the  smaller  islands  were  purchased  by  Colbert,  and 
systematic  efforts  were  made  to  encourage  the  culture  of  sugar,  cotton, 
and  coffee.  The  slave  trade  with  the  African  coast  found  its  most  profit- 
able markets  in  the  mining  and  agricultural  colonies  of  the  New  World. 
Begun  by  the  Portuguese  as  early  as  1440,  it  had  been  introduced  into 
the  West  Indies  by  the  good  Las  Casas,  in  pity  for  the  feeble  and  over- 
worked Indians. 

.  The  frightful  inhumanity  of  the  traffic  was  not  yet  apparent  to  Chris- 
tian nations;  and  England,  Holland,  and  France  competed  with  Portugal 
for  a  share  in  its  profits.  Queen  Anne,  after  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  re- 
tained one-fourth  of  the  monopoly  for  her  own  private  account,  and  thus 
became  the  greatest  slave-merchant  in  the  world.  Spain,  for  some  reason, 
never  engaged  directly  in  this  trade;  but  contracted  with  foreigners  for 
the  requisite  supply.  The  system  of  ripartimientos  (see  Book  III.,  §  12) 
was  greatly  mitigated  by  ordinances  of  Charles  V.,  who  raised  the  natives 
of  his  Spanish  possessions  from  the  rank  of  slaves  to  that  of  subjects. 
They  were  governed  in  their  own  villages  by  caziques  or  chiefs,  descended, 
in  many  instances,  from  their  former  monarchs;  and  though  certain 
labors  were  exacted  from  them,  they  were  rewarded  and  made  as  little 
oppressive  as  possible.  One  inferior  race  was  relieved  at  the  expense  of 
another. 

120.  The  annexation  of  Portugal  to  Spain  made  her  colonial  possessions 
the  prey  of  English  and  Dutch  attacks,  and   led  to   the 

downfall  of  the  Portuguese  empire  in  Asia.  The  Dutch 
were  ultimately  driven  from  Brazil;  but  in  India  only  Goa  and  Diu 
remained  to  Portugal,  while  Ormuz  was  reconquered  by  the  Persians. 
Jesuit  missionaries  opened  the  way  to  Portuguese  commerce  with  China 
and  Japan.  St.  Francis  Xavier,  one  of  Loyola's  first  converts  —  canon- 
ized after  his  death  as  patron  and  protector  of  the  East  Indies  —  was 
among  the  pioneers.     Macao,  in  China,  was  presented  to  the  Portuguese 


314  MODERN  HISTORY. 

as  a  trading  station  and  continued  in  their  possession  until  it  was  opened 
to  all  nations;  but  their  residence  in  Japan  was  ended,  in 
less  than  a  hundred  years  from  its  beginning,  by  a  massacre 
of  Christians  and  expulsion  of  all  foreigners.  Fortunately  for  Brazil,  her 
great  gold  mines  were  not  discovered  until  1696,  when  the  rich  agricul- 
tural resources  of  the  country  had  been  in  some  slight  degree  developed. 
The  lands  along  the  coast  were  granted  in  lief  to  great  families,  forming 
distinct  captaincies  subject  only  to  the  crown. 

121.  In  North  America,  the  rival  pretensions  of  France,  England,  and 
Spain,  had  given  way  to  an  actual  division,  by  which  France  claimed  the 
entire  basins  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  in  right  of  exploration ; 
England  occupied  a  strip  of  Atlantic  coast  scarcely  a  hundred  miles  in 
width,  extending  from  the  Penobscot  to  the  limits  of  Florida ;  and  Spain, 
in  spite  of  the  exclusive  grant  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  was  forced  to 
content  herself  with  what  remained.  At  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  English  dominions  were  more  populous  and  flourishing, 
though  far  less  extensive,  than  those  of  the  French.  Eelying  less  upon 
the  patronage  of  the  great  than  upon  their  own  resolute  industry;  freely 
choosing  the  toils  and  perils  of  the  wilderness  in  exchange  for  the  re- 
strictions—  in  many  cases,  the  persecutions  —  which  they  had  suffered  in 
Europe,  the  English  colonists  in  less  than  a  hundred  years  had  established 
twelve  states  whose  permanence  was  no  longer  doubtful. 

122.  The  origin  of  these  colonies  is  too  familiar  to  need  detailed  nar- 
ration.    Under  the  London   Company,  chartered  by  James  L,  in   1606, 
for  "planting  and  ruling"  part  of  his  American  dominions,  the  first  per- 
manent English  settlement  was  made  at  Jamestown  in  Vir- 
ginia.   The  hero  of  the  enterprise  was  Captain  John  Smith, 

whose  native  genius  had  been  developed  by  a  series  of  remarkable  ad- 
ventures against  the  Spaniards  in  Holland  and  the  Turks  in  Hungary 
and  Africa;  and  whose  resolution  alone  saved  the  colony  from  destruc- 
tion by  the  faults  and  follies  of  the  first  settlers.  A  settlement  of  differ- 
ent character  was  planted  by  a  hundred  English  Puritans  on  the  rock- 
bound  coast  of  Cape  Cod  Bay,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Plymouth 
Company,  from  whose  seat  in  England  the  first  town  derived  its  name. 
The  new  state  had  a  firm  foundation  in  the  virtue  and  intelligence  of 
its  citizens. 

By  fresh  immigrations,  English  colonies  spread  northward  along  the 
coast,  where  are  now  the  busy  manufacturing  towns  of  Massachusetts  and 
New  Hampshire.  Settlements  were  made  in  Connecticut  by  detachments 
from  Massachusetts  Bay.  It  is  perhaps  no  just  cause  for  wonder  that  the 
fathers  of  New  England  had  not  learned  universal  tolerance  in  the  school 
of  persecution.  The  Providence  Plantation,  germ  of  the  state  of  Rhode 
Island,  owed  its  existence  to  the  expulsion  of  Eoger  Williams,  minister 


ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  AMERICA.  315 

of  the  church  at  Salem,  from  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  for  the  ut- 
terance of  more  liberal  sentiments  than  were  then  prevalent.  The 
charter  obtained  by  Williams  in  1644  provided  that  no  person  should  be 
in  any  way  "molested,  punished,  disquieted,  or  called  in  question,  for 
any  difference  pf  opinion  in  matters  of  religion ; "  the  first  example  in 
Europe  or  America  of  a  civil  government  formally  and  legally  abdica- 
ting its  claim  to  control  the  spiritual  affairs  of  men. 

123.  Nearly  equal  freedom  was  enjoyed  under  the  charter  of  Mary- 
land, obtained  by  Lord  Baltimore  in  1632,  which  protected  all  forms  of 
Christianity  within  the  limits  of  that  colony.  The  two  Carolinas  were 
peopled  under  a  patent  granted  by  Charles  II.,  soon  after  his  restoration, 
to  the  Earl  of  Clarendon  and  seven  other  lords  and  baronets,  in  recogni- 
tion of  their  loyal  and  faithful  service.  Desirous  of  concentrating  the 
wisdom  of  all  ages  into  the  management  of  the  infant  state.  Lord  Shaftes- 
bury, one  of  the  proprietors,  with  the  aid  of  John  Locke,  the  philosopher, 
drew  up  a  "Grand  Model"  of  government,  by  which  he  proposed  to 
transplant  the  cumbrous  ceremonials  of  the  old  world  into  the  woods 
and  wildernesses  of  the  new.  But  while  waiting  for  the  "Model,"  the 
farmers  and  artisans  of  Albemarle  had  improvised  a  form  of  government 
suited  to  their  immediate  necessities,  and  which  continued  in  force  long 
after  the  elegant  and  elaborate  code  had  been  abandoned. 

124.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch  claimed  the  lands 
between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  Connecticut  River,  in  right  of  the  explora- 
tions of  Henry  Hudson,  then  in  their  service,  during  his  search  for  a 
north-west  passage  to  India.  The  Dutch  West  India  Company  undertook 
the  colonization  of  New  Netherlands ;  a  lucrative  fur-trade  with  the  In- 
dians drew  many  adventurers,  and  the  trading  post  on  the  island  of 
Manhattan  grew  into  a  thriving  town,  where  now  stands  the  greatest 
city  of  the  western  world.  A  settlement  of  Swedes  on  the  lower  Dela- 
ware was  conquered  and  absorbed  into  New  Netherlands.  But  in  1664, 
Charles  II.  of  England,  always  willing  to  make  war  upon  Holland  at  the 
bidding  of  France,  granted  all  the  lands  of  the  Dutch  colony  to  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  York.  The  government  of  the  West  India  Com- 
pany had  become  obnoxious  to  many  of  the  colonists,  especially  to  the 
English,  who  were  numerous,  and  when  the  English  squadron  appeared 
in  the  harbor  a  majority  of  the  people  clamored  for  surrender. 

Stuyvesant,  the  governor,  was  forced  to  yield.  "  New  Amsterdam  "  and 
the  colony  in  general,  became  New  York,  and  Fort  Orange  on  the  Hud- 
son was  named  Fort  Albany  from  the  duke's  Scottish  title.  The  lands 
between  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware  were  conferred  upon  Berkeley 
and  Carteret,  two  of  the  proprietors  of  Carolina,  and  re- 
ceived the  name  New  Jersey.  Seventeen  years  later  a  large 
tract  west  of  the  Delaware  was  bestowed  by  King  Charles  11.  upon  Wil- 


316  MODERN  HISTORY. 

liam  Penn,  a  celebrated  English  Quaker,  who  desired  to  found  an  asylum 
of  perfect  civil  and  religious  freedom.  His  justice  and  benevolence  to- 
ward the  Indians  preserved  his  colony  from  the  perils  which  beset  the 
others,  and  his  new  city  of  Philadelphia  enjoyed  unbroken  peace  and 
prosperity. 

125.  The  English  colonies  had  their  share  in  every  war  of  the  mother 
country  with  France;  and  this  was  aggravated  by  the  neighborhood  of 
the  native  tribes,  ever  ready  to  be  stirred  by  French  emissaries  to  acts 
of  savage  atrocity.  Two  great  Indian  families  —  the  Huron-Iroquois  and 
the  Algonquin  —  occupied  the  region  north  of  the  Carolinas  and  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  Of  these  the  Iroquois  proper,  or  Five  Nations  of  central 
New  York,  were  superior  to  all  others  in  intelligence  and  political  organ- 
ization. Perfectly  understanding  the  advantages  of  their  position  at  the 
entrance  to  the  great  lakes  and  at  the  head  of  streams  flowing  to  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mississippi,  they  made  themselves  feared  by  every  tribe 
in  their  vast  hunting  grounds.  "  Patient  and  politic  as  they  were  fero- 
cious, they  were  not  only  conquerors  of  their  own  race,  but  the  powerful 
allies  and  the  dreaded  foes  of  the  French  and  English  colonies,  flattered 
and  caressed  by  both,  yet  too  sagacious  to  give  themselves  without  re- 
serve to  either." 

126.  The  Algonquins  were  most  numerous  in  New  England,  where  they 
displayed  all  the  worst  traits  of  savage  character  in  their  fierce  and  treach- 
erous assaults  upon  the  feeble  colonies.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
two  radically  different  linea  of  policy  toward  the  Indians  were  pursued 
by  the  English  and  French.  To  the  latter,  their  savage  allies  bore  an 
essential  part  in  the  scheme  of  colonization.  To  the  former  —  especially 
the  earliest  settlers  of  New  England  —  the  dark,  revengeful  faces  that 
appeared  in  the  gloom  of  the  forests,  were  those  of  demons  rather  than 
of  men;  and  though  they  might  sometimes  be  conciliated  from  fear, 
they  were  seldom  admitted,  as  by  the  French,  to  the  rank  of  allies  and 
companions. 

127.  The  first  colony  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States 
was  planted,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  far-seeing  policy  of  Coligny,  who 
availed  himself  of  a  lull  in  the  storm  of  persecution  to  obtain  royal 
orders  for  a  settlement  of  Huguenots  in  a  region  which  they  named 
Carolina.  Though  this  generous  design  failed,  its  memory  survived,  and 
the  revival  of  persecution  under  Louis  XIV.,  though  a  calamity  to 
France,  conferred  an  inestimable  boon  upon  America.  The  Revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  drove  to  the  new  world  thousands  of  refugees, 
who  brought  to  their  homes  in  the  wilderness  all  that  was  best  in  the 
refined  French  society  of  that  Augustan  age.  Their  perfect  and  genial 
courtesy  —  not  less  than  their  financial  thrift  and  enterprise  —  and 
that  moral  elevation   which  had   been  proved   by  the  renunciation  of 


THE  FRENCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.  317 

all  worldly  advantages  for  conscience'  sake,  ^dded  precious  elements  to 
colonial  life. 

New  Koclielle>  in  New  York  perpetuated  the  name  of  the  Huguenot 
capital  in  France ;  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  offered  a  cor- 
dial welcome  with  lands  and  citizenship ;  but  it  was  in  the  Carolinas, 
whose  climate  resembled  that  of  their  native  Languedoc,  that  the  greatest 
number  of  the  exiles  found  a  congenial  home.  Here  they  introduced  the 
vine,  olive,  and  mulberry,  and  the  manufacture  of  silk.  No  citizens  had 
a  more  important  influence  in  shaping  the  character  of  the  future  Ee- 
public ;  none  were  more  steadfast  in  their  devotion  to  rightful  liberty. 
Laurens,  Marion,  Jay,  and  Faneuil  are  but  few  of  many  Huguenot  names 
celebrated  in  our  Revolutionary  annals. 

128.  The  long  and  romantic  tale  of  French  exploration  in  America 
can  only  be  sketched  in  faintest  outlines.  A  leading  policy  with  the 
French  was  to  make  themselves  necessary  to  the  Indians  in  three  dis- 
tinct characters  as  soldiers,  traders,  and  priests.  Fighting  their  battles 
with  the  novel  and  terrible  fire-arms,  and  thus  giving  them  at  least  a 
temporary  superiority  over  their  most  dreaded  foes;  supplying  their 
wants  from  European  factories,  and  gaining  their  confidence  by  the  self- 
denying  and  devoted  lives  of  missionaries  who  taught  them  a  holier  faith 
—  the  handful  of  Frenchmen  were  reinforced  for  exploration  and  conquest 
by  thousands  of  savage  allies,  whose  brutal  manners  they  endured  and 
whose  nauseous  fare  they  partook  with  brotherly  good  nature.  Jesuits 
were  among  the  foremost  "  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World."  The 
"  mission "  was  the  outpost  of  French  civilization ;  the  cross  and  the 
lilies  of  the  Bourbons  were  planted  together  in  the  depths  of  primeval 
forests,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Great  Lakes.  In  this 
way  the  rocky  coast  of  Maine,  the  lakes  of  Central  New  York,  the  straits 
and  northernmost  peninsula  of  Michigan,  the  prairies  of  Illinois,  Indiana, 
and  Texas,  the  frozen  solitudes  near  Hudson's  Bay,  were  all  claimed  for 
France. 

120.  Among  the  first  and  greatest  heroes  of  exploration  was  Samuel 
de  Champlain,  the  founder  of  Quebec.  Joining  a  war-party  of  Algon- 
quins  at  Montreal,  he   traversed  the  beautiful   lake  which  ^  ^  ^^^^ 

still  bears  his  name,  and  in  a  battle  on  its  shore  gave  to  the 
astonished  Iroquois  their  first  experience  of  white  men  and  gunpowder. 
On  another  occasion  he  ascended  the  Ottawa,  and  crossed  from  its  upper 
waters  to  Lake  Huron,  gaining  every-where  accessions  of  Indian  allies. 
Again,  crossing  Lake  Ontario,  he  led  an  attack  upon  a  fortified  village 
of  the  Iroquois.  Twenty-seven  years  of  unwearied  toil  and  hardship  were 
devoted  to  the  Canadian  colony,  and  Champlain  is  truly  entitled  the 
Father  of  New  France. 

130.  Still  more  remarkable  were  the  adventures  of  Robert  de  la  Salle, 


318  MODERN  HISTORY. 

discoverer  of  the  Mississippi.  While  the  Jesuits  desired  to  establish  a 
new  Paraguay  among  the  North  American  savages,  La  Salle  aspired  to 
a  great  feudal  sovereignty  over  the  tribes  of  the  interior,  to  be  enriched 
by  the  fur-trade  of  the  North-west,  while  it  maintained  the  ascendency 
of  the  French  crown  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Mexican  Gulf  Having 
planted  several  forts  and  trading  factories  on  the  lakes  and  the  upper- 
branches  of  the  great  river,  he  explored  the  latter  to  its  mouth,  and ' 
where  it  enters  the  Gulf,  solemnly  proclaimed  the  "  most  high,  mighty, 
invincible,  and  victorious  prince,  Louis  the  Great,  King  of  France  and 
Navarre"  to  be  sovereign  of  all  the  countries  from  which  that  vast 
volume  of  waters  is  derived.  Pleased  with  this  accession  of  dominion, 
the  Grand  Monarch  fitted  out  a  colony  for  "  Louisiana "  under  the  direc- 
tion of  La  Salle.  But  the  enterprise  was  one  series  of  disasters.  Passing 
by  mistake  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  the  emigrants  were  landed  on 
the  coast  of  Texas,  and  the  naval  commander,  always  hostile  if  not 
treacherous,  sailed  for  France.  Unable  to  remove  his  colony,  La  Salle 
set  out  for  Canada  to  obtain  supplies.  He  was  murdered  on  the  way, 
and  the  settlement  became  a  prey  to  the  Spaniards.  The  colonization 
of  Louisiana  was  reserved  until  another  reign. 

131.  During  "  King  William's  War,"  the  French  and  English  colonies 

preyed  upon  each  other  with  a  ferocity  hardly  surpassed  by 
their  savage  allies ;  but  the  midnight  massacres  of  women 
and  children  need  not  be  related.  The  French  project  for  the  capture 
of  New  York  failed,  equally  with  a  combined  expedition  of  the  English 
colonists  against  Quebec  and  Montreal.  The  English  conquered  Acadia, 
now  Nova  Scotia,  but  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  were  preserved  to  the 
French  by  the  bravery  of  two  brothers  —  Sainte  Helene  and  D'Iberville. 
The  Peace  of  Kyswick  restored  to  France  the  whole  north-eastern  coast  of 
America  from  Maine  to  Hudson  Straits,  with  the  exception  of  the  east- 
ern half  of  Newfoundland. 

132.  The  establishment  of  the  British  Empire  in  India  belongs  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  though  the  three  presidencies  of  Bombay,  Madras, 
and  Calcutta  were  organized  before  1700.  The  Dutch  had  exclusive  pos- 
session of  the  Spice  Islands,  beside  Java,  Celebes,  Sumatra,  Malacca,  a 
great  part  of  Ceylon,  and  two  posts  on  the  mainland  of  Hindustan.  Their 
agricultural  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  of  great  importance 
to  the  preservation  of  their  Indian  possessions.  One  of  their  most  flour- 
ishing colonies  was  that  of  Surinam  or  Dutch  Guiana,  and  several  rocky 
islets  of  the  West  Indies,  which  had  been  neglected  as  worthless  by  the 
Spaniards,  became  valuable  trading  posts  to  the  Hollanders.  Though  the 
Dutch  had  been  first  by  sword  and  pen  to  assert  the  freedom  of  the  seas, 
their  colonies  were  governed  by  a  system  of  commercial  monopolies  al- 
most as  narrow  and  exclusive  as  that  of  Spain.     Two  great  trading  com- 


PHILIP  OF  ORLEANS,  REGENT  OF  FRANCE.  319 

panies  for  the  East  and  West  Indies  were  intrusted  with  the  civil, 
military,  and  ecclesiastical  management  of  all  their  settlements,  and  this 
mode  of  government  was  sometimes,  as  in  the  New  Netherlands  (§  124), 
galling  to  the  independent  spirit  of  the  people. 

Restrictive  policy  of  European  nations  toward  their  colonies.  Spanish  viccroyalties  in 
America  trade  exclusively  with  the  Philippines  and  with  Spain.  Annual  fairs  at  Carta- 
gena, Porto  Bello,  and  Vera  Cruz.  Decay  of  Spanish  industry.  Slight  relaxation  of  co- 
lonial monopoly  under  the  Bourbons.  French  corsairs  gain  part  of  St.  Domingo.  Negroes 
imported  to  relieve  the  West  Indians.  Portugal,  being  annexed  to  Spain,  loses  nearly  all 
her  foreign  possessions  except  Brazil.  Her  Jesuit  missions  overthrown  in  Japan.  Cap- 
taincies in  Brazil. 

North  America  divided  among  France,  England,  and  Spain.  Virginia  colonized  by  the 
London,  New  England  by  the  Plymouth  Company.  Religious  liberty  established  in  Rhode 
Island,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania.  Model  constitution  of  the  Carolinas.  Dutch  settle- 
ments on  the  Hudson  River  grow  into  the  province  of  New  Netherlands.  Conquered  by  the 
English,  it  becomes  New  York.  Danger  to  the  colonies  from  the  native  savages,  of  whom 
the  Iroquois  were  most  highly  organized  —  the  Algonquins  most  treacherous.  Early  failure 
of  Huguenot  settlements  in  Carolina ;  benefit  to  English  colonies  from  immigration  con- 
sequent on  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Friendly  alliance  between  French  and 
Indians.  Self-sacrifice  of  the  Jesuits.  Explorations  of  Champlain  and  La  Salle.  Suffer- 
ings of  the  colonies  in  King  William's  War.  Beginning  of  English  dominion  in  India. 
Island  possessions  of  the  Dutch ;  their  colonies  in  Africa  and  South  America ;  oppressive 
I)olicy  of  the  East  and  West  India  Companies. 

Eeign  of  Louis  XV. 

133.  Louis  XV.,  like  his  predecessor,  came  to  the  French  throne 
at  the  age  of  five  years.     The  regency  was  seized  by  the 

Duke  of  Orleans,  nephew  of  Louis  XIV.  —  a  bad  man,  who 
had  even  been  accused  of  accomplishing  the  deaths  of  the  father,  mother, 
and  brother  of  the  king.  (See  §  98.)  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
improvement  of  his  own  chance  of  the  succession  through  these  events 
was  the  only  ground  for  the  suspicion.  His  rivalry  with  the  king  of  Spain 
for  the  French  crown,  in  the  not  improbable  event  of  the  death  of  Louis 
XV.,  led  him  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  England,  whose  sovereign  had 
a  similar  interest  in  upholding  the  faith  of  treaties  against  absolute  hered- 
itary principles.  Strict  legitimists,  on  the  other  hand,  asserted  that  no 
act  of  Parliament  could  justly  exclude  James  Stuart  from  the  English 
throne ;  and  that  neither  oath  nor  treaty  could  abrogate  the  "  divine 
right"  of  Philip  V.  to  that  of  France.  A  Triple  Alliance 
of  England,  Holland,  and  France,  renewed  the  provisions 
of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  and  confirmed  the  Duke  of  Orleans  in  the  re- 
gency in  opposition  to  the  pretensions  of  the  king  of  Spain.  It  became  the 
Quadruple  Alliance  by  the  accession  of  the  emperor  the  following  year. 

134.  By  the  Peace  of  Passarowitz,  Charles  VI.  had  just  concluded  a 
war  with  the  Turks,  in  which  Eugene  of  Savoy  had  gained  some  of  the 


320  MODERN  HISTORY. 

last  and  greatest  of  his  victories  in  the  field.  The  fortresses  of  Belgrade 
and  Temesvar  were  secured  to  Austria,  but  the  Turks  retained  all  south- 
ern Greece,  which  they  had  previously  conquered  from  the  Venetians. 
The  war  between  the  two  ancient  rivals,  Philip  V.  and  the  emperor,  re- 
sulted in  the  conquest  of  Sardinia  by  the  Spaniards  and  of  Sicily  by  the 
imperialists.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  resigned  the  latter  island  for  the  title 
of  King  of  Sardinia,  which  was  borne  by  his  house  until  1801,  when  it 
was  merged  in  the  greater  sovereignty  of  Italy. 

135.  The  queen  of  Spain,  Elizabeth  of  Parma,  was  conciliated  by  the 
betrothal  of  her  daughter,  then  but  three  years  of  age,  to  the  king  of 
France.  Being  the  second  wife  of  Philip  V.,  the  ruling  motive  of  this 
able  and  ambitious  woman  was  a  desire  to  make  some  royal  provision 
for  her  own  sons.  She  was  descended  from  the  nearly  extinct  family  of 
the  Medici ;  and  the  imperial  fiefs  of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Piacenza  were 
promised  to  her  son  Don  Carlos.  This  young  prince  married  one  daughter 
of  the  regent  Orleans,  while  his  half-brother,  the  heir  to  the  Spanish 
crown,  espoused  the  other.  The  short-lived  cordiality  between  France 
and  Spain  greatly  increased  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  former 
kingdom.  Philip  V.  was  not  less  bigoted  than  his  predecessors  of  the 
same  name  though  of  a  different  family,  and  during  his  reign  2,346  per- 
sons were  burned  at  the  stake  for  their  religious  opinions. 

136.  One  fatal  legacy  of  Louis  XIV.  to  France  was  a  debt  of  $400,- 
000,000,  the  yearly  interest  upon  which  amounted  to  nearly  nine  times 
the  surplus  revenues  of  the  state.  The  regent,  who,  in  spite  of  his  profli- 
gacy, was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents,  attempted  to  grasp  the  yet  un- 
realized wealth  of  the  American  dominion  as  a  relief  from  present 
embarrassments.  With  his  favor,  John  Law,  a  Scottish  banker,  proposed 
the  famous  Mississippi  Scheme.  The  public  credit  was  to  be  retrieved 
by  an  enormous  issue  of  paper  money  secured  by  shares  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Company,  and  based  upon  a  monopoly  of  trade  with  Louisiana  and 
Canada.  For  a  year  speculation  raged  high  in  France.  The  very  vastness 
of  the  enterprise  and  the  unknown  extent  of  its  basis  appealed  to  the 
popular  imagination.  The  days  were  not  long  enough  to  satisfy  the  eager 
throng  of  purchasers  of  the  company's  stock ;  princes,  bishops,  scholars, 
and  ladies  of  noble  rank  embarked  their  fortunes.  Paper  money  of  large 
denominations  was  preferred  to  gold,  if  only  for  the  speed  with  which  it 
could  be  counted.  The  public  debt  disappeared,  its  bonds  having  been 
exchanged  by  their  holders  for  the  shares  of  the  company. 

137.  The  transient  excitement  gave  a  great  impulse  to  colonization ; 
and  eight  hundred  emigrants  planted  the  title  of  the  regent  in  the  city 

of  New  Orleans  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi.     Law  him- 
self received  vast  territories  in  Arkansas,  and  lavished  im- 
mense wealth  in  transporting  thither  French  and  German  settlers  and 


THE  PRA  GMA  TIC  SANCTION.  321 

negro  slaves.  But  the  bubble  burst.  In  May,  1720,  the  notes  of  Law's 
bank  were  found  to  be  irredeemable  in  specie.  The  stock  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Company  had  a  thousand-fold  outrun  the  available  value  of  its 
possessions,  and  men  who  had  dreamed  themselves  rich  awoke  to  poverty. 
It  is  possible  that  ignorance  of  the  true  nature  of  money  bore  a  larger 
part  than  deliberate  fraud  in  this  remarkable  scheme;  but  the  ill-judged 
attempt  to  restore  the  public  credit  was  almost  as  disastrous  to  the  nation 
as  the  wars  which  had  indirectly  occasioned  it.  During  the  same  year, 
1720,  a  similar  delusion,  known  as  the  "  South  Sea  Bubble,"  prevailed  in 
England,  with  nearly  the  same  results. 

138.  In  February,  1723,  Louis  XV.  was  declared  of  age,  and  Orleans 
resigned  the  regency.  As  president  of  the  Council  of  State  he  might 
have  continued  to  control  France,  but  near  the  end  of  the  same  year  he 
died  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Duke  of  Bourbon.  In  renewed  anticipa- 
tion of  the  death  of  Louis  XV.,  the  king  of  Spain  surprised  all  Europe 
by  abdicating  his  crown  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son,  Don  Louis.  His  design 
was,  of  course,  to  clear  his  way  to  the  throne  of  France ;  but  when,  con- 
trary to  all  expectation,  the  French  king  recovered  and  the  younger 
Louis  suddenly  died,  Philip  V.  resumed  the  Spanish  crown.  His  daugh- 
ter was,  a  few  months  later,  sent  back  from  Paris  to  Madrid,  and  Louis 
XV.  married  Maria  Leczinska,  daughter  of  the  exiled  king,  Stanislaus 
of  Poland. 

139.  The  tangled  web  of  European  diplomacy  at  this  period  is  hardly 
worth  the  trouble  of  unraveling.  Many  an  intricate  plot  came  to  no  re- 
sult, being  thwarted  by  some  other  scheme  still  more  cunningly  contrived ; 
and  the  multitudes  of  conflicting  interests  only  fatigue  the  attention, 
while  they  afford  no  satisfaction  to  the  mind.  The  only  question  of  per- 
manent importance  was  that  of  the  Austrian  succession.  The  emperor, 
having  no  sons,  desired  to  secure  his  hereditary  possessions  to  his  daughter 
Maria  Theresa —  though  by  the  will  of  his  father  they  had  been  destined  in 
such  a  case  to  the  daughters  of  his  elder  brother,  Joseph.  The  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  by  which  in  1713,  Charles  VI.  had  declared  his  own  will  con- 
cerning his  inheritance,  had  been  confirmed  by  the  Estates  of  Austria, 
Silesia,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  the  Netherlands;  and  the  great  object 
of  imperial  diplomacy  was  to  obtain  the  guarantee  of  foreign  powers. 
The  Treaty  of  Vienna  secured  the  adhesion  of  Spain ;   and 

it  was  commonly  believed  that  a  secret  article  provided  for 
a  marriage  between  Don  Carlos  and  the  imperial  princess,  and  the  ulti- 
mate reunion  of  the  great  dominions  of  Charles  V. 

140.  A  counter-alliance,  known  as  the  League  of  Herrnhausen,  united 
France,  England,  Prussia,  Holland,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  in  opposition 
to  the  League  of  Vienna.  The  latter  was  joined  by  the  empress  Cath- 
erine of  Russia,  and  eventually  by  the  kin^  of  Prussia,  who  deserted  the 

M.  H.— 21. 


322  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Hanoverian  alliance  for  that  of  the  emperor.  Only  the  profound  and 
peaceful  policy  of  Cardinal  Fleury  —  prime-minister  of  France  since 
1726  —  prevented  the  outbreak  of  another  general  war.  The  death  of 
the  empress  Catharine,  and  the  quiet  accession  of  George  II.  in  England, 
contributed  to  the  same  result.  Spain  was  the  only  great 
power  which  had  lately  encouraged  the  attempts  of  James 
Stuart  to  regain  the  English  throne ;  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Seville  in 
1729,  Spain  made  peace  with  England,  France,  and  Holland.  The  sec- 
ond Treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1731,  reconciled  the  last  two  nations  with  the 
emperor,  and  Spain  also  acceded  within  a  month.  A  Family  Convention, 
by  which  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  named  Carlos  of  Spain  as  his  heir, 
completed  the  pacification  of  Europe. 

141.  The  next  general  disturbance  arose  from  the  War  of  the  Polish 
Succession,  which  followed  the  death  of  Augustus  II.  in  1733.  Frederic 
Augustus,  son  of  that  monarch  and  his  successor  in  the  Saxon  electorate, 
was  supported  by  Russia  and  by  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  whose  niece 
he  had  married,  but  whose  influence  he  gained  only  by  renouncing  the 
claims  of  his  family  to  the  Austrian  succession  and  giving  his  solemn 
guarantee  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  The  king  of  France,  on  the  other 
hand,  determined  to  restore  his  father-in-law,  Stanislaus  Leczinski.  The 
defects  of  the  Polish  constitution  placed  the  country  at  the  disposal  of 
foreign  powers.  A  pretense  was  indeed  made  of  respecting  the  freedom 
of  the  election,  but  not  only  was  money  used  lavishly  in  securing  votes, 
but  a  Russian  army  was  quartered  in  Poland  itself  and  an  Austrian  in 
Silesia. 

142.  Stanislaus,  as  a  native  of  the  country,  was  the  more  popular  can- 
didate, and  was  actually  elected  by  a  large  majority ;  but  a  small  number 
of  electors  crossed  the  Vistula  to  Praga  and  gave  their  votes  to  the  Saxon 
prince,  who  was  immediately  proclaimed  as  Augustus  III.  and  recognized 
by  the  Russian  and  Austrian  courts.  Unsupported  by  either  his  French 
or  Polish  adherents,  Stanislaus  became  a  second  time  a  fugitive  from 
Warsaw.  Dantzic,  where  he  first  took  refuge,  was  besieged  and  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1734,  and  the  king,  in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  fled  to 
the  court  of  Frederic  William  of  Prussia.  That  sovereign  protected  him 
personally,  while  sending  10,000  men  to  join  the  Austrians  in  opposing 
his  cause.  The  unhappy  people  of  Poland  suffered  all  the  injury  of  a 
strife  in  which  they  had  no  voice ;  for  the  Polish  succession  was  in  fact 
only  a  pretext  of  which  the  powers  of  Europe  availed  themselves  to  fight 
out  their  own  quarrels. 

143.  France  had  already  begun  the  war  by  seizing  Lorraine  in  1733; 
while  Marshal  Villars,  with  a  French  and  Piedmontese  army,  conquered 
the  duchy  of  Milan.  Berwick,  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
took  Kehl,  Treves,  and  Trarbach,  and  besieged  Philipsburg,  where  he  was 


WAB  OF  POLISH  SUCCESSION  ENDED.  323 

killed  in  June,  1734.  Villars  died  a  few  days  later  at  Turin.  They  were 
the  last  of  the  great  generals  of  Louis  XIV.  The  Spanish  troops  mean- 
while effected  an  easy  conquest  of  Naples,  where  the  Austrian  rule  was 
universally  detested.  The  defeat  of  the  imperial  troops  at  Bitonto,  May, 
1734,  completed  the  acquisition  of  the  mainland,  and  Sicily  was  reduced 
in  a  few  months.  Don  Carlos,  as  Charles  III.,  was  crowned  at  Palermo, 
and  thus  began  the  reign  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons  in  Italy.  The  mild 
disposition  of  the  young  king,  and  the  wisdom  of  his  minister,  Bernardo 
Tanucci — formerly  a  professor  of  law  at  Pisa  —  made  the  commencement 
of  this  dynasty  far  more  beneficent  than  its  later  years. 

144.  Austria  having  lost  her  last  possession  in  Italy,  all  parties  began 
to  incline  toward  peace.  Hostilities  ceased  in  1735;  but  the  Third 
Treaty  of  Vienna  was  not  signed  until  1738.  King  Stanislaus  resigned 
the  troublesome  sovereignty  of  Poland  for  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and 
Bar,  which  had  already  been  acquired  by  France.  They  were  considered 
as  the  dowry  of  his  daughter,  and  reverted  on  his  death  to  the  French 
crown.  The  former  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Francis  Stephen,  was  indemnified 
by  the  Grand-duchy  of  Tuscany,  and  the  French  court  withdrew  its  pro- 
test against  his  marriage  with  the  imperial  princess,  Maria  Theresa.  A 
small  portion  of  his  former  possession  was  secured  to  him  that  he  might 
continue  to  be  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  and  have  a  better  prospect  of 
election  to  the  imperial  crown  upon  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Charles 
VI.  The  last  of  the  Medici  died  before  the  treaty  was  concluded,  and 
Francis  became  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany.  Charles  III.  was  acknowledged 
as  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  resigned  to  the  emperor  his  fiefs  in 
northern  Italy. 

145.  The  year  before  this  treaty,  Charles  VI.  had  declared  war  against 
the  Turks,  in  pursuance  of  his  alliance  with  Eussia.  The  Ottoman  Em- 
pire was  so  far  gone  in  its  decline,  that  it  continued  to  exist  chiefly 
through  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  European  powers,  neither  of  which 
would  permit  the  others  to  be  aggrandized '  by  the  absorption  of  the 
Turkish  provinces. 

Peter  the  Great  had  died  in  1725.  His  eldest  son,  Alexis,  who  had 
joined  the  Old  Russian  party  in  opposition  to  his  father's  favorite  re- 
forms, had,  seven  years  before,  been  convicted  of  conspiracy  and  put  to 
death,  leaving  only  a  son  three,  and  a  daughter  four  years  of  age.  By 
the  aid  of  the  New  Russian  party,  the  empress  Catharine,  who  had  been 
crowded  at  Moscow  during  the  life  of  her  husband,  ascended  the  throne. 
On  her  death  in  1727,  Peter  IL,  the  son  of  Alexis,  became  Czar  under 
the  control  of  Menschikoff,  whose  daughter  he  married.  The  insolence 
of  the  prime  minister  became  so  unbearable  that  he  was  banished  in  a 
few  months  to  Siberia  —  that  vast  and  frozen  region  which  served  the 
Russian  government  as  a  prison  for  political  offenders. 


324  MODERN  HISTORY. 

146.  Peter  was  succeeded  in  1730  by  Anna  Ivanowna,  duchess  of  Cour- 
land,  a  niece  of  Peter  the  Great.  She  made  peace  with  Kouli  Khan, 
afterward  better  known  as  Nadir  Shah,  of  Persia,  by  restoring  the  greater 
part  of  her  uncle's  conquests  in  that  country ;  and  in  1735  began  a  war, 
first  against  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  and  then  against  the  Turkish 
Empire  itself  Miinnich,  her  general-in-chief,  is  considered  as  the  founder 
of  the  Russian  military  system.  By  his  masterly  tactics,  Azov  was  re- 
conquered and  many  victories  were  gained.  The  Austrian  allies  were  not 
so  fortunate.     They  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  at  Krotzka,  and  were 

driven  from  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Wallachia.     By  the  Peace 

A.  D.  1739.  '  '  "^ 

of  Belgrade,  that  important  fortress,  with  Sabatz  and  Or- 
sova,  was  surrendered  to  the  Turks.  Russia  soon  made  a  treaty  by  which 
she  retained  Azov,  and  enlarged  her  boundaries  in  the  Ukraine,  but 
agreed  to  keep  no  fleet  in  the  southern  seas. 

147.  During  this  year  a  colonial  war  broke  out  between  Spain  and 
England  —  the  beginning  of  a  long  rivalry  between  the  so-called  Latin 
and  Saxon  races  for  the  possession  of  the  American  continent.  The 
boundaries  of  Carolina  and  Florida  —  the  privilege  of  supplying  the 
Spanish  colonies  with  African  slaves,  and  the  right,  claimed  by  the 
Spaniards,  of  searching  English  vessels  for  contraband  goods,  were  among 
the  points  in  dispute.  Philip  V.  had  fortified  himself  in  1735  by  a 
Family  Compact  with  Louis  XV.,  who  engaged  to  procure  the  restora- 
tion of  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  to  harass  English  commerce  by  means  of 
a  swarm  of  privateers  as  well  as  by  his  national  fleet.  Prizes  amounting 
to  more  than  a  million  of  dollars  were  taken  by  the  Spaniards  during 
the  first  three  months,  but  the  capture  of  Porto  Bello  by  Admiral  Ver- 
non, and  the  subsequent  depredations  of  Anson  in  his  cruise  round  the 
globe  went  far  toward  turning  the  balance. 

148.  The  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  in  1740,  converted  this 
maritime  war  of  two  nations  into  a  general  conflict,  known  as  the  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession.  The  archduchess  Maria  Theresa,  now  in  her 
twenty-fourth  year,  assumed  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and 
received  assurances  of  friendship  from  England,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  the 
United  Netherlands.  France  dissembled ;  the  elector  of  Bavaria  claimed 
the  Austrian  provinces  in  his  own  right  as  descended  from  Ferdinand 
II.  and  in  that  of  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Joseph  I.  The  queen  of  Poland 
was  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  latter  emperor ;  and  though  her  husband 
had  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  he  joined  the  secret  alliance  at 
Nymphenburg,  of  France,  Bavaria,  and  Spain.  The  kings  of  Prussia  and 
Sardinia  and  the  electors  of  Cologne  and  the  Palatinate  acceded  to  this 
league,  which  destined  the  imperial  crown  for  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria, 
while  it  apportioned  the  Austrian  possessions  in  Germany  and  Italy 
among  the  various  contracting  parties.     To  this  powerful  coalition  Maria 


WAR  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION.  325 

Theresa  could  only  oppose  the  alliance  of  England,  which  was  ineffective 
for  several  years;  while  her  own  army  was  feeble  and  her  treasury 
drained.  The  empress  Elizabeth  of  Eussia  w^as  friendly  but  absorbed 
at  home  by  a  Swedish  invasion  ^  which  had  been  instigated  by  •  the 
French. 

149.  The  first  blow  was  struck  by  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia  who  overran 
and  conquered  the  province  of  Silesia  in  less  than  four  months.  The 
important  battle  of  MoUwitz,  in  which  the  Prussian  infantry  defeated 
the  Austrian  by  the  unprecedented  quickness  and  precision  of  its  fire, 
demonstrated  the  superiority  of  the  military  system  organized  by  Frederic 
William  I.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  marched  into  Upper  Austria  where 
he  occupied  Linz  without  a  blow  and  received  the  homage  of  the  Estates 
as  Archduke ;  then  turning  to  Bohemia  captured  Prague  with  the  aid  of 
the  Saxons  and  was  crowned  as  King.  Maria  Theresa  took  refuge  in 
Hungary,  where,  presenting  her  infant  son  —  afterward  the  emperor 
Joseph  II.  —  to  the  assembled  magnates,  she  besought  their  aid.  The 
brave  princes,  though  they  had  little  reason  to  serve  a  dynasty  which 
had  overthrown  their  ancient  constitution  and  avenged  their  fathers'  re- 
sistance with  the  ax,  could  not  resist  the  appeal  of  this  royal  woman 
and  child  in  their  distress.  The  hall  resounded  with  their  shout,  "Let 
us  die  for  our  king,  Maria  Theresa ! "  Magyars,  Croats,  Pandours  sprang 
to  arms,  and  100,000  men  were  soon  on  foot.  They  were  joined  by  the 
Tyroleans,  who  rose  almost  to  a  man ;  and  during  the  respite  afforded  by 
Charles  Albert's  absence  in  Bohemia,  the  whole  force  was  thoroughly 
armed  and  drilled. 

150.  The  electors  met  at  Frankfort,  Jan.,  1742,  and  gave  their  unan- 
imous vote  to  the  Bavarian  prince,  who  received  the  imperial  crown 
under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.  But  the  new  levies  of  the  queen  of 
Hungary  were  already  in  the  field.  One  division  under  General  Khev- 
enhiiller  reconquered  Upper  Austria,  invaded  Bavaria,  and  captured 
Munich  ;  w^hile  a  second,  under  the  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  the  queen's 
husband,  entered  Bohemia.  The  long  and  hard-fought  battle  of  Czaslau 
was  gained  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  at  this  point  Frederic,  who  dis- 
trusted his  allies,  and  had,  moreover,  accomplished  his  only  personal 
object  in  the  war,  suspended  hostilities,  and  concluded,  the  following 
month,  a  treaty  with  Austria.  Silesia,  with  the  county  of  Glatz,  was 
the  price  of  his  neutrality. 

151.  The  French,  thus  deprived  of  their  best  ally,  were  besieged  in 
Prague;  and  though  they  managed  to  evacuate  the  city  and  escape,  the 
sufferings  of  the  autumn  and  winter  reduced  the  60,000  men  commanded 


*  This  northern  war  ended  in  the  surrender  by  Sweden  of  all  her  provinces  east  of  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  which  were  added  to  the  Russian  Empire. 


326  MODERN  HISTORY. 

by  Belleisle  to  12,000  before  his  arrival  in  France.  The  death  of  Car- 
dinal Fleury  left  the  French  government  iii  great  disorder.  Imitating 
the  words  of  his  predecessor  on  the  death  of  Mazarin,  Louis  XV.  de- 
clared himself  prime  minister,  but  he  had  neither  the  talents  nor  the 
industry  to  make  good  his  promises;  and  the  slackness  of  the  French 
military  movements  soon  betrayed  the  want  of  a  common  and  efficient 
head  of  the  several  departments  of  government. 

152.  The  emperor  Charles  VII.  saw  himself  deserted  by  the  French, 
and  disastrously  defeated  by  the  Austrians,  while  his  capital  was  once 
more  in  possession  of  his  foes.  In  these  humiliating  circumstances,  he 
consented  to  abandon  Bavaria  on  condition  that  the  remnant  of  his  army 
might  be  quartered  unmolested  in  some  neutral  state  of  the  Empire. 
The  queen  of  Hungary  received  the  allegiance  of  the  Bavarian  estates. 
At  the  same  time  great  enthusiasm  began  to  be  felt  in  England  for  the 
cause  of  Maria  Theresa.  Walpole,  after  being  at  the  head  of  affairs  for 
more  than  twenty  years,  was  compelled  to  resign,  and  with  the  elevation 
of  Lord  Carteret,  measures  were  taken  for  a  more  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  war. 

153.  An  army  of  40,000  men,  joined  a  few  months  later  by  King 
George  II.  in  person,  entered  Germany  in  the  spring  of  1743,  and  gained 
in  June  the  battle  of  Dettingen.  The  king  of  Sardinia,  who  had  already 
withdrawn  from  the  League  of  Nymphenburg,  now  made  a  close  alliance 
with  the  queen  of  Hungary,  engaging  to  keep  45,000  men  in  the  field 
on  condition  of  an  annual  subsidy  from  England  and  some  accessions  of 
territory  in  northern  Italy.  The  French  and  Spanish  Bourbons  at  the 
same  time  made  a  second  Family  Compact  providing  for  war  against 
England  and  Sardinia.  The  "  Young  Pretender,"  grandson  of  James  II., 
was  furnished  with  a  French  fleet  and  army  for  what  proved  the  last 
invasion  of  the  British  dominions  by  any  member  of  his  family.  It  was 
delayed  until  1745.  In  the  absence  of  the  king  and  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, the  Pretender  advanced  within  four  days'  march  of  London ;  but 
his  fortunes  were  ruined  by  the  battle  of  Culloden,  and  the  Hanoverian 
dynasty  has  ever  since  reigned  in  peace. 

154.  The  events  of  the  intervening  two  years,  though  crowded  and 
sufficiently  exciting,  produced  too  little  lasting  effect  to  require  much 
detail.  Louis  XV.  took  the  field  in  March,  1743,  with  an  army  of 
80,000  men  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Noailles  and  Count  Maurice 
of  Saxony,  better  known  to  history  as  Marshal  Saxe.  Many  towns  in  the 
Netherlands  were  taken,  and  as  Alsace  was  now  threatened  by  the  Aus- 
trians, the  king  hastened  with  a  chosen  body  of  troops  to  its  rescue.  A 
severe  illness  at  Metz  nearly  put  an  end  to  his  life ;  and  the  Parisians,  in 
their  impulse  of  joy  at  his  recovery,  gave  him  the  title  of  Well-beloved  — 
a  description  which  few  sovereigns  have  so  little  deserved.  ' 


FRANCIS  OF  LORRAINE,  EMPEROR.  327 

155.  The  Union  of  Frankfort  between  the  emperor,  the  kings  of  Prus- 
sia and  Sweden,  and  the  elector  palatine,  led  almost  immediately  to  the 
second  Silesian  War.  Frederic  II.  invaded  Bohemia  and  captured  Prague ; 
but  he  was  expelled  from  that  kingdom  and  even  from  Silesia  in  a  few 
months  by  a  combined  force  of  Austrians  and  Saxons.  Silesia  was  re- 
covered the  following  spring.  The  emperor,  meanwhile,  took  advantage 
of  the  engagement  of  the  Austrian  troops  in  this  war  to  recover  his 
hereditary  dominion  and  reestablish  himself  at  Munich.  The  Austrian 
army  in  Italy,  which  in  1743  had  advanced  almost  to  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  was  this  year  driven  northward  nearly  to  the  Po. 

156.  A  new  Fourfold  Alliance,  Jan.,  1745,  drew  more  closely  the  in- 
terests of  Maria  Theresa,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  Dutch  Republic,  and 
Great  Britain ;  but  the  death  of  Charles  VII.,  the  same  month,  suddenly 
altered  the  state  of  affairs.  His  son,  Maximilian  Joseph,  being  but  sev- 
enteen years  of  age,  could  hardly  hope  to  receive  the  imperial  crown. 
He  made  a  treaty  with  the  queen  of  Hungary  by  which  he  renounced 
all  his  claims  to  her  hereditary  estates  and  promised  his  electoral  vote 
to  her  husband,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  upon  their  retrospective  acknowl- 
edgment of  his  father's  imperial  title  and  guarantee  of  his  own  undis- 
turbed possession  of  Bavaria. 

157.  The  king  of  Prussia  gained  this  year  two  signal  victories  over  the 
Austrians  at  Hohenfriedberg  and  at  Sorr.  Then  turning  against  the 
Saxons,  he  conquered  Lusatia  and  marched  upon  Dresden.  His  general. 
Prince  Leopold  of  Dessau,  also  entered  Saxony,  captured  Leipzig  and 
Meissen,  and  defeated  the  army  of  General  Rutowski  at  Kesselsdorf. 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  was  obliged  to  retreat;  Dresden  surrendered 
without  conditions;  and  Saxony  was  at  the  mercy  of  Frederic.  At  this 
point  the  king  of  Prussia  was  willing  to  make  peace;  and  . 
two  treaties  were  signed  at  Dresden — one  with  the  sovereign 

of  Poland  and  Saxony,  the  other  with  the  queen  of  Hungary.  The 
former  paid  a  large  ransom  and  received  back  his  Saxon  dominions.  The 
latter  ceded  Silesia ;  and  Frederic  in  return  acknowledged  the  Grand-duke 
of  Tuscany  as  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  Notwithstanding  the  protests  of 
the  electors  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Palatinate,  Francis  I,  had  already 
been  elected  and  crowned  at  Frankfort,  and  thus  became  the  founder  of 
the  new  imperial  House  of  Austria' — that  of  Hapsburg-Lorraine. 

158.  The  war  went  on  between  the  Austrians  and  the  French,  and  the 
latter,  under  Marshal  Saxe,  gained  many  victories  in  the  Netherlands. 
Among  the  most  brilliant  was  that  of  Fontenay,  in  which  the  king  and 
the  Dauphin  w^ere  present,  and  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  was  completely 
defeated.  As  a  consequence  of  their  victory,  Tournay,  Ghent,  Bruges, 
Oudenarde,  Nieuport,  and  Ath  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  Their 
allies  in  Italy  were  equally  successful  this  year.     A  new  alliance  of  the 


328  MODERN  HISTORY. 

three  Bourbon  courts  with  Genoa  was  formed  in  May,  and  their  com- 
bined forces  not  only  took  Tortona,  Piacenza,  Parma,  and  Pavia,  but  de- 
feated the  king  of  Sardinia  at  Bassignano  and  received  the  surrender  of 
Alessandria,  Asti,  and  Casale.  Don  Philip  of  Spain,  brother  of  the  king 
of  Naples,  entered  Milan  in  triumph.  The  next  spring,  however,  the 
Austrian  troops  released  from  Germany  by  the  Peace  of  Dresden,  gained 
a  decisive  victory  near  Piacenza,  which  was  followed  by  a  retreat  of  the 
French  and  Spaniards  beyond  the  Alps. 

159.  The  sudden  death  of  Philip  V.  severed  Spain  from  the  alliance. 
Ferdinand  VI.  did  not  share  his  step-mother's  ambition  for  Italian  con- 
quest, and  he  withdrew  his  armies  with  such  precipitation,  that  all 
northern  Italy  fell  at  once  into  the  possession  of  the  Austrians.  The 
city  of  Genoa  was  treated  with  inhuman  cruelty  by  the  conquerors,  who 
even  attempted  to  harness  the  people  in  the  streets  to  their  heavy  artil- 
lery. A  revolt  succeeded,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  expelled  with  a 
loss  of  5,000  men. 

In  the  Netherlands,  the  campaign  of  1746  was  no  less  fortunate  to  the 
French  than  that  of  the  preceding  year.  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Mons,  Na- 
mur,  and  other  places  were  taken,  and  Saxe  gained  an  important  victory 
over  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  at  Raucoux.  In  1747  an  attempt  was 
made  to  divide  the  allies  by  an  invasion  of  Holland.  Many  important 
places  were  taken  by  the  French  forces  under  Count  Lowendahl.  In 
consequence  of  this  attack,  the  Republican  party  in  the  United  Provinces 
was  defeated,  and  the  hereditary  stadtholder  restored.  This  was  William 
IV.  of  Nassau-Dietz,  a  son-in-law  of  the  king  of  England. 

160.  While  victorious  on  land,  the  French  suffered  many  disasters  by 
sea.  Their  colonies  had  an  important  part  in  the  war.  Louisbourg  and' 
the  whole  island  of  Cape  Breton  were  captured  in  1745  by  the  people 
of  New  England  and  effectually  resisted  all  attempts  to  regain  them. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  globe,  however,  the  French  made  the  important 
acquisition  of  Madras.  The  year  1748  was  marked  by  extraordinary 
efforts  of  the  allies  to  retrieve  their  losses.  England,  Holland,  Austria, 
and  Sardinia  engaged  to  arm  280,000  men ;  and  Russia,  joining  the  alli- 
ance, invaded  Germany  for  the  second  time  in  history.  These  gigantic 
movements  resulted,  however,  in  peace  rather  than  war.  France  and 
Spain  were  exhausted;  England  and  the  Dutch  States  had  sustained 
great  burdens  and  received  but  a  small  share  of  the  profits  of  the  contest. 

After  some  months  of  negotiation,  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  was  signed  by  the  ministers  of  France,  England, 
and  Holland,  and  a  few  days  later  by  those  of  Spain,  Genoa,  Sardinia, 
and  Austria.  All  conquests  were  restored.  The  Treaty  of  Madrid,  two 
years  later,  restored  the  commercial  relations  of  England  and  Spain  to  a 
friendly  footing. 


AGE  OF  FREDERIO  THE  GREAT.  329 

161.  The  eight  years'  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  left  Austria  still 
a  power  of  the  first  rank,  though  deprived  of  Silesia  and  the  Italian 
duchies.  France,  its  chief  promoter,  in  spite  of  the  brilliant  victories 
won  by  foreigners  in  her  service,  gained  absolutely  nothing,  while  the 
addition  of  $250,000,000  to  her  debt  was  among  the  chief  causes  which 
hastened  the  terrible  catastrophe  of  the  Revolution.  She  had  lost,  more- 
over, her  cherished  position  as  the  arbitress  of  European  affairs.  The 
gay  and  frivolous  courtiers  who  surrounded  Louis  XV.  already  congratu- 
lated each  other  that  the  world  would  last  their  day ;  and  a  current  motto 
of  the  time  was,  "  After  us,  the  deluge ! " 

162.  England,  by  subsidizing  all  her  allies,  had  greatly  increased  her 
influence  in  continental  politics.  The  same  series  of  events  which  had 
undermined  the  specious  prosperity  of  France,  had  elevated  Prussia, 
through  the  energy  and  military  genius  of  her  king,  to  a  foremost  rank 
among  the  European  powers;  and  the  period  of  his  reign  is  frequently 
mentioned  even  in  universal  history  as  the  Age  of  Frederic  the  Great. 

I2-E  C-A.:FITTJIj-A.m02<r. 

Regency  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  during  minority  of  Louis  XV.  Quadruple  Alliance 
of  England,  Holland,  France,  and  the  Empire.  Peace  of  Passarowitz  with  the  Turks,  who 
retain  the  Morea,  but  surrender  Temesvar  and  Belgrade.  Duke  of  Savoy  becomes  king 
of  Sardinia.  Close  alliance  between  France  and  Spain ;  ambition  of  Elizabeth  of  Parma 
to  establish  her  sons  in  Italy.  Failure  of  the  Mississippi  Scheme.  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
Emperor  Charles  VI.  aims  to  secure  his  inherited  dominions  to  his  daughter.  League  of 
Vienna  supports,  while  that  of  Herrnhausen  opposes  the  Sanction.  War  averted  by  pacific 
policy  of  Fleurj' ;  general  cordiality  restored  by  Second  Treaty  of  Vienna.  In  War  of  the 
Polish  Succession  the  elector  of  Saxony  is  the  candidate  favored  by  Russia  and  Austria, 
Stanislaus  Leczinski  by  France.  Duchies  of  Lorraine  and  Milan  taken  by  the  French ; 
the  former  bestowed  on  the  exiled  king  Stanislaus.  Kingdom  of  Naples  transferred  from 
the  Hapsburgs  to  the  Spanish  Bourbons.  Peter  the  Great  succeeded  on  the  Russian  throne 
in  turn  by  his  wife,  his  grandson,  and  his  niece.  War  of  Anna  with  the  Turks ;  Azov  re- 
taken by  Mlinnich. 

Colonial  war  between  Spain  and  England  expands,  upon  the  death  of  the  emperor, 
into  the  general  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  England  and  Russia  favor  Maria  Theresa; 
the  kings  of  France,  Spain,  Sardinia,  Prussia,  with  the  electors  of  Cologne,  Bavaria,  and 
the  Palatinate,  are  leagued  in  opposition.  Silesia  conquered  by  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia. 
:Most  of  the  Hapsburg  dominions  preserved  to  Maria  Theresa  by  the  loyalty  of  Hungary 
and  the  Tj-rol.  Elector  Charles  of  Bavaria  becomes  emperor.  Bavaria  itself  submits  to 
Maria  Theresa.  The  king  of  Sardinia  joins  her  party,  and  the  king  of  England  comes  in 
person  to  her  aid.  Last  invasion  of  England  by  the  Stuarts  defeated  at  Culloden.  Sec- 
ond Silesian  War.  Frederic  II.  conquers  Saxony  and  dictates  a  peace  at  Dresden.  The 
emperor  recovers  Bavaria;  dies  and  is  succeeded  in  that  electorate  by  his  son,  in  the  em- 
pire by  Francis  I.  ('ontinued  victories  of  the  French  in  Hainault  and  Flanders  —  of  their 
allies  in  northern  Italy.  Death  of  Philip  V.  and  recall  of  the  Spanish  troops.  Austria 
regains  Milan  and  Genoa,  but  the  latter  is  freed  by  insurrection.  The  French  invade 
Dutch  Flanders;  William  IV.  becomes  stadtholder  of  the  United  Provinces.  Treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  lessens  the  territories,  without  lowering  the  rank,  of  Austria ;  confirms  the 
rising  importance  of  England  and  Prussia,  and  the  decline  of  France. 


330  MODERN  HISTORY, 


The  Seven  Years'  "War. 

163.  After  the  desolating  storm  of  war,  Europe  enjoyed  seven  years' 
repose,  which  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  prosperous  periods  of 
her  history.  Commerce  flourished;  the  minor  arts  of  life  were  brought 
to  a  degree  of  elegance  and  refinement  seldom  before  attained.  Unhap- 
pily the  causes  of  discord  still  existed ;  and  the  ancient  rivalries  of 
France  and  England  soon  broke  forth  in  a  strife  which  surrounded  the 
globe.  The  boundaries  of  the  French  and  English  provinces  in  North 
America  had  been  left  undefined  by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  though  commissioners  from  both  nations  were  employed 
five  years  at  Paris  in  discussing  the  conflicting  interests,  their  labors  were 
of  no  effect.  France  claimed  the  Ohio  Valley  as  part  of  Louisiana  — 
England,  as  part  of  Virginia ;  and  the  former  power  attempted  to  unite 
her  possessions  by  a  chain  of  forts  extending  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
the  Mississippi. 

164.  Border  warfare  between  the  colonists  of  the  two  nations,  secretly 
incited  by  their  respective  governments,  was  a  natural  result.  Naval 
hostilities  began  with  combats  of  privateers  and  mutual  depredations 
upon  commerce.  As  before,  the  quarrel  of  two  nations  became  part  of  a 
general  European  war;  and  disputes  concerning  American  possessions 
were  fought  out  upon  the  plains  of  Germany.  Hence,  what  is  known  to 
American  history  as  the  "French  and  Indian  War,"  from  the  employ- 
ment of  native  savages  by  the  agents  and  generals  of  France,  is  named 
in  European  annals  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  its  foremost  figures  are 
the  empress-queen  of  Austria  and  Hungary  and  Frederic  the  Great. 

165.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  never'  pacified  the  mind  of 
Maria  Theresa  in  view  of  the  loss  of  Silesia ;  and  her  resentment  toward 
her  best  ally.  Great  Britain,  which  had  counseled  her  to  yield  that  prov- 
ince, was  hardly  less  than  toward  Frederic,  who  had  availed  himself  of 
her  humiliation  and  distress  to  seize  it  by  force.  Her  great  minister, 
Kaunitz,  had  long  ago  confided  to  her  a  scheme  for  ultimately  uniting 
France  and  Austria  against  Prussia.  To  further  this  secret  design, 
Kaunitz  himself  spent  five  years  as  Austrian  embassador  at  Paris.  He 
learned  that  the  foreign  affairs  of  that  court  were  ultimately  decided  by 
the  king  and  his  unworthy  favorite,  the  marchioness  of  Pompadour, 
without  reference  to  the  Cabinet.  To  gain  this  all-controlling  influence 
to  her  side,  the  proud  and  stainless  empress  condescended  to  write  a 
flattering  letter  to  the  marchioness,  and  the  alliance  of  Louis  was  gained. 

166.  The  next  steps  were  to  break  with  the  king  of  Prussia  by  viola- 
ting the  terms  of  the  late  treaty,  and  to  renew  an  alliance  already  exist- 
ing with  the  Czarina  Elizabeth.  Frederic,  in  view  of  the  coming  contest, 
allied  himself  with  England,  Jan.,  17.^)6;    and  in  the  following  May  two 


THE  SEVEN  YEARS'   WAR.  331 

treaties  between  France  and  Austria  were  signed,  by  one  of  which  Maria 
Theresa  bouud  herself  to  neutrality  in  the  war  with  England;  by  the 
other  each  party  promised  to  furnish  24,000  men  in  case  of  attack  upon 
the  other,  with  the  single  exception  of  aggressions  of  England  upon 
France.  Hostilities  began  with  the  descent  of  a  French  fleet  upon 
Minorca,  which,  in  the  absence  of  any  sufficient  English  force  for  its  de- 
fense, was  speedily  captured.  Admiral  Byng,  who  had  been  ^^^^  ^^^^ 
dispatched  too  late  with  a  small  squadron  to  its  relief,  made 
no  effective  movement  against  the  French ;  and  such  were  the  excitement 
and  regret  felt  in  England  at  its  loss,  that  Byng  was  sentenced  to  death 
by  court-martial  and  shot.  During  the  contest  for  Minorca,  war  was  first 
formally  declared  by  the  French  and  English  governments. 

167.  Frederic  of  Prussia,  finding  that  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Sweden, 
and  Saxony  were  leaguing  themselves  for  the  annihilation  of  his  kingdom 
and  the  division  of  its  spoils,  resolved  to  anticipate  their  movement  by 
an  invasion  of  Saxony.  His  army  moved  in  three  divisions,  of  which  the 
king  himself  led  one.  At  Dresden  he  seized  the  government  papers,  and 
caused  the  secret  dispatches  of  the  allies,  proving  their  designs  against 
him,  to  be  published  in  justification  of  his  conduct.  Desiring,  if  possi- 
ble, to  join  the  Saxon  forces  to  his  own,  he  avoided  a  battle,  but  block- 
aded their  army  of  17,000  men  in  its  strongly  fortified  camp  near  Pirna. 
Then  turning  toward  Bohemia,  he  met  the  Austrians  who  were  marching 
to  the  relief  of  Saxony.  The  battle  of  Lowositz  resulted  in  his  favor,  and 
on  his  return  to  Pirna  he  received  the  surrender  of  the  entire  Saxon 
army.  The  officers  were  paroled,  but  most  of  the  common  soldiers  en- 
tered the  service  of  Prussia. 

168.  Frederic  remained  in  possession  of  Saxony;  but  the  armies  of  the 
League  were  now  in  motion,  and  the  Diet  of  the  Empire  pronounced  its 
sentence  against  him  as  a  disturber  of  the  public  peace.  The  northern 
German  states  protested  against  this  decision,  and  their  sovereigns  pre- 
ferred hiring  out  their  subjects  to  serve  in  the  armies  of  England,  to 
furnishing  the  contingents  required  by  the  emperor.  Nevertheless  the 
allied  armies  numbered  more  than  400,000  men,  while  the  combined 
Prussian  and  Hanoverian  troops  fell  short  of  half  that  number.  The  lat- 
ter were  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  eldest  surviving  son 
of  the  king  of  England. 

169.  Three  French  armies  entered  Germany  in  April,  1757  —  that  of 
the  Upper  Rhine  being  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Richelieu,  that  of 
the  Main  by  the  Prince  of  Soubise,  and  that  of  the  Lower  Rhine  by 
Marshal  d'Estrees.  The  latter  gained  a  victory  over  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland at  Hastembeck ;  but  was  soon  superseded  by  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
elieu, who  had  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  by  the  conquest  of  Minorca 
and  was  the  most  popular  general  of  the  day.     Aiming  to  secure  the 


332  MODERN  HISTORY. 

neutrality  of  Hanover,  he  overran  that  electorate  and  Brunswick,  where, 
under  the  mediation  of  Denmark,  he  entered  into  the  convention  of 
Kloster  Seven  with  the  English  prince.  This  was  soon  annulled,  but  the 
king  of  England  was  so  offended  by  the  suspension  of  hostilities,  that  he 
never  again  intrusted  his  son  with  a  military  command. 

170.  Frederic  the  Great,  meanwhile,  had  invaded  Bohemia,  and  gained 
a  long  contested  and  dearly  bought  victory  over  Prince  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine, brother  of  the  emperor,  near  Prague.  Each  army  lost  a  marshal; 
but  the  entire  Austrian  camp  and  treasure  remained  to  the  victor. 
Charles,  with  a  force  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Frederic,  was  blockaded  in 
Prague;  and  the  Prussian  king  even  ventured  to  march  with  the  greater 
part  of  his  army  to  oppose  Marshal  Daun,  who  was  approaching  to  re- 
lieve the  Austrians.  Being  greatly  outnumbered,  Frederic  sustained  his 
first  defeat  at  Kolin,  and  was  compelled  not  only  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Prague,  but  to  retire  into  Silesia.  It  was  a  period  of  extreme  depression 
in  Prussian  affairs.  The  French  occupied  Westphalia;  an  imperial  army 
was  in  Thuringia;  100,000  Russians  under  Marshal  Apraxin  invaded 
Prussia  and  gained  a  victory  at  Gross  Jagerndorf,  while  a  Russian  fleet 
captured  Memel.  The  Hanoverian  allies  were  dispersed ;  the  Swedes  were 
invading  Pomerania;  Brandenburg  lay  open  to  the  Austrians,  who  in  Oc- 
tober actually  seized  Berlin  and  levied  contributions  upon  its  citizens, 
though  they  held  the  place  only  a  few  hours. 

171.  Frederic,  in  a  momentary  despair,  even  meditated  suicide;  but  he 
took  more  manly  counsel,  and  roused  himself  to  collect  the  forces  which 
were  still  on  his  side.  Though  Russia  was  in  arms  against  him,  the  heir 
of  that  empire  was  his  enthusiastic  friend  and  admirer.  The  Duke  of 
Richelieu  inherited  the  anti-Austrian  policy  of  his  great-uncle  the  Car- 
dinal, and  opposed  extreme  measures  against  Prussia ;  finally  the  national 
enmities  between  the  French  and  German  troops  lessened  their  efficiency. 
Under  these   slight  encouragements,  Frederic  mustered  the  remnant  of 

,^.„  his  forces,  and  gained  at  Rossbach  near  Weissenfels  one  of 

Nov.,  1757.  ,  '  ^ 

his  most  remarkable  victories  over  the  French  and  imperial 

armies.     A  month  later  he  defeated  Charles  of  Lorraine  at  Leuthen,  and 

with  his  army  of  33,000  men,  killed,  captured,  or  utterly  dispersed,  40,000 

Austrians.     Silesia  was  the  prize  of  this  victory.     Prince  Charles  resigned 

his  command  and  became  governor  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 

172.  A  change  in  the  British  government  was  now  added  to  the  cir- 
cumstances which  favored  Frederic's  interests.  William  Pitt,  becoming 
premier,  infused  new  energy  into  the  war-policy  of  the  kingdom.  The 
Convention  of  Kloster  Seven  was  repudiated,  and  preparations  were  made 
for  settling  the  various  disputes  with  France  once  for  all  on  continental 
fields.  A  subsidy  of  $3,000,000  was  paid  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  he 
was  requested  to  name  the  commander  of  the  British  forces  in  Germany. 


SEVEN  YEARS'   WAR— CONTINUED.  333 

# 
Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  brother  of  the  reigning  duke,  was  appointed; 
and  having  reassembled  his  army,  he  announced  to  Eichelieu  that  hos- 
tilities were  renewed  on  the  part  of  Hanover  and  Great  Britain. 

173.  Living  by  plunder,  the  French  soldiers  had  wholly  lost  their 
efficiency.  In  a  few  months  they  were  driven  from  Hanover,  Brunswick, 
East  Friesland,  and  Hesse,  with  great  loss  of  lives.  Count  Clermont,  who 
had  succeeded  Eichelieu,  was  defeated  at  Krefeld;  Ruremond  and  Diis- 
seldorf  were  taken  by  the  Hanoverians,  whose  scouting  parties  penetrated 
even  to  Brussels.  The  French  retrieved  some  of  their  losses  by  a  victory 
near  Cassel,  but  little  more  was  accomplished  this  year.  Frederic  — 
though  his  masterly  generalship  was  never  more  clearly  displayed  —  had 
fewer  successes  than  usual,  owing  to  the  perplexing  multitude  of  his  foes. 
A  half-civilized  Russian  horde  —  the  regular  forces  being  surrounded  and 
followed  by  wild  troops  of  Cossacks  and  Calmuck  Tartars  —  invaded 
Pomerania  and  burned  the  town  of  Ciistrin  during  a  siege,  though  the 
fortress  still  held  out.  The  battle  of  Zorndorf,  one  of  the  bloodiest  in 
the  war,  resulted  in  victory  to  Prussia.  The  Russians  lost  19,000  men 
killed  and  103  cannon. 

174.  Hastening  into  Lusatia  to  the  relief  of  his  brother,  Frederic  was 
surprised  by  Daun  at  Hochkirchen,  and  defeated  with  a  loss  of  his  artil- 
lery and  9,000  men.  France,  England,  and  Prussia  now  signified  their 
willingness  to  make  peace ;  but  Maria  Theresa,  whose  finances  were  more 
prosperous  than  those  of  Frederic,  and  whose  resentment  was  unappeased, 
refused  to  listen.  The  Duke  of  Choiseul,  lately  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
French  ministry,  failing  in  his  more  pacific  overtures,  made  a  new  treaty 
with  Austria  less  favorable  to  that  power,  and  the  war  was  less  vigorously 
prosecuted  by  the  French.  They,  however,  repulsed  an  attack  of  Prince 
Ferdinand  upon  their  winter-quarters  at  Bergen,  and  captured  Miinster 
the  following  July.  They  were  defeated  by  the  British  infantry  at  Min- 
den,  and  were  compelled  to  withdraw  from  Hesse. 

175.  The  Russians  seized  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  and  with  the  aid  of 
an  Austrian  corps,  defeated  Frederic  at  Kunersdorf  with  great  loss.  He 
himself  acknowledged  that  his  kingdom  must  have  been  sacrificed  if  they 
had  pursued  their  advantage.  But  Soltikofi",  their  general,  was  jealous 
of  the  Austrians,  and  withdrew  without  reaping  the  fruit  of  his  victory. 
Frederic  reentered  Saxony  and  drove  out  the  imperial  army  which  had 
captured  Leipzig,  Torgau,  and  Wittenberg.  Dresden  alone  was  held  by 
Marshal  Daun. 

Meanwhile  a  projected  invasion  of  England  by  a  French  armament, 
under  Charles  Edward.  Stuart,  was  thwarted  by  the  vigilant  activity  of 
the  British  navy.  Admiral  Rodney  bombarded  Havre  and  destroyed  part 
of  the  magazines  and  transports  wiiich  lay  there  ready  for  the  expedition, 
while  Dunkirk,  Brest,  and  Toulon  were  all  blockaded  by  English  fleets. 


334  MODERN  HISTORY. 

A  French  squadron  managed  to  escape  from  Toulon  and  slip  through  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  but  it  was  pursued  and  defeated  by  Admiral  Boscar 
wen  off  Cape  Lagos  in  Portugal.  A  larger  fleet  which  sailed  from  Brest, 
during  an  easterly  gale  which  drove  the  blockading  squadron  off  the 
coast,  was  encountered  and  dispersed  by  Admiral  Hawke.  Four  frigates 
escaping  from  Dunkirk  menaced  the  Scottish  coast,  and  entering  the  Irish 
Sea,  landed  a  force  at  Carrickfergus  which  plundered  the  town;  but 
after  leaving  the  bay  the  ships  were  all  captured. 

176.  In  1759,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  formed  an  alliance  for 
mutual  defense  and  to  maintain  the  commercial  neutrality  of  the  Baltic. 
The  French,  in  1760,  occupied  Hanover  and  Hesse,  defeated  the  heredi- 
tary Prince  of  Brunswick  at  Corbach  and  Kloster,  and  maintained  their 
possession  of  the  electorate  during  the  winter.  The  Prussians  were  de- 
feated at  Landshut  with  a  loss  of  more  than  10,000  men,  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners.  Never  was  Frederic's  position  more  alarming.  An  over- 
whelming force  of  Russians  was  on  the  march,  while  three  Austrian  armies 
were  moving  to  surround  him  near  Liegnitz.  He  managed,  however,  to 
hold  Daun  in  check  while  he  totally  defeated  Laudon,  and  ultimately 
drove  the  Austrians  from  Silesia.  The  Russians  occupied  Berlin  three 
days,  destroyed  its  foundries  and  arsenals,  and  imposed  heavy  contribu- 
tions upon  the  citizens.  Frederic  resolved  to  risk  all  for  the  recovery 
of  Saxony.  To  this  end  he  stormed  the  fortified  position  of  Daun  at 
Torgau,  and  with  far  inferior  forces,  gained  a  complete  victory. 

177.  In  America  the  first  two  years  of  the  war  were  favorable  to  the 
French.  The  English  fort  at  Oswego  was  captured,  with  a  great  quantity 
of  vessels  and  stores,  in  1756,  and  Fort  William  Henry  on  Lake  George, 
the  following  year.  Cape  Breton  Island,  which  had  been  restored  to  the 
French  by  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (see  §  160),  was  reconquered  in 
1758  by  the  English,  who  also  captured,  the  same  year,  several  French 
forts  on  the  lakes  and  the  Ohio  River,  and,  in  Africa,  Fort  Louis  on  the 
Senegal  and  the  island  of  Goree.  The  next  year  a  small  British  force 
under  General  Wolfe  scaled  the  precipitous  Heights  of  Abraham,  and  by 
a  short,  sharp,  and  decisive  battle  gained  the  fortress  of  Quebec,  the 
strongest,  in  its  natural  position,  on  the  American  continent.  The  French 
commander,  the  Marquis  of  Montcalm,  was  mortally  wounded,  and  Wolfe 
also  lost  his  life  in  the  engagement.  Montreal  and  all  Canada  were 
shortly  surrendered  to  Great  Britain. 

178.  The  death  of  Ferdinand  VI.  in  1759,  changed  the  jealously  guard- 
ed neutrality  of  Spain  into  an  alliance  with  the  French.  As  the  crowns 
of  Spain  and  the  Two  Sicilies  were  never  to  be  united,  Charles  HI.  in 
assuming  the  former,  resigned  the  latter  to  his  third  son,  who  became 
Ferdinand  IV.,  though  first  of  the  name  in  Sicily.  A  third  Family 
Compact  between  the  courts  of  Madrid  and   Paris  engaged  Spain  to  de- 


GEORGE  III.  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  335 

clare  war  against  England  in  May,  1762,  unless  peace  should  be  concluded 
before  that  date.  Unable  to  attack  the  English  by  sea,  but  trusting  to 
their  own  ancient  superiority  on  land,  the  Spaniards  marched  an  army 
to  the  borders  of  Portugal,  and  required  its  king  to  renounce  the  British 
alliance  for  that  of  the  Bourbons.  Joseph  I.  replied  by  a 
declaration  of  war  against  France  and  Spain,  and  an  appeal 
to  England  for  aid.  It  was  granted,  and  the  Spaniards,  after  capturing 
Miranda,  Braganga,  and  several  other  Portuguese  towns,  were  driven  from 
the  kingdom  by  a  German  and  English  force  under  the  Count  of  Lippe- 
Schaumburg  and  generals  Burgoyne  and  Lee.  The  allies  then  invaded 
Spain  and  took  several  towns  by  way  of  reprisals.  The  English  fleet  cap- 
tured Havana  in  Cuba,  Manilla,  and  the  Philippine  Isles,  and  an  im- 
mense amount  of  treasure  and  merchandise. 

179.  The  death  of  the  English  king  in  October,  1760,  and  the  accession 
of  his  grandson,  George  III.,  had  an  indirect  influence  in  favor  of  peace. 
The  first  two  kings  of  the  House  of  Brunswick  had  regarded  themselves 
chiefly  as  electors  of  Hanover ;  they  spoke  German,  thought  of  England 
as  a  foreign  country,  and  were  always  longing  for  their  native  land. 
George  III.,  on  the  contrary,  had  been  educated  in  England,  and  de- 
clared in  his  first  speech  to  Parliament  that  he  "gloried  in  the  name 
of  Briton."  In  the  continental  war  England  had  little  concern,  though 
the  electorate  of  Hanover  was  vitally  interested.  The  war-party  pre- 
vailed, however,  so  long  as  Mr.  Pitt  was  in  power;  and  for  many  months 
afterward  the  war  went  on,  in  spite  of  negotiations. 

180.  Prince  Ferdinand  was  defeated  at  Griinsberg  and  driven  out  of 
Hesse,  but  the  French  were  in  their  turn  repulsed  from  their  position  at 
Wellinghausen.  The  Russians  besieged  and  captured  Colberg,  and  the 
Austrians  took  Schweidnitz  by  surprise,  making  prisoners  of  its  garrison 
of  3,600  men,  and  gaining  a  stronghold  in  Silesia.  Upon  the  retirement 
of  Pitt  from  the  English  ministry,  Frederic  found  himself  again  in  an 
almost  hopeless  situation.  Pitt  had  been  his  firm  friend ;  Bute,  the  new 
premier,  was  his  equally  determined  enemy.  The  new  ministry  not  only 
withdrew  his  subsidies,  but  proposed  to  abandon  him  altogether  for  the 
sake  of  peace  with  Austria.  Fortunately  for  Frederic,  the  empress-queen 
was  at  that  moment  so  confident  of  recovering  Silesia,  that  she  rejected 
the  English  propositions  with  disdain.  The  death  of  the  ^^^  ^^^,^ 
Czarina,  and  the  accession  of  her  nephew,  Peter  III.,  un- 
expectedly turned  the  scale.  On  the  day  of  Elizabeth's  decease,  the 
young  Czar  wrote  to  the  Prussian  king,  for  whom,  as  we  have  said,  he 
cherished  a  romantic  admiration,  requesting  a  renewal  of  their  friendship. 
He  ordered  his  generals  to  cease  from  hostilities  with  Prussia  and  en- 
gaged to  restore  their  conquests.  An  alliance  was  made  the  following 
May,  by  which  each  power  promised  to  aid  the  other  with  15,000  men 


336  MODERN  HISTORY. 

in  case  of  need.    Sweden  likewise  made  peace  with  Frederic.    Tlie  treaty 
of  Hamburg  was  negotiated  by  his  sister,  the  Swedish  queen. 

181.  The  reign  of  Peter  III.  was  short,  for  in  July,  1762,  his  wife  by 
a  wicked  conspiracy  with  the  five  brothers  OrlofF,  deposed  him  and 
reigned  in  his  stead  as  Catherine  II.  Herself  the  daughter  of  a  Prussian 
general,  she  maintained  the  peace  to  which  her  husband  had  agreed, 
though  she  recalled  the  Russian  troops  which  were  preparing  to  serve  in 
the  armies  of  Frederic.  Their  presence,  however,  aided  him  to  gain  one 
more  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Burkersdorf,  and  being  now  able  to 
concentrate  his  forces,  he  recaptured  the  important  town  of  Schweidnitz 
with  9,000  prisoners  of  war.  His  brother.  Prince  Henry,  was  no  less  for- 
tunate in  Saxony,  where  the  campaign  of  1762  closed  with  a  great  victory 
over  the  Austrian  and  imperial  armies  at  Freiberg.  Austria  consented  to 
a  truce,  and  to  compel  the  Empire  to  accede  to  it,  Frederic  overran  Fran- 
con  ia,  Suabia,  and  Bavaria,  even  to  the  very  gates  of  Ratisbon.  The 
princes  thus  attacked  withdrew  their  forces  from  the  imperial  army, 
which  was  compelled  to  treat  for  a  suspension  of  hostilities. 

182.  By  the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg,  Feb.  15,  1763,  Maria  Theresa  re- 
signed her  claim  to  Silesia  and  all  other  territories  in  dispute  between 
herself  and  the  king  of  Prussia.  Frederic  promised  his  vote  to  the  arch- 
duke Joseph,  her  eldest  son,  at  the  next  imperial  election,  and  engaged 
to  restore  the  Saxon  electorate  with  all  its  archives  to  the  king  of  Po- 
land. Thus,  so  far  as  Germany  was  concerned,  seven  years  of  exhausting 
war,  and  the  sacrifice  of  886,000  human  lives,  had  made  no  change  in  the 
boundaries  of  the  contending  powers.  The  heroic  struggle  maintained  by 
Frederic  the  Great  against  such  tremendous  odds,  heightened  not  only  his 
military  fame,  but  the  political  importance  of  his  kingdom.  This  war, 
unlike  that  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  had  been  essentially  a  defensive 
one  on  his  part;  and  his  character,  at  this  period,  presented  nobler  traits 
than  had  appeared  in  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign. 

183.  During  the  same  month  with  the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  a  defini- 
tive peace  was  signed  at  Paris  between  France  and  Spain  on  the  one 
hand,  England  and  Portugal  on  the  other.  In  America,  all  the  French 
possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi,  except  the  little  islands  of  St.  Pierre 
and  Miquelon,  were  ceded  to  England,  together  with  Grenada,  Dominica, 
St.  Vincent,  and  Tobago  in  the  West  Indies.  In  Africa,  the  Senegal 
country;  in  Asia,  the  French  settlements  made  within  fourteen  years; 
in  Europe,  all  the  French  conquests  in  Hanover  and  the  island  of  Mi- 
norca were  likewise  surrendered  to  Great  Britain.  England  restored  Belle 
Isle  on  the  coast  of  France,  and  St.  Lucia  in  the  West  Indies.  Spain  ex- 
changed the  Floridas  for  the  English  conquests  in  Cuba  and  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  and  was  indemnified  for  her  losses  through  the  Family  Com- 
pact by  the  cession  of  all  that  remained  to  France  of  Louisiana. 


MAP  OF  THE  KEGION 
BETWEEN 

PARISandBERLIN, 

Showing  the  Principal  Battlefields 
A.  von  Steinwehr. 


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CATHERINE  THE  GREAT  IN  RUSSIA.  337 


ILEC^:E'ITTJX..A^TI02sr. 
Seven  years'  peace  and  prosperity  in  Europe  followed  by  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Rival 
claims  of  France  and  England  in  America,  and  resentment  of  Maria  Theresa  for  the  loss 
of  Silesia,  are  disturbing  causes.  France  and  Russia— ultimately  Sweden  and  Saxony  also— 
are  allies  of  Austria;  Great  Britain,  of  Prussia.  Minorca  captured  by  the  French.  Frederic 
II.  invades  Saxony,  takes  Dresden,  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Lowositz,  captures  a  whole 
Saxon  army  and  enlists  prisoners  in  his  own  ranks;  is  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  Em- 
pire. The  French  gain  a  victory  at  Hastembeck;  occupy  Hanover;  make  a  truce  at  Klos- 
ter  Seven  with  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Victory  of  Frederic  at  Prague ;  he  is  defeated 
at  Kolin,  but  in  spite  of  great  disadvantages,  victorious  again  at  Rossbach  and  Leuthen, 
and  regains  Silesia.  Under  Pitt's  ministry,  England  takes  an  efficient  part  in  the  war. 
The  French  are  driven  from  Hanover,  Hesse,  etc. ;  defeated  at  Krefeld,  but  victorious  at 
Cassel.  Russians  invade  Pomerania,  but  are  ruinously  defeated  at  Zorndorf.  Disasters  of 
Frederic  at  Ilochkirchen  and  Kunersdorf,  only  partly  balanced  by  the  English  victory  at 
Minden.  Renewed  occupation  of  Hanover  by  the  French.  Blockade  of  French  ports  by 
the  British  navy  prevents  invasion  of  England  by  the  Young  Pretender.  Frederic,  though 
defeated  at  Landshut,  gains  great  victories  at  Liegnitz  and  Torgau.  Berlin  occupied  and 
despoiled  by  the  Russians.  In  America  the  French  are  at  first  successful,  but  ultimately 
lose  not  only  their  forts  on  the  Ohio,  but  Quebec,  Montreal,  and  all  Canada.  Deaths  of 
Ferdinand  VI.  of  Spain,  George  II.  of  England,  and  Elizabeth  of  Russia.  Spain  becomes 
a  close  ally  of  France ;  Russia  of  Prussia.  Portugal  maintains  her  independence  only  by 
British  aid.  Victory  of  Frederic  II.  at  Burkersdorf  and  recapture  of  Schweidnitz.  Treaty 
of  Hubertsburg  ends  the  war  between  Austria  and  I'russia ;  that  of  Paris,  between  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Spain.  No  territorial  changes  in  Europe.  In  America,  Florida  and  Can- 
ada acquired  by  England,  Louisiana  by  Spain. 

Affairs  of  Russia. 

184.  The  reign  of  Catherine  the  Great,  and  her  conspiracies  ■with  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  for  the  partition  of  Poland,  are  the  prominent  features 
in  the  history  of  eastern  Europe  during  the  remainder  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  That  singular  woman  possessed  talents  only  equaled  by  her 
crimes,  and  if  her  personal  errors  could  be  forgotten,  the  wonderful  suc- 
cess of  her  administration  would  fully  justify  the  title  by  which  she  is 
known  in  history.  Many  of  the  well-meant  reforms  which  had  contrib- 
uted to  the  downfall  of  her  husband  were  safely  accomplished  in  her 
reign.  The  funds  of  Church-sinecures  were  applied  to  secular  uses;  the 
army  and  civil  service  were  reorganized  to  the  highest  efficiency;  the 
whole  empire  was  divided  into  its  present  "governments"  for  conven- 
ience of  administration.  The  unfortunate  Peter  III.  was  refused  the  per- 
mission he  humbly  sought,  to  retire  to  his  duchy  of  Holstein-Gottorp ; 
and  was  strangled  in  his  prison  by  Alexis  Orloff,  probably  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  empress.  Ivan  VI.,  the  true  heir  to  the  throne,  had  been 
deposed  by  Elizabeth  in  1741  and  kept  twenty-three  years  in  a  loathsome 
captivity  which  had  reduced  him  to  idiocy.  He  also  was  put  to  death 
by  the  orders  of  Catherine,  who  artfully  engaged  her  former  favorite 
Mirowitch  in  an  attempt  to  release  him.  The  conspiracy  was  made  a 
pretext  for  the  death  of  both,  and  the  execution  of  Mirowitch,  while 
M.  H.— 22. 


338  MODERN  HISTORY. 

eagerly  and  confidently  expecting  the  promised  pardon,  concealed   the 
Czarina's  share  in  the  plot. 

185.  The  condition  of  the  neighboring  nations,  Sweden,  Poland,  and 
Turkey,  encouraged  Catherine's  ambition  to  become  the  head  of  the  North- 
ern States-System.  The  poverty  of  Sweden  had  long  subjected  her  to  the 
control  of  foreign  courts.  The  whimsically  named  parties  of  the  "  Hats  " 
and  the  "  Caps,"  favored,  respectively,  the  French  and  the  Anglo-Russian 
influence.  It  was  reserved  for  Gustavus  III.  — a  grand-nephew  of  Frederic 
the  Great,  whom  he  resembled  in  genius  and  elevation  of  mind  —  to  put 
an  end  to  both  factions  and  restore  justice  and  order  by  an  increase  of 
the  royal  authority.  This  independence  of  Sweden  was  extremely  dis- 
tasteful to  Russia,  and  led  ultimately  to  a  war,  whose  details  we  shall 
be  compelled  to  omit.  It  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Werela  and  a  sub- 
sequent treaty  of  alliance  and  friendship  at  Drottningholm,  which  main- 
tained the  most  cordial  relations  between  the  two  powers  during  the 
great  revolutions  in  southern  and  central  Europe. 

186.  The  death  of  Augustus  III.  in  1763  left  Poland  in  that  condition 
of  anarchy  to  w^hich  its  Avretched  constitution  made  it  at  all  times  liable. 
Of  the  two  factions  which  fought  for  the  disposal  of  the  crown,  one  was 
supported  by  Russia,  the  other  by  France.  Catherine,  allying  herself  with 
Frederic  the  Great,  was  able  to  secure  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Ponia- 
towski,  whose  weak  and  pliable  character  promised  to  make  him  a  useful 
tool  of  the  Russian  interests. 

A  description  of  Poland  a  few  years  before  its  extinction,  Avill  suffi- 
ciently reveal  the  causes  of  that  event.  Two-thirds  of  the  nation  were 
serfs,  whose  ignorance  and  squalid  misery  held  them  in  a  condition 
scarcely  different  from  that  of  the  brutes.  They  were  incapable  of  pos- 
sessing property ;  if  a  crop  failed,  thousands  died  of  starvation.  The  re- 
maining third  consisted  of  three  orders  of  nobility,  with  clergy,  lawyers, 
citizens,  and  Jews.  Of  the  magnates,  or  highest  nobles,  there  were  not 
more  than  120,  of  whom  four  or  five  were  the  heads  of  powerful  factions. 
The  middle  class  of  nobles  numbered  20,000  or  30,000  persons,  and  the 
lower  nobility  more  than  a  million.  These  were  an  idle,  ignorant,  and 
often  beggarly  class  of  people,  shut  out  by  their  pride  of  birth  from  the 
thrift  and  comfort  which  might  have  been  gained  by  industry;  yet  the 
most  insignificant  of  them  could  nullify  the  proceedings  of  a  whole  diet 
by  his  single  veto. 

187.  The  citizens  chiefly  consisted  of  40,000  or  50,000  artisans,  who, 
scattered  in  wretched  villages,  were  almost  as  absolutely  subject  to  the 
oppressions  of  the  nobles  as  the  serfs  themselves.  Taxation  fell  only  on 
Jews,  artisans,  and  clergy ;  but  the  finances  were  wholly  destitute  of  sys- 
tem. The  heads  of  all  the  departments  of  government  were  responsible 
to  the  Diet  and  not  to  the  king.    To  aggravate  all  these  elements  of 


B  USSIAN  INTEBFEBENCE  IN  POLAND.  339 

weakness,  the  nobles  clung  to  their  ancient  and  constitutional  privilege 
of  forming  armed  confederations  against  the  king  whenever  they  were 
dissatisfied  with  his  policy.  So  evident  was  the  tendency  to  dissolution 
in  so  loosely  constituted  a  state,  that  John  Casimir,  the  last  of  the  Vasa 
dynasty,  clearly  predicted,  in  1661,  the  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom 
by  Russia,  Austria,  and  the  House  of  Brandenburg. 

188.  The  first  interference  of  Catherine  was  in  the  apparently  just  and 
liberal  demand  for  toleration  of  dissidents  from  the  Roman  Church. 
Many  of  the  nobility  were  Calvinists,  and  during  the  century  of  the 
Reformation,  Poland  had  numbered  a  million  of  Protestants,  who  enjoyed 
equal  civil  rights  with  their  Catholic  fellow-citizens.  But  a  period  of 
intolerance  had  succeeded ;  Protestant  places  of  worship  were  demolished, 
and  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  a  bloody  persecution  had  occurred 
in  1724.  The  Poles  could  not  fail  to  perceive  the  motive  of  the  Czarina's 
intervention,  especially  when  her  further  demand  of  political  equality  for 
dissenters  had  been  followed  by  the  entrance  of  a  Russian  army  into  the 
country.  In  an  impulse  of  national  independence,  the  Diet  of  1765  re- 
newed all  the  intolerant  edicts  against  heretics.  Stanislaus  was  forced  to 
submit ;  and  Catherine,  enraged  at  his  evasion  of  her  commands,  secured 
as  her  instrument  of  revenge.  Prince  Charles  Radzivil,  the  clTief  of  his 
opponents,  and  formerly  the  enemy  of  all  Russian  influence  in  the 
kingdom. 

189.  Through  his  efforts,  with  a  liberal  distribution  of  Russian  gold, 
178  distinct  confederations  were  formed  among  the  nobles.  These  were 
ultimately  united  into  one  of  80,000  members,  which  assumed,  according 
to  custom,  dictatorial  powers.  Its  business  was  delegated  to  two  com- 
mittees, one  of  sixty  and  one  of  fourteen  members,  the  latter  having 
power  to  pass  resolutions  of  binding  force  upon  the  nation  by  a  majority 
of  votes.  Eight  men  were  thus  entrusted  with  the  fate  of  Poland.  But 
the  committees  were  soon  found  to  be  under  the  absolute  control  of 
Prince  Repnin,  the  Russian  minister,  who  arranged  with  the  king,  the 
Primate,  the  Grand  Treasurer,  and  Prince  Radzivil  all  the  business  that 
was  to  be  brought  before  them.  A  conviction  grew  strong  in  the  nation 
at  large  that  Stanislaus  had  sold  himself  and  the  kingdom  to  Russia,  and 
that  his  late  semblance  of  independent  action  had  only  been  part  of  the 
plot  to  deceive  his  subjects.  A  counter-federation  was  formed  at  Bar, 
with  the  aid  and  instigation  of  France,  to  dethrone  the  king  a  d  - 
and  expel  the   Russians.     Their  armed  force  was  defeated, 

and  Cracow  taken  by  the  Russian  general  Suwarof,  who  thus  began  a 
long  and  celebrated  military  career. 

190.  A  declaration  of  war  by  Turkey  partly  interrupted  the  movements 
of  the  Czarina  against  Poland.  The  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  overran  her 
southern  provinces  and  committed  frightful  devastations.     The  campaign 


340  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  Prince  Galitzin  on  the  Dniester  in  1769  had  little  success;  but  the 
next  year  Eomanzoif  assumed  the  command  and -became  in  ftict  the  hero 
of  the  war.  He  conquered  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  while  the  fleet  of 
Alexis  OrlofF  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks  off*  Scio,  and  burned 
their  ships  in  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna.  Among  the  vast  projects  of  Cather- 
ine was  the  erection  of  a  new  Greek  Empire  on  the  ruins  of  the  Otto- 
man. Her  premature  efforts  for  the  liberation  of  the  Greeks  resulted 
only  in  misfortune;  for  as  soon  as  her  other  plans  required  the  with- 
drawal of  her  forces  from  the  Mediterranean,  the  insurgents  were  left 
unprotected  to  the  vengeance  of  the  Turks,  and  the  Morea  became  the 
scene  of  terrible  barbarities. 

191.  Fearing  that  both  Poland  and  Turkey  would  be  destroyed  by 
the  ever-increasing  power  of  Eussia,  other  nations  combined  to  preserve 
the  European  balance  or  at  least  to  obtain  part  of  the  spoils.  Joseph  II., 
emperor  since  the  death  of  his  father  in  1765,  had  several  interviews  with 
Frederic  II.  to  concert  plans  for  checking  Russian  aggrandizement.  In  the 
summer  of  1770,  Austrian  troops  took  possession  of  the  county  of  Zip  and 
overran  Gallicia  even  beyond  Cracow.  These  territories  were  declared 
reunited  to  Hungary  and  were  placed  under  Austrian  governors.  In  the 
anarchy  and  terror  that  prevailed,  the  peasantry  ceased  from  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  and  herded  together  in  the  towns,  where  pestilence 
soon  broke  out  in  consequence  of  famine.  The  king  of  Prussia,  under 
pretense  of  forming  a  cordon  of  defense  against  the  plague,  marched  an 
army  into  Polish  Prussia. 

192.  Russia,  still  involved  in  the  Turkish  war,  could  not  resist  these 
appropriations  of  part  of  her  coveted  prize.  After  long  and  intricate 
diplomacy,  Russia  and  Prussia  came  to  an  agreement  in  the  convention 

of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  empress-queen  was  invited  to 
share  the  spoils  of  the  doomed  kingdom.  Maria  Theresa 
long  resisted  the  nefarious  scheme,  but  her  counsels  were  overruled  by 
her  son,  the  Emperor,  and  Kaunitz,  her  long-trusted  minister.  When  at 
length  she  put  her  hand  to  the  document  it  was  in  these  words:  ^^ Placet, 
because  so  many  great  and  learned  men  will  it;  but  when  I  am  dead, 
the  consequences  will  appear  of  this  violation  of  all  that  has  been  hither- 
to held  just  and  sacred."  The  triple  treaty  between  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia,  providing  for  the  appropriation  of  one-third  part  of  Poland,  was 
signed  at  St.  Petersburg  in  August,  1772.  Polish  Livonia  was  assigned 
to  Russia,  together  with  the  countries  between  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Dwina  and  Dnieper.  Austria  had  the  palatinate  of  Gallicia  with  Lodo- 
miria.  To  Frederic  II.  were  assigned  Polish  Prussia  except  Dantzic  and 
Thorn,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Great  Poland.  The  maritime  dis- 
trict was  of  especial  value  as  connecting  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  with 
Brandenburg,  and  though  the  territory  acquired  by  Frederic  was  smaller 


FIRST  PARTITION  OF  POLAND.  341 

and  less  populous  than  the  share  of  either  of  his  allies,  its  value  was  en- 
hanced by  the  industry  and  wealth  of  the  people. 

193.  The  Confederates  of  Bar  had  already  been  driven  from  their  last 
stronghold,  and  the  three  powers  took  possession  without  difficulty  of 
their  respective  shares  in  the  spoils.  Stanislaus  was  compelled  to  sum- 
mon a  diet  to  confirm  their  usurpations;  and  an  army  of  30,000  men 
from  the  three  nations  marched  into  the  territories  still  left  to  Poland, 
in  order  to  overawe  resistance.  Those  nobles  whose  estates  had  been 
seized  were  expressly  excluded  from  the  assembly.  Only  111  members 
met  at  Warsaw,  and  in  a  series  of  balls  and  banquets  of  unexampled  ex- 
travagance seemed  to  celebrate  the  ruin  of  their  country  with  the  insane 
frivolity  of  despair.     The  Diet  continued  in  session  nearlv 

•  u-   -u    ^-  ...  .  1        ,  A.  D.  1773-75. 

two  years,  m  which  time  seven  treaties  were  signed:  three 
with  Russia,  two  with  Austria,  and  two  with  Prussia.  A  new  constitu- 
tion guaranteed  by  Russia  was  adopted  by  the  Poles;  but  as  the  crown 
continued  elective  and  the  king  was  rendered  still  more  helpless  than 
before,  the  ruin  of  the  country  was  only  accelerated.  The  successive  par- 
titions of  Poland  have  ever  been  regarded  as  among  the  greatest  of  po- 
litical crimes.  True,  the  vicious  constitution  of  the  government,  and  its 
blind  adherence  to  the  worst  institutions  of  the  Middle  Ages,  centuries 
after  other  European  nations  had  developed  more  rational  and  stable 
systems,  might  in  any  case  have  ensured  its  destruction.  But  the  sov- 
ereigns who  enriched  themselves  by  its  ruin  might  as  easily  and  more 
justly  have  made  their  power  manifest  by  the  introduction  of  a  better 
order  of  things. 

194.  The  Russo-Turkish  war  was  ended  in  July,  1774,  by  the  Peace  of 
Kutchuk-Kainardji.  The  Sultan  was  glad  to  purchase  the  restoration 
of  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  Georgia,  Mingrelia,  and  some  other  territories  by 
acknowledging  the  political  independence  of  the  Tartars  north  of  the 
Black  Sea,  who  were  to  elect  their  own  sovereign  from  the  family  of 
Zenghis  Khan,  while  they  continued  to  acknowledge  the  religious  su- 
premacy of  the  Sultan  as  successor  of  the  Prophet.  Russia  was  also  con- 
firmed in  the  free  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea  and  all  Turkish  waters 
for  purposes  of  commerce.  The  dominion  of  the  Black  Sea  and  its  shores 
never  ceased  to  be  a  leading  aim  of  Catherine's  policy,  and  in  the  years 
following  the  treaty  of  Kainardji,  frequent  disputes  arose  concerning  the 
independence  of  the  Tartars.  In  1783  the  Crimea  and  Cuban  or  Little 
Tartary  were  formally  annexed  by  Russia,  and  when  the  people  rose  in 
resistance,  a  terrible  massacre  ensued  in  which  30,000  perished. 

195.  Paul  Poterakin,  the  all-powerful  favorite  of  Catherine,  was  the 
prime  mover  in  Crimean  affairs.  He  founded  the  new  capital,  Cherson, 
for  the  provinces  of  Taurida  and  Caucasia ;  and  in  1787  the  Czarina  her- 
self visited  the  newly-acquired  territories  at  once  to  do  honor  to  Potem- 


342  MODERN  HISTORY. 

kin  and  to  receive  the  homage  of  her  Tartar  subjects.  Embarking  at 
Kiev,  she  descended  the  Dnieper  with  a  sumptuous  flotilla  of  twenty-two 
vessels.  She  was  joined  by  the  exiled  king  Stanislaus  of  Poland,  the 
victim  of  her  wiles,  and  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  who  accompanied 
her  in  disguise  and  discussed  their  common  plans  for  the  spoliation  of 
Turkey.  To  give  the  new  dominions  an  air  of  prosperity,  Potemkin  had 
caused  temporary  villages  to  be  erected  along  the  route,  and  peopled  with 
inhabitants  brought  from  a  distance  and  dressed  in  holiday  attire.  Herds 
of  cattle  grazed  in  the  intervening  pastures ;  but  as  soon  as  the  gay  pro- 
cession had  passed,  hamlets,  people,  and  herds  vanished  like  a  scene  in  a 
play.  No  sooner  had  the  Czarina  returned  to  St.  Petersburg  than  her 
embassadors  at  the  Porte  were  seized  and  confined  in  the  Seven  Towers, 
and  war  was  declared  by  Turkey  against  Kussia. 

196.  It  was  opened  by  an  attack- of  the  Turks  upon  Kinburn  in  Sep- 
tember, 1787.  They  were  repulsed,  and  the  next  June  their  entire  fleet 
was  destroyed  in  a  battle  near  Oczakoff".  This  place  was  reduced  by  Po- 
temkin in  a  six  months'  siege,  and  finally  taken  by  storm  with  terrible 
carnage.  The  emperor  Joseph  declared  war  against  the  Porte,  but  his 
movements  were  inefiective,  and  he  soon  retired  to  Vienna.  Sweden,  the 
ancient  ally  of  the  Turks,  began  a  war  with  the  Czarina  and  prevented 
the  sailing  of  Russian  fleets  for  the  Mediterranean.  Christian  VII.  of 
Denmark,  in  fulfillment  of  treaties  of  friendship  with  Eussia,  sent  an 
army  to  invade  Sweden ;  but  England,  Holland,  and  Prussia  now  inter- 
fered and  compelled  him  to  remain  neutral.  Frederic  the  Great  had  died 
in  1786 ;  his  successor,  Frederic  William  II.,  having  thus  withdrawn  from 
his  father's  alliance  with  the  Czarina,  entered  into  the  war  as  an  ally  of 
the  Turks.  All  these  powerful  interventions  did  not  avert  the  loss  of 
many  fortresses  by  the  Sultan;  and  they  rendered  peace  more  difficult 
because  of  the  offense  given  to  the  Russian  empress  by  the  attempt  of 
foreign  nations  to  dictate  terms.  The  death  of  Joseph  II.  and  the  dis- 
contents in  Hungary  and  the  Netherlands  rendered  peace  a  necessity, 
however,  to  Austria.  Her  war  with  Prussia  was  closed  by  the  convention 
of  Reichenbach,  June,  1790 ;  and  that  with  Turkey  by  the  treaty  of  Sis- 
tova,  August,  1791. 

197.  The  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte  was  now  at  an  end.  The 
campaign  of  1790  had  been  signalized  by  several  Russian  victories  by  sea 
and  land;  especially  by  the  storm  and  capture  of  Ismail  by  Suwarof, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  near  Sevastopol.  The  summer 
of  1791  was  not  less  disastrous  to  the  Turks.  But  Prussia  and  Great 
Britain  were  now  in  arms  to  enforce  peace  upon  Russia,  and  the  last  ob- 
stacle was  removed  by  the  sudden  death  of  Potemkin,  who  had  prolonged 
the  war  in  the  hope  of  conquering  for  himself  an  independent  sovereignty. 
In  January,   1792,   the  Peace  of  Jassy  was  signed,  the  Dniester  being 


THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION.  343 

mutually  recognized   as   the   boundary   line   between   the   Kussian   and 
Turkish  empires. 

The  portentous  movements  in  France  since  1789  disposed  all  European 
powers  to  suspend  hostilities.  But  before  entering  upon  that  subject,  we 
return  to  mark  a  series  of  events  still  more  nearly  concerning  ourselves : 
the  rupture  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  west  of  the  Atlantic. 

Catherine  the  Great  reforms  the  internal  administration  of  Russia,  and  becomes  arbi- 
tress  of  the  States-System  of  northern  Europe.  Revolution  effected  in  Sweden  by  Gustavus 
III.  makes  the  royal  power  absolute.  Constitution  of  Poland  is  a  sort  of  organized  an- 
archy. Catherine  secures  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski ;  finds  a  pretext  of  inter- 
vention in  behalf  of  religious  dissenters ;  by  conspiracy  with  Eadzivil  places  all  power 
over  Poland  in  the  hands  of  her  minister,  Repnin ;  is  opposed  by  the  Confederation  of 
Bar.  Turkey  declares  war  in  the  interest  of  Poland.  Russians  gain  many  victories  by 
land  and  sea;  incite  the  Greeks  to  a  fruitless  revolt  against  the  Turks.  Invasion  of  Po- 
lish provinces  by  Austria  and  Prussia.  Convention  of  St.  Petersburg  arranges  the  parti- 
tion of  one-third  part  of  Poland,  whose  king  and  diet  are  forced  to  confirm  the  wrong  by 
treaties  of  Cession.  Russo-Turkish  War  is  ended  by  Peace  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji.  Con- 
tinued aggressions  of  Russia  north  of  the  Black  Sea.  Annexation  of  "Taurida"  and 
"Caucasia;"  triumphal  progress  of  Catherine  followed  by  renewed  war  with  Turkey. 
Austria  and  Denmark  take  sides  with  Russia ;  Sweden,  England,  Prussia  and  the  United 
Netherlands,  more  or  less  actively  with  the  Turks.  Austria  concludes  a  peace  at  Reichen- 
bach  and  Sistova;   Russia  at  Jassy. 

War  of  American  Independence. 

198.  By  the  Treaties  of  1763,  it  will  be  remembered  that  France  had 
relinquished  her  last  continental  possession  in  North  America,  though  the 
cession  of  Louisiana  to  Spain  was  not  actually  accomplished  until  six 
years  later.  All  Europe  was  filled  with  jealous  apprehension  by  the  in- 
creased power  of  Great  Britain;  and  when  the  blind  and  narrow  policy 
of  the  home-government  —  a  policy  which  every  intelligent  Englishman 
now  condemns  —  had  driven  the  American  colonies  to  revolt,  several 
nations  seized  the  opportunity  to  injure  their  dreaded  rival  by  aiding 
the  insurgents.  The  details  of  the  war  must  be  sought  in  American  his- 
tories; it  can  only  be  sketched  here  in  outline,  and  chiefly  with  regard 
to  the  complications  in  Europe  which  grew  from  it. 

199.  The  colonies  planted  by  the  English  in  America  now  extended 
from  the  St.  John  Eiver  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  settlements  north 
and  south  of  these  limits  had  been  acquired  by  conquest  or  negotiation 
from  France  and  Spain  ;  and  their  people  had  been  less  trained  in  prin- 
ciples of  civil  freedom  than  were  those  who  had  been  engaged  either 
personally  or  by  sympathy  in  the  two  great  English  revolutions.  The 
French  inhabitants  of  Canada  accordingly  remained  subject  to  Great 
Britain  rather  than  assume  an  active  part  in  the  rebellion.  The  colony 
of  New  York,  on  the  other  hand,  had  not  only  been  more  than  a  cen- 


344  MODERN  HISTORY. 

tury  in  English  possession,  but  it  had  derived  from  its  parent  Republic 
the  impulse  of  the  great  war  against  Spanish  despotism  which  was  raging 
at  the  time  of  its  birth;  and  it  was  first  to  join  with  New  England  in 
resistance  to  the  oppressions  of  the  British  parliament. 

200.  These  oppressions  took  the  double  form  of  direct  taxation  and 
of  restrictions  upon  trade.  To  the  first  the  colonists  opposed  the  argu- 
ment that  they  were  not  represented  in  the  British  government,  and 
should  not  be  burdened  with  its  support;  to  the  second,  that  as  they  and 
their  ancestors  had  sustained  the  toil  and  peril  of  founding  states  in  the 
wilderness,  they  might  fairly  claim  the  free  and  full  advantage  of  all  the 
facilities  that  nature  had  bestowed  upon  them,  unfettered  by  artificial 
and  arbitrary  restraints.  The  Stamp  Act,  passed  by  Parliament  in  1765, 
brought  this  resistance  to  a  head.  The  act  was  repealed,  upon  a  change 
of  ministry  the  next  year,  but  the  odious  principle  was  reasserted.  In 
1767  fresh  duties  were  imposed,  but  so  strong  was  the  resistance  which 
they  encountered,  that  they  were  remitted  in  1770  upon  all  articles  except- 
ing tea ;  and  this  was  ordered  to  be  conveyed  directly  from  India  to 
America  that  its  price  might  be  lower  in  the  colonies  than  even  in  the 
mother  country.  But  the  oppressive  principle  remained  the  same ;  and 
it  was  not  for  mere  pecuniary  interests  that  the  colonists  were  contend- 
ing. Cargoes  of  tea  were  seized  in  the  harbors  of  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Annapolis,  and  either  returned  whence  they  came  or  discharged  into 
the  water. 

201.  The  British  government  became  more  peremptory;  the  port  of 
Boston  was  closed,  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  abolished ;  and  rebels  in 
all  the  colonies  were  ordered  to  be  sent  to  London  for  trial.     The  first 

general  Congress  of  all  the  Colonies  met  at  Philadelphia  to 
concert  measures  of  resistance.  Addresses  were  voted,  to 
the  people  of  Canada,  to  those  of  Great  Britain,  and  to  the  king;  all 
breathing  unalterable  loyalty,  but  remonstrating  against  what  were 
termed  oppressive  and  cruel  acts.  A  levy  of  militia  was  recommended 
to  the  colonies.  Reinforcements  arrived  for  the  British  army  quartered 
in  Boston  under  General  Gage;  and  the  first  serious  collision  occurred 
at  Lexington,  Massachusetts,  April  19,  1775,  when  a  few  farmers  and 
villagers  drove  a  whole  English  regiment  with  its  cannon  back  to  its 
quarters. 

202.  In  the  subsequent  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  the  British  forced  the 
American  position,  but  with  a  loss  of  half  the  attacking  party.  George 
Washington  soon  afterward  assumed  command  of  the  colonial  armies,  and 
with  fewer  than  15,000  men,  poorly  equipped,  proceeded  to  blockade  Gage 
in  Boston.  The  next  spring  the  royalists  evacuated  that  city  and  sailed 
to  Halifax.  So  far  the  regular  British  troops  have  appeared  at  a  disad- 
vantage in  comparison  with  the  hasty  levies  of  the  colonies.     By  treaties 


DECLARATION  OF  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE.  345 

with  several  German  princes  nearly  18,000  mercenaries  were  procured 
for  service  in  America.  This  employment  of  foreigners  to  crush  their 
just  resistance,  was  felt  by  the  colonists  as  an  intolerable  insult;  and 
the  Congress  at  Philadelphia  agreed  upon  a  Declaration  of 
Independence.  Reviewing  in  a  manly  and  dignified  tone, 
the  injuries  which  the  American  people  had  suffered  from  King  George 
III.,  it  proceeded  from  the  premise  that  "governments  derive  their  just 
powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed,"  to  the  conclusion  that  "  these 
colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  independent  States." 

203.  The  British  force  in  America  was  now  increased  to  55,000  men, 
while  the  army  of  Washington,  reduced  by  sickness  and  desertion,  mus- 
tered at  one  time  only  3,000  and  these  without  uniform  or  suitable 
arms.  A  severe  defeat  on  Long  Island  led  to  the  abandonment  of  New 
York.  Nevertheless  by  a  brilliant  winter  campaign  in  1776  and  '77, 
Washington  suddenly  reconquered  a  great  part  of  New  Jersey.  The 
European  enemies  of  Great  Britain  were  preparing  to  take  part  in  the 
contest.  A  strong  party  in  France  overruled  the  natural  scruples  of  the 
king;  money  and  war-materials  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
"rebels,"  and  French  privateers  under  American  colors  began  to  prey 
upon  English  commerce.  Franklin  and  Lee,  the  envoys  of  Congress, 
were  received  with  great  enthusiasm  at  Versailles,  and  several  noblemen, 
among  whom  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  the  Count  de  Segur,  and  the 
Viscount  de  Noailles  were  most  celebrated,  enlisted  in  the  service  of 
the  Republic. 

204.  Still  the  balance  in  America  was  in  favor  of  the  British.  They 
possessed  New  York,  and  holding  the  line  of  the  Hudson,  hoped  by  a 
junction  with  the  powerful  army  under  Burgoyne,  who  was  advancing 
from  Canada,  to  sever  the  eastern  from  the  southern  states.  General 
Howe  gained  a  victory  at  Brandywine,  Sept.  11,  captured  Philadelphia 
the  26th,  and  again  defeated  Washington  at  Germantown,  ^  ^  ^^^^ 
Oct.  24.  The  more  important  scheme  of  the  English  gen- 
erals was  thwarted,  however,  by  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Burgoyne's 
entire  army  at  Saratoga,  Oct.  16.  France  now  made  an  open  alliance  of 
friendship  and  commerce  with  the  United  States,  followed  by  a  declara- 
tion of  war  against  Great  Britain.  The  naval  contest  soon  spread  to 
every  quarter  of  the  globe  where  either  nation  had  possessions;  the 
French  forts  and  factories  in  India  were  attacked  as  soon  as  the  news 
of  war  arrived.  Several  surrendered  without  resistance;  Pondicherry 
was  reduced  by  a  siege  of  seventy  days  and  its  fortifications  were  de- 
molished. France  lost  her  power  in  India,  but  gained  in  Africa,  about 
the  same  time,  the  English  factories  at  Senegal.  Several  of  the  West 
Indies  were  captured  by  the  fleet  of  D'Estaing. 

205.  In  1779  Spain  declared  war  against  England,  and  great  prepara- 


346  MODERN  HISTORY. 

tions  were  made  for  an  invasion,  such  as  had  not  been  dreamed  of  since 
the  days  of  Philip's  Armada.  But  for  some  unknown  cause  the  French 
and  Spanish  admirals  raised  the  blockade  of  Plymouth; and  the  army  of 
60,000  men  which  had  assembled  on  the  opposite  French  coast  was  with- 
drawn. The  chief  object  of  the  Spaniards  was  to  regain  Gibraltar,  which 
they  besieged  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  The  garrison,  however,  was 
reinforced  and  revictualed  by  Admiral  Kodney,  who  on  his  way  from 
England  had  captured  a  Spanish  fleet  carrying  stores  to  Cadiz;  and  the 
fortress  was  valiantly  defended  three  years  by  General  El- 

A.  D.  1779-1783.     ,.    ,  •      .   .,  \    .  •  n  . 

not  against  the  most  ingenious  and  persistent  assaults.  In 
the  southern  colonies  of  America,  the  English  had  also  'the  advantage. 
A  great  part  of  Georgia  had  been  conquered  in  1778;  and  a  combined 
attack  upon  Savannah  by  the  American  general  Lincoln  and  the  Count 
d'Estaing  was  repulsed  with  great  loss  in  October,  1779.  The  next  year 
the  British  captured  Charleston  and  defeated  General  Gates  at  Camden; 
but  most  of  their  forts  on  the  Mississippi  were  at  the  same  time  taken 
by  the  Spaniards. 

206.  The  discovery  of  a  secret  commercial  treaty  between  Holland  and 
the  United  States,  by  which  the  independence  of  the  latter  was  fully 
recognized,  led  Great  Britain,  in  1780,  to  declare  war  against  the  Dutch. 
The  same  year  Catherine  the  Great  of  Eussia  declared  an  Armed  Neu- 
trality, which  was  acceded  to  by  Denmark,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Austria, 
Portugal,  and  the  United  Netherlands.  The  object  of  this  combination 
was  to  protect  the  rights  of  neutral  flags,  and  its  principles  were  of  great 
importance  during  the  continuance  of  the  war,  especially  to  the  northern 
nations  whose  territories  abounded  with  timber,  tar,  hemp,  and  other  ma- 
terials for  the  construction  and  rigging  of  ships. 

207.  Several  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Islands  now  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  who  also  captured  in  1781  a  rich  merchant  fleet  of  thirty 
vessels ;  but  these  were  retaken  by  a  French  squadron  and  conveyed  to 
Brest.  A  British  fleet  reduced  Demerara  and  Essequibo ;  but  another 
squadron  designed  for  the  reduction  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  de- 
feated ofl"  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands  by  the  French  under  the  Bailli  de 
Suffren.  In  America  the  campaign  of  1781  was  disastrous  to  the  English. 
Tobago  and  St.  Eustatia  with  the  small  adjacent  islands  were  taken  by 
the  French.  Lord  Cornwallis,  on  the  mainland,  after  gaining  a  victory 
at  Guilford,  North  Carolina,  and  capturing  Gloucester  and  Yorktown,  was 
Oct   1781  besieged  in  the  latter  place   by  ,the  French  fleet  and  the 

American  army,  and  forced  to  surrender  with  all  his  troops. 
During  the  summer  the  Spaniards  had  completed  the  recovery  of  Florida 
by  the  capture  of  Pensacola,  while  in  Europe  they  were  retaking  the 
important  island  of  Minorca.  If  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  in  the 
West  Indies  could  have  effected  their  desired  junction,  the  entire  British 


END  OF  THE  AMERICAN  WAR.  347 

possessions  in  that  region  would  probably  have  been  lost.  This  was  pre- 
vented by  Admiral  Rodney,  whose  new  naval  tactics  had  already  given 
fresh  luster  to  the  British  flag,  and  who  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over 
the  Count  de  Grasse  near  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe,  April  12,  1782. 

208.  A  change  of  ministry  in  England,  consequent  upon  the  events  of 
1781,  soon  led  to  peace.  The  French  court,  always  divided  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  war,  was  now  alarmed  by  the  unexpected  display  of  power  on 
the  part  of  the  American  colonies,  and  apprehended  their  ultimately  com- 
bining with  Great  Britain  to  the  detriment  of  France.  Secret  communi- 
cations of  the  French  government  to  its  agent  in  Philadelphia,  proposing 
to  divide  and  thus  weaken  the  several  states,  were  intercepted,  and  in- 
duced the  Americans  to  enter  into  preliminaries  with  Great  Britain  on 
their  own  account.  A  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  these  two  chief 
parties  to  the  war,  as  well  as  between  England,  France,  and  Spain,  was 
signed  at  Paris,  Sept.  3,  1783.  The  thirteen  United  States  were  acknowl- 
edged as  independent  and  sovereign  over  all  the  lands  between  the  At- 
lantic and  the  Mississippi,  the  St.  Croix  and  the  St.  John.  France  and 
England  restored  their  respective  conquests,  except  Tobago  and  the  forts 
on  the  Senegal,  which  were  retained  by  the  former  country,  Spain  kept 
Minorca  and  Florida,  but  could  not  purchase  Gibraltar,  though  she  offered 
Oran  and  Porto  Rico  in  exchange. 

209.  The  release  of  her  American  colonies  abated  nothing  from  the 
prosperity  of  England,  whatever  it  may  have  cost  her  pride.  Freed  from 
absurd  restrictions  upon  their  industry,  the  States  became  of  far  greater 
commercial  value  to  the  mother  country  than  the  colonies  had  been, 
while  the  relief  from  the  necessity  of  supporting  an  expensive  military 
establishment  at  so  great  a  distance  from  home,  was  sensibly  felt  by  the 
overtaxed  English  people. 

210.  To  America  the  close  of  the  war  brought  only  a  change  of  perils. 
No  governments  existed  except  by  the  colonial  charters,  which  were 
manifestly  inadequate  to  the  new  situation.  The  thirteen  states  were  as 
tenacious  of  their  mutual  and  several  independence  as  of  their  separation 
from  Great  Britain.  All  were  burdened  with  debts  far  beyond  their  re- 
sources ;  and  the  people  who  had  so  violently  resented  the  moderate 
though  unjust  impositions  of  the  Parliament,  were  scarcely  more  willing 
to  tax  themselves  to  the  amount  of  millions.  To  the  unthinking,  their 
hard-bought  independence  signified  freedom  from  all  restraint.  It  was  a 
momentous  crisis  in  the  history  of  popular  freedom,  now  to  be  put  on 
its  most  signal  trial  before  the  world.  After  four  years  of 
threatened  anarchy,  delegates  from  eleven  states  met  at 
Philadelphia  to  frame  a  plan  of  government  for  the  whole  country.  The 
representatives  from  New  Hampshire  appeared  two  months  later,  but 
Rhode  Island  was  never  represented  at  all. 


348  MODERN  HISTORY. 

211.  The  constitution  then  agreed  upon  and  ratified  within  a  year  by 
most  of  the  states,  has  been  esteemed  by  competent  judges  among  the 
best  models  of  government  ever  devised.  All  the  guarantees  of  personal 
liberty  won  by  ihe  English  people  in  successive  contests  with  the  Crown, 
were  adopted  into  the  American  constitution.  The  several  states  were  left 
independent  in  all  aifairs  where  their  interests  could  not  conflict;  but 
matters  of  war  or  peace,  postal  service,  coinage,  and  duties  were  intrusted 
to  the  general  government.  The  President,  elected  once  in  four  years, 
was,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy, 
and  had  a  limited  veto  upon  acts  of  Congress.  At  the  first  constitutional 
election,  General  Washington  received  the  unanimous  votes  of  his  coun- 
trymen, and  rendered  not  less  illustrious  service  in  the  maintenance  of 
peace  and  order  than  he  had  previously  rendered  in  the  establishment  of 
liberty.  Amid  all  the  conflicts  of  opinion  that  have  filled  the  revolu- 
tionary age  that  has  succeeded  him,  history  records  but  one  estimate  of 
Washington :  "  Whatever  was  the  difficulty,  the  trial,  the  temptation,  or 
tlfe  danger,  there  stood  the  soldier  and  the  citizen,  eternally  the  same, 
without  fear  and  without  reproach ;  and  there  was  the  man  who  was  not 
only  at  all  times  virtuous,  but  at  all  times  wise." 

I2.E  C^A.:PITTJXj.A.TI02sr. 

Jealousy  toward  England  engages  several  nations  in  aiding  the  American  Revolution. 
The  colonies  resist  taxation :  retaliatory  measures  of  Great  Britain.  War  opens  with  the 
battle  of  Lexington.  British  army  is  blockaded  in  Boston.  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  proves 
the  resolution  of  the  colonists.  Boston  is  evacuated.  German  mercenaries  employed  by 
.the  British.  Congress  at  Philadelphia  declares  the  colonies  independent.  Americans  de- 
feated on  Long  Island.  Howe  takes  New  York.  Washington  gains  victories  in  New  Jer- 
sey ;  is  defeated  at  Brandy  wine  and  in  a  suburb  of  Philadelphia.  British  army  of  Bur- 
goyne  captured  at  Saratoga :  France  and  subsequently  Spain  and  Holland  make  alliances 
with  the  United  States.  Gibraltar  is  successfully  defended  by  Elliot  against  a  three  years' 
siege.  The  British  are  victorious  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  Armed  Neutrality  of 
most  of  the  European  powers  not  directly  engaged  in  the  war.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis 
at  Yorktown  virtually  ends  the  contest.  By  Treaty  of  Paris,  Great  Britain  acknowledges 
the  independence  of  the  United  States.  Florida  is  ceded  to  Spain.  American  constitution 
drawn  up  by  Convention  at  Philadelphia.    Washington  the  first  President. 

Revolutions  in  Opinion'. 

212.  Among  many  signs  of  change  which  marked  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  in  Europe,  one  of  the  first  and  most  signifi- 
cant was  the  expulsion  and  temporary  suppression  of  the  Jesuits.  Its 
chief  mover  was  Carvalho,  Marquis  of  Pombal,  chief  minister  of  Portugal, 
and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  statesmen  of  his  age,  who  with  some 
justice  attributed  the  decline  of  his  country  to  the  grasping  ambition 
of  the  Order.  All  the  gold  and  diamonds  of  Brazil  had  indeed  been  in- 
sufficient to  save  the  nation  from  bankruptcy  under  the  bigoted  and 
prodigal  reign  of  John  V.   (1706-1750.)     One-tenth  of  the  people  were 


EXPULSION  OF  THE  JESUITS.  349 

immured  in  convents,  while  every  form  of  industry  was  in  foreign  hands. 
By  a  treaty  with  Spain,  Portugal  acquired  the  Seven  Mis- 
sions of  Paraguay,  whose  people  were  ruled  by  the  Jesuits 
(see  Book  III.,  §  186.)  The  treaty  provided  for  the  removal  of  the  na- 
tives to  Spanish  soil;  but  the  commissioners  of  both  nations  who  were 
appointed  to  superintend  the  migration  were  successfully  resisted  by  the 
people  themselves  under  the  orders  of  their  teachers.  Before  the  latter 
could  be  brought  to  terms,  the  great  earthquake  of  1755  destroyed  a  con- 
siderable part  of  Lisbon,  and  buried  many  thousands  of  its  people.  The 
Jesuits  did  not  fail  to  represent  this  terrible  catastrophe  as  a  token  of 
Heaven's  wrath  against  the  minister,  but  Carvalho  was  undaunted.  After 
quelling  with  prompt  severity  the  pillage  and  disorder  which  had  fol- 
lowed the  earthquake,  and  organizing  the  most  liberal  efforts  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  sufferers,  he  proceeded  with  new  vigor  to  the  execution  of  his 
chosen  policy.  An  attempt  upon  the  life  of  King  Joseph  I.  afforded  a 
new  pretext  for  severity,  and  in  September,  1759,  all  the  Jesuits  in  the 
kingdom  were  shipped  for  the  Pope's  dominions. 

213.  Other  governments  soon  followed  the  lead  of  Portugal.  The  ex- 
tensive commercial  operations  of  the  Jesuits  excited  many  jealousies.  One 
of  their  banking  establishments  becoming  insolvent,  its  French  creditors 
obtained  a  judgment  against  the  whole  Order.  They  were  accused  of  many 
crimes,  but  the  one  which  included  all  others  was  their  allegiance  to  a 
foreign  government.  In  1764,  after  several  years  of  contest,  the  Order  was 
suppressed  in  France.  Spain,  Naples,  Austria,  and  the  minor  states  of 
Italy  in  turn  broke  up  their  establishments  and  expelled  them  from  their 
territories.  In  all  the  Spanish  dominions,  the  Jesuits  w^ere  ordered  to  be 
seized  on  the  same  day  and  shipped  to  the  States  of  the  Church,  to  which, 
by  their  own  declaration,  their  obedience  was  due.  But  the  Pope  refused 
to  receive  them,  and  even  belied  his  chosen  name  (Clement  XIII.)  by 
ordering  his  cannon  to  be  fired  upon  the  ships  which  brought  so  unwel- 
come an  immigration.  The  harshness  of  these  proceedings  moved  the 
displeasure  of  non-Catholic  governments,  and  it  was  only  in  Protestant 
countries  that  the  fugitives  found  personal  security.  A  ^^., 
new  Pope,  Clement   XIV.,  moved  by  the  urgency  of  all 

the  Catholic  sovereigns,  dissolved  the  Order  as  a  disturber  of  the  peace 
of  Christendom. 

214.  The  spirit  out  of  which  the  Society  of  Loyola  sprang,  was  perhaps 
extinct  in  Europe.  The  House  of  Hapsburg,  for  two  centuries  the  pow- 
erful patron  and  protector  of  the  Jesuits,  had  now  at  its  head  their  most 
determined  enemy.  The  emperor  Joseph  II.  had  contracted  so  strong  a 
dislike  for  the  severe  instructors  of  his  youth,  that  he  thwarted  their  de- 
signs on  every  possible  occasion.  Protestant  and  Greek  Christians  were 
treated  with  an  indulgence  which  was  partly  due  to  a  just  liberality, 


350  MODERN  HISTORY. 

partly  to  a  desire  to  foster  the  industrial  interests  of  his  states.  Seven 
hundred  convents  were  dissolved ;  and  36,000  monks  and  nuns,  thus  restored 
to  the  world,  were  pensioned  from  their  funds.  The  papal  nuncios  were 
informed  that  they  would  be  received  merely  as  political  embassadors. 
Pope  Pius  VI.  himself,  who  visited  Vienna  in  the  hope  of  conciliating 
the  emperor,  was  not  even  heard  upon  matters  of  business,  while  Kaunitz, 
the  all-powerful  minister,  treated  him  with  studied  personal  neglect. 

215.  The  restless  disposition  of  the  emperor  engaged  him  in  long  and 
frequent  journeys.  Kome,  Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  Crimea,  as  well 
as  Holland  and  his  own  provinces  in  the  Netherlands,  were  visited  in 
turn.  He  cultivated  an  especial  friendship  for  Catherine  II.  of  Russia 
with  whom  he  discussed  a  project  for  reviving  the  two  empires  of  the 
East  and  the  West.  She  was  to  conquer  Constantinople  and  all  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea,  while  he  seized  Italy,  and  became  in  fact,  as  well  as 
by  title.  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  [Meanwhile  the  Hungarians  were  driven 
into  insurrection  by  the  enforced  use  of  the  German  language  in  their 
courts  of  law,  and  the  violation  of  many  ancient  customs.  Upon  the 
death  of  Maria  Theresa  in  1780,  her  son  was  not  even  crowned  in  their 
capital,  but  caused  the  sacred  diadem  of  St.  Stephen,  for  eight  hundred 
years  the  object  of  their  reverence,  to  be  carried  to  Vienna  and  deposited 
permanently  in  his  treasury. 

216.  In  his  foreign  dealings  Joseph  was  equally  arbitrary.    He  ordered 
the  Dutch  to  withdraw  their  garrisons  from  the  barrier  towns  in  the  Aus- 
trian Netherlands  (see  §  99),  and  caused  the  fortresses  to  be  demolished. 
War  was  only  prevented  by  the  armed  intervention  of  France,  which  se- 
cured the  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau.     During  the  long  mi- 

Nov.,  1/85.  nority  of  William  V.  the  republican  or  patriotic  party  had 

gained  strength  in  Holland,  and  it  was  now  reinforced  by  a  close  alliance 
with  France.  The  Orange  party,  on  the  other  hand,  which  upheld  the 
hereditary  dignities  of  Stadtholder,  High  Admiral,  and  Captain-General, 
was  supported  by  England  and  Prussia.  In  the  latter  kingdom,  Frederic 
the  Great  was  succeeded  (Aug.,  1786)  by  his  nephew,  Frederic  William 
II.,  whose  sister  was  wife  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  When  the  patriot 
party  even  expelled  the  Stadtholder  from  the  fortress  of  the  Hague,  and 
treated  the  princess  like  a  prisoner,  on  her  attempt  to  enter  the  city,  the 
new  king  of  Prussia  invaded  Holland  with  30,000  men ;  another  revolu- 
tion was  eifected  and  the  Stadtholder  was  restored.  Some  of  the  extreme 
republicans,  being  excepted  from  the  general  amnesty,  found  a  congenial 
field  for  their  activity  in  France.  The  alliance  with  that  nation  was 
exchanged  by  the  States  for  closer  treaties  of  mutual  defense  with  Eng- 
land and  Prussia.  The  Triple  Alliance,  concluded  at  Loo  in  June,  1788, 
obtained,  during  the  remarkable  events  of  the  next  few  years,  an  impor- 
tant influence  in  the  aifairs  of  Europe. 


REVOLUTIONS  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS.  351 

217.  The  reformatory  policy  of  the  emperor  occasioned  great  discon- 
tent in  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  Himself  set  free  by  philosophy  from 
many  superstitions  of  former  ages,  he  desired  the  enlightenment  of  his 
people,  but  his  efforts  to  make  them  prosperous  in  spite  of  themselves 
were  not  crowned  with  success.  Their  bigotry  was  alarmed  by  the  sup- 
pression of  convents,  their  patriotism  by  the  abrogation  of  their  ancient 
charters.  A  secret  society  in  opposition  to  the  emperor,  formed  in  1787, 
soon  numbered  seventy  thousand  members.  Encouraged  by  the  outbreak 
of  the  French  Eevolution,  they  met  openly  at  Breda  and  demanded  the 
restoration  of  their  ancient  rights,  appealing  in  case  of  the  emperor's 
refusal,  '•'  to  God  and  their  swords."  Imperial  troops  Avere  expelled  from 
Ghent  and  from  all  Flanders.  A  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  an 
Act  of  Union  of  the  Belgian  United  Provinces  were  published  at  Brus- 
sels in  January,  1790. 

218.  At  this  point  Joseph  II.  died  and  was  succeeded  both  in  the  im- 
perial and  hereditary  crowns  by  his  brother  Leopold  II.,  who  for  twenty- 
five  years  had  ruled  the  Grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  with  equal  liberality  and 
greater  moderation  than  had  marked  the  policy  of  the  elder  prince.  He 
restored,  and  even  increased  the  liberties  of  the  Netherlands,  his  armies 
at  the  same  time  overawed  or  defeated  the  revolutionary  forces,  and  the 
Belgian  Republic  was  dissolved,  after  an  existence  of  scarcely  a  year. 

But  the  age  of  revolutions  was  only  begun.  Before  the  storm  passed, 
every  country  in  Europe  was  to  undergo  changes,  though  France  was  the 
scene  of  the  most  violent  transformation.  The  oppressions  of  a  thousand 
years  were  sure  to  be  avenged  whenever  the  masses  of  the  people  should 
acquire  intelligence  and  a  consciousness  of  their  power.  The  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  was  marked  by  the  multiplication  of  clubs  and 
secret  societies  in  every  country  in  Europe,  as  well  as  by  the  universal 
diffusion  of  light  periodical  literature,  instilling  into  the  common  people 
that  skeptical  philosophy  which  had  already,  in  the  minds  of  the  higher 
classes,  undermined  all  principles  of  civil  or  religious  obedience.  The 
success  of  popular  revolution  in  America  seemed  to  justify  the  leveling 
of  all  thrones  and  distinctions  of  rank  —  the  more,  because  few  took 
account  of  the  severe  moral  training  which  had  prepared  the  Amer- 
ican colonists  for  their  unique  and  heroic  task. 

219.  Most  of  tlie  governments  in  western  and  central  Europe  had,  in- 
deed, outlasted  their  vital  power.  Spain,  since  the  suppression  of  the 
Cortes,  was  enslaved  by  the  Inquisition ;  France,  for  nearly  two  centuries 
destitute  of  a  national  legislature,  had  become  a  mere  autocracy,  against 
which  the  parliaments  made  but  a  feeble  and  formal  protest;  Holland 
was  rent  by  the  Orange  and  republican  factions;  the  Empire  was  stifled 
in  obsolete  and  unmeaning  forms ;  all  the  Austrian  states  were  distracted 
by  the  well-meant  but  ill-considered  innovations  of  Joseph  II. ;   Prussia, 


352  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lately  powerful  under  two  sovereigns  of  remarkable  ability,  had  no  con- 
stitution which  could  secure  a  continuance  of  its  greatness;  Poland 
and  Turkey  were  in  hopeless  anarchy.  In  every  country  the  intelligence 
of  the  best  people  was  in  advance  of  the  national  government ;  and  the 
institutions  which  had  served  the  needs  of  the  middle  ages  were  no  longer 
adequate  to  the  multiplied  demands  of  the  modern  era. 

220.  The  crisis  was  favorable  to  the  ascendency  of  that  brilliant  com- 
pany of  French  philosophers  who  aimed  to  supersede  all  former  writings 
by  their  Encyclopcedia.^  Contradicting  the  system  of  Descartes,  Avho 
assumed  the  soul  of  man  as  the  starting  point  in  all  investigations,  they 
reasoned  from  a  physical  basis,  and  regarded  thought,  sentiment,  and 
worship  as  mere  phenomena  of  matter.  Their  speculations  might  have 
been  almost  as  harmless  as  those  of  the  mediaeval  Schoolmen,  if  they  had 
not  been  recommended  by  the  clear  and  popular  style  of  most  of  the 
writers ;  or  if  they  had  been  opposed  by  any  thing  better  than  the  hollow 
show  of  a  state-religion,  which  served  chiefly  as  the  cloak  of  the  worst 
of  despotisms.  Not  content  with  attacking  tyranny  and  priestcraft,  sev- 
eral favorite  writers  of  the  day  assaulted  the  moral  foundations  on  which 
the  very  existence  of  human  society  depends.  Thus  all  things  seemed 
tottering  on  the  verge  of  chaos,  and  the  revolt  against  authority  was 
soon  extended  from  speculation  to  action. 

221.  In  France  the  political  causes  of  revolution  were  especially  num- 
erous and  powerful.  At  the  death  of  Louis  XV.,  the  finances  were  in 
hopeless  ruin.  To  advance  his  private  fortune,  the  king  had  speculated 
in  national  securities  and  thus  in  the  distresses  of  his  people.  So  well 
was  this  understood,  that  the  multitude,  who  in  one  generous  impulse 
had  styled  him  the  "  Well-beloved,"  now  bestowed  upon  his  successor  the 
title  of  "  Louis  the   Desired."     Louis   XVI.    was  in   his   twentieth  year 

when  the  death  of  his  grandfather  raised  him  to  the  totter- 
ing throne   of  France.     His  intentions  were  good,  but   he 

lacked  that  energy,  both  of  intellect  and  of  will,  which  alone  could  have 

saved  the  nation. 

222.  The  war  with  Great  Britain  consequent  upon  the  recognition  by 
France  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States,  not  only  drained  the 
treasury,  but  excited  among  the  chivalrous  youth  of  the  nation  an  en- 
thusiasm for  popular  freedom,  most  dangerous  to  the  traditions  of  the 
Bourbons.  A  series  of  ministers  undertook  the  difficult  or  rather  impos- 
sible  task   of  retrieving  the  finances.     The  Swiss  Necker  persuaded  the 


*niiefof  the  Encydopocdists  were  Condillac,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  Ilelvctius,  and  Baron 
d'Holbach,  whose  house  was  considered  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  atheistical  philosophj'. 
Voltaire  Avas  a  leading  spirit,  and  may  be  regarded  perhaps  as  the  representative  French- 
man of  the  eighteenth  century,  not  only  for  his  intellectual  brilliancy  but  for  his  con- 
ceited antagonism  to  all  authority,  human  and  divine. 


THE  STATES-GENERAL  AT  VERSAILLES.  353 

king  to  publish  the  treasury  account.  It  was  the  first  time  that  the 
nation  at  large  had  been  intrusted  with  the  balance-sheet  of  public  rev- 
enue and  expense ;  and  an  immense  loan  was  negotiated  during  the  ex- 
citement caused  by  the  sudden  revival  of  confidence.  Necker  was  com- 
pelled, however,  to  resign  in  1781,  and  after  several  changes  the  finances 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Calonne,  a  plausible  but  reckless  character,  whose 
mismanagement  soon  compelled  the  king  to  choose  between  reform  and 
bankruptcy.  The  former  could  only  be  accomplished  by  the  States- 
General  ;  but  so  unsteady  were  the  foundations  of  government,  that  the 
court  naturally  feared  this  appeal  to  the  people. 

223.  As  a  compromise,  an  Assembly  of  Notables — i.  e.,  nobles,  clergy, 
and  a  few  municipal  magistrates  —  was  convened,  Jan.,  1787,  at  Versailles. 
After  long  and  stormy  discussions,  they  refused  to  pass  a  proposed  self- 
denying  ordinance  taxing  all  land  in  the  kingdom,  including  the  hitherto 
exempt  estates  of  nobles  and  clergy  and  even  the  royal  domains.  At  the 
end  of  four  months'  session,  the  assembly  was  dissolved,  and  the  king  was 
left  as  before,  with  only  the  parliaments  and  his  own  arbitrary  edicts  as 
means  of  raising  money.  The  clergy,  being  convoked  in  the  vain  hope 
of  extorting  a  loan  from  them,  only  joined  the  parliaments  in  demanding 
an  early  meeting  of  the  States-General.  Necker,  again  in  charge  of  the 
finances,  reassembled  the  Notables  to  deliberate  concerning- the  manner 
in  which  the  popular  assembly  should  be  composed. 

224.  It  was  decided,  against  great  opposition,  to  summon  more  than  a 

thousand  persons,  of  whom  at  least  half  should  be  deputies  of  the  Third 

Estate.     A  still  more  important  question  concerned  the  voting  by  orders 

or  by  individuals;    if  the  latter  method  were  chosen,  the  commons  had 

the  advantage,  and  the  nobles  and   clergy   naturally    insisted   on   their 

ancient  privileges.      But  the   day  had  gone  by  when  a  noble  could  say, 

as  did  a  member  of  the  States-General  of  1614 :   "  The  relation  between 

ourselves  and  the  Third  Estate,  is  precisely  that  of  master 

May  5  178') 
and  valet."     The  great  assembly  was  opened  by  the  king  at  '       ' 

Versailles.     The   commons  attempted  to  decide  the   still  open   question 

by  inviting  the  nobles  and  clergy    to  join  them  in  the  hall  allotted  for 

their  debates.     The  invitation  being  refused,  they  assumed  the  exclusive 

title  of  The  National  Assembly.     Subsequently  the  great  body  of  the 

clergy  and  forty-seven  nobles  acceded  to  the  request.     But  the  question 

of  precedence  was  already  settled,  and  the  Revolution  was  begun. 

lEJ-EC-A.I'ITTJXj^TIOIsr. 
Expulsion  01  the  Jesuits  from  Portugal  under  the  ministry  of  Pombal.  Similar  policy 
of  all  the  Catholic  governments.  Clement  XIV.  abolishes  the  Order.  Liberal  innovations 
of  the  emperor  Joseph  II.;  he  violates  the  charters  of  Hungary  and  the  Netherlands,  and 
his  treaty  with  the  Dutch.  The  Belgian  I'nitcd  Provinces  declare  themselves  independ- 
ent.   Accession  of  Leopold  II.    Causes  of  the  Revolution  :  Growth  of  skeptical  philosophy  ; 

M.  H.— 23. 


354  MODERN  HISTORY. 

increased  number  and  influence  of  clubs  and  newspapers ;  example  of  American  inde- 
pendence; decline  of  most  of  the  European  governments;  ruined  finances  of  France. 
Convocation  of  the  Notables,  and  of  the  States-General  —  the  latter  for  the  first  time  in 
175  years. 


QXJESTlOISrS    ir-OR    REVIE^^T. 

Book  IV. 

1.  What  causes  led  to  the  rise  of  the  English  Commonwealth  ?       .       .       .       .     §§  1-7. 

2.  To  the  Revolution  of  A.  D.  1688? 67-74. 

3.  Name  the  Stuarts  who  reigned  in  England 2, 18,  70,  73,  86. 

4.  What  sovereigns  of  England  were  also  electors  of  Hanover  ?       .       .  101, 153, 179. 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Fronde 20-22. 

6.  Describe  the  causes  and  effects  of  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees 23-26. 

7.  The  character  and  policy  of  Louis  XIV.        .       .       .27, 62, 64-66, 101-103. 

8.  His  wars 30,  32-38,  63,  67,  75-79,  87-96. 

9.  Name  the  cardinal-ministers  of  France.    .       .       Book  III.,  35;   Book  IV.,  20,  25, 140. 

10.  What  circumstances  led  to  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  ?  .       .      78-85. 

11.  Describe  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  and  the  circumstances  which  led  to  it.    .       •    97-100. 

12.  Sketch  the  character  and  career  of  Peter  I.  of  Russia.    .       .  55,  59-61, 107,  109,  111,  113. 

13.  Of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 104, 105,  108-110,  112. 

14.  Name  other  Swedish  sovereigns  of  this  period.       .       .       .39,  40,  42-47,  49, 113,  185. 

15.  What  Turkish  wars  during  the  period  ? 50-53,  56-58, 190, 196. 

16.  Sketch  the  constitution  and  history  of  Poland.       .       .     40-44,  47,  52, 105, 107,  110,  111, 

186-189, 191-193. 

17.  What  can  be  told  of  Hungary  ?    .       .       . 51,  54. 

18.  Describe  the  Spanish  colonial  system  and  its  results  in  America.      .       .  114-119. 

19.  The  Portuguese  settlements 120. 

20.  The  English  in  North  America 121-124. 

21.  The  Northern  Indians 125, 126. 

22.  Give  some  account  of  French  explorations 127-131, 137. 

23.  Of  the  wars  of  the  French  and  English  colonies.        .       .       .  163, 164, 177. 

24.  Of  Dutch  colonization 9,  33, 124,  132. 

25.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Dutch  Republic  during  this  period.        9, 10,  31-35,  37,  38,  63,  75, 

140,  159,  160,  206,  216. 

26.  Describe  the  character  and  reign  of  Louis  XV 133, 151, 154, 161. 

27.  Of  Frederic  the  Great 149, 155,  157, 166-175, 180-182. 

28.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 148-160. 

29.  The  Seven  Years'  War 165-176, 178-183. 

30.  The  War  of  American  Independence 198-207. 

81.  The  establishment  of  the  Federal  government 210. 

82.  The  character  of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia.      .       .       .     181, 184,  188, 194, 195. 

33.  Of  the  emperor  Joseph  II 214-217. 

34.  Sketch  the  history  of  the  Jesuits.        .       .   Book  III.,  184-186 ;  IV.  120, 128,  m5,  212,  213. 

35.  Name  some  of  the  causes  of  the  French  Revolution 218-223. 

36.  How  many  kingdoms  were  ruled  by  Bourbons  ? 100, 143. 

37.  Name  the  kings  of  this  family  in  France.    .  .       Book  III.,  26;  Book  IV.  133,  220. 

38.  The  German  emperors  during  this  period.         25,  91,  97  (see  139, 148),  150, 156, 

157,  214. 


BOOK  Y. 


THE  AGE   OF  EEVOLUTIOT^S, 

A.  D.  1789-1873. 


THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

1.  The  perilous  crisis  in  France  was  aggravated  at  once  by  dissensions 
in  the  royal  family,  and  by  famine  arising  from  the  failure  of  a  harvest 
as  well  as  from  the  disordered  and  ruined  finances.  Thousands  of  half- 
starved  wretches  crowded  in  from  the  provinces  and  formed  a  camp  on 
the  heights  of  Montmartre,  overlooking  Paris.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  was 
animated  by  a  jealous  spite  against  the  king,  and  joined  the  rebellion, 
probably  with  some  vague  hope  of  raising  himself  to  the  throne.  His 
residence,  the  Palais  Royal,  was  a  rallying  point  for  sedition ;  here  a  pro- 
scription list  was  drawn  up,  in  which  the  queen,  the  king's  brother,  and 
several  others  were  condemned  to  death.  The  queen  —  Marie  Antoinette, 
a  sister  of  the  emperors  Joseph  II.  and  Leopold  11.  —  added  to  the  im- 
perious temper  of  the  Hapsburgs  a  thoughtless  frivolity,  which  led  her 
too  often  to  violate  the  customs  and  shock  the  prejudices  of  the  court. 
In  the  present  crisis  she  persuaded  the  king  to  dismiss  Necker,  and  to 
concentrate  near  the  capital  an  army  of  40,000  men,  partly  German  and 
Swiss  mercenaries. 

2.  Upon  the  news  of  Necker's  retirement  the  mob  burst  into  open  riot. 
They  promenaded  the  streets  with  a  bust  of  the  favorite  minister  at  their 
head,  and  being  attacked  by  the  royal  cavalry,  in  the  Place  Louis  XV.  — 
soon  afterward  called  Place  de  la  Revolution  —  shed  the  first  blood  in  the 
long  and  terrible  conflict.  A  civic  militia,  now  mustered,  outnumbered 
the  king's  troops.  Arming  itself  with  muskets  and  cannon  at  the  Hotel 
des  Invalides,  this  National  Guard  proceeded  to  attack  the  Bastile.  The 
fortress,  though  bravely  defended,  capitulated  after  five  hours'  cannonade. 
Contrary  to  the  terms  of  surrender,  its  governor  De  Launay  and  his  sec- 

(355) 


356  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ond  in  command  were  basely  murdered,  and  their  heads  were  borne  upon 
pikes  in  triumphal  procession  through  the  city.  The  stronghold  of  cen- 
turies of  despotism  was  leveled  with  the  ground.  The  king  weakly 
visited  the  city  in  token  of  his  acceptance  of  a  revolution  which  he  had 
been  unable  to  prevent.  He  was  received  by  the  astronomer  Bailly, 
president  of  the  National  Assembly  and  now  bearing  the  new  title  of 
Mayor  of  Paris.  In  presenting  the  keys,  Bailly  remarked  with  more 
sincerity  than  courtesy:  "These,  Sire,  are  the  keys  that  were  offered  to 
Henry  IV.,  the  conqueror  of  his  people ;  to-day  it  is  the  people  who  have 
reconquered  their  king."  Necker  was  recalled  and  the  Marquis  de  La- 
fayette received  a  royal  commission  as  commandant  of  the  National 
Guard. 

3.  Many  nobles  and  princes  of  the  blood,  perceiving  the  strength  of 
the  popular  movement  and  the  weakness  of  the  court,  now  emigrated, 
leaving  the  king  to  his  fate.  The  national  representatives,  charging  them- 
selves with  the  preparation  of  a  new  constitution  for  France,  assumed  the 
name  of  Constituent  Assembly.  They  numbered  the  best  and  ablest  men  in 
France,  many  of  whom  deplored  and  earnestly  sought  to  alleviate  the 
miseries  of  their  countrymen.  On  the  President's  right  sat  the  conserva- 
tives, who  desired  no  changes  in  the  form  of  government.  In  the  center 
were  moderate  reformers,  who  preferred  a  constitutional  monarchy  like 
that  of  England.  On  the  left  were  extreme  liberals ;  but  even  of  these 
no  man  yet  pronounced  the  word  Republic.  Among  the  ablest  and  by  far 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  popular  leaders  at  this  time,  was  the  Count 
de  Mirabeau,  a  man  of  brilliant  talents  and  irresistible  eloquence,  but  of 
no  moral  principles  —  who  had  squandered  fortune  and  credit  in  the 
wildest  dissipation,  and  was  ready  to  serve  either  despotism  or  democracy, 
if  either  would  pay  the  price  which  his  necessities  demanded. 

4.  The  disorders  of  Paris  spread  into  the  provinces,  especially  to  those 
of  the  south-east  of  France,  where  the  peasantry,  rising  against  the  pro- 
prietors of  lands,  plundered  and  even  murdered  those  whom  they  regarded 
as  hereditary  foes.  The  National  Assembly,  moved  by  the  proposition  of 
a  duke  and  a  viscount,  resolved  upon  a  thorough  remedy  for  these  dis- 
orders, by  abolishing  those  exclusive  privileges  which  lay  at  the  root  of 
the  popular  discontent.  The  generous  enthusiasm  ran  through  the  as- 
sembly, and  all  the  privileged  orders  vied  with  each  other   in   devising 

sacrifices  for  the  public  good.  The  ancient  feudal  consti- 
"^"  '  '  '  tution  of  France,  so  far,  at  least,  as  laws  could  repeal  it, 
disappeared  at  a  blow.  Serfdom  was  abolished ;  all  restrictions  upon 
liunting  and  fishing  were  removed ;  civil  and  military  appointments  were 
thrown  open  to  all  ranks.  Church  rates  were  annulled — the  clergy 
to  be  maintained  by  a  general  tax,  thus  relieving  the  rich  at  the  expense 
of  the  poor.     The  Abbe  Sieyes,  who  had  in  vain  attempted  to  expose  this 


THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  357 

blunder,  exclaimed,  "  Alas,  my  countrymen !  they  want  to  be  free  and 
know  not  how  to  be  just! "  To  commemorate  the  death-blow  of  centuries 
of  abuse,  a  medal  was  struck  representing  Louis  XVI.  as  the  restorer  of 
French  liberty,  and  the  king  himself  presided  at  a  Te  Deum  to  celebrate 
the  happy  event. 

5.  The  main  principles  of  the  new  constitution  were  embodied  in  a 
Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  which,  by  the  express  motion  of  La- 
fayette, included  the  right  to  resist  oppression.  Those  who  hoped  to  see 
a  fair  fabric  of  constitutional  freedom  grow  from  the  labors  of  the  As- 
sembly were,  however,  doomed  to  disappointment.  A  bread  riot  arose  in 
Paris,  conducted  chiefly  by  women  —  who  rousing  each  other  to  fury  as 
their  numbers  increased,  upon  some  unknown  impulse  took  the  road  to 
Versailles.  Lafayette  followed  with  a  division  of  the  National  Guard, 
and  for  some  hours  held  them  in  check.  They  encamped  for  the  night 
around  huge  fires  which  they  kindled  in  the  streets  of  the  town.  But 
next  morning  the  tumult  broke  out  afresh ;  the  mob  entered  the  palace, 
killed  the  guards  at  the  doors  of  the  queen's  apartments,  and  would 
probably  have  massacred  the  royal  family  but  for  the  firm  and  loyal 
conduct  of  Lafayette.  He  persuaded  the  king  to  remove  with  his  family 
to  Paris,  and  take  up  his  abode  at  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  which  had 
been  unoccupied  for  a  century. 

6.  The  Assembly  also  removed  to  Paris  and  now  sat  without  distinc- 
tion of  rank  —  nobles,  priests,  and  commons  occupying  the  same  benches. 
But  its  independence  was  gone,  for  power  was  usurped  by  the  Jacobin 
Club,  which  superseded  the  late  meetings  in  the  Palais  Royal,  and  as- 
sumed inquisitorial  powers.  At  first  this  noted  Club  included  many 
persons  of  character  and  distinction ;  but  its  violent  proceedings  soon 
repelled  the  more  reasonable  and  moderate  members.  Its  principles  were 
diffused  by  its  Journal  and  Almanacs;  no  fewer  than  2,400  similar  so- 
cieties were  planted  throughout  France  and  became  the  terror  of  Europe. 
For  a  year,  however,  the  Assembly  carried  on  its  w^ork  of  innovation  with 
comparative  order  and  tranquillity.  All  sects  and  creeds  were  declared 
equal  before  the  law ;  every  citizen  was  admitted  to  vote  for  his  repre- 
sentative in  the  legislative  assembly ;  inheritance  by  primogeniture  and 
all  titles  of  nobility  were  abolished.  The  old  provincial  boundaries  were 
obliterated,  and  the  country  redivided  into  eighty-three  departments. 
The  parliaments  were  virtually  abolished.  Church  lands  and  other  prop- 
erty were  confiscated,  together  with  nearly  all  the  royal  domains.  Mon- 
asteries were  broken  up,  and  monastic  vows  annulled.  All  ecclesiastical 
dignities  were  suppressed,  except  the  offices  of  bishop  and  cure ;  and 
these  were  conferred  by  the  people,  no  longer  by  the  king  or  patron. 
The  Pope  refused  his  sanction  to  these  innovations;  but  all  the  French 
clergy  were  required  to  take  the  oath  of  obedience  on  penalty  of  depri- 


358  MODERN  HISTORY, 

vation.  Only  four  bishops  consented  to  swear ;  the  rest,  with  50,000  cures 
and  vicars  were  subjected  to  penalties  as  non-jurors. 

7.  The  anniversary  of  the  destruction  of  the  Bastile  was  celebrated  by 
a  fete  of  several  days,  during  which  the  king,  in  the  presence  of  the  as- 
sembly, the  clergy,  and  the  army,  took  an  oath  to  support  the  new  con- 
stitution.   The  queen  raised  her  little  son,  the  Dauphin,  in  her  arms,  in 

pledge  of  his  fidelity.     In. that  moment  of  enthusiasm  all 
^  ^'   '    '  wrongs  were  forgotten ;  but  unhappily  the  day  of  hope  and 

confidence  "had  no  morrow."  Mirabeau  became  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  and  at  the  same  time  secretly  pledged  his  immense 
influence  to  the  support  of  the  king.  His  death  in  April,  1791,  was  la- 
mented by  all  who  desired  a  settled  order  of  government.  The  king, 
wearied  of  the  constraint  in  which  he  was  held,  attempted  an  escape 
with  his  family  to  the  army  at  Montmedy.  They  were  apprehended  at 
Varennes,  and  escorted  with  brutal  insults  back  to  Paris.  Louis  was 
suspended  from  his  kingly  functions,  and  a  guard  of  citizen  soldiery  was 
stationed  in  the  palace. 

8.  By  this  time  nearly  all  the  European  powers  were  preparing  to  in- 
terfere for  the  suppression  of  popular  violence  in  France.  The  emperor 
and  the  Spanish  and  Italian  Bourbons  were  moved  by  claims  of  kindred 
to  protect  the  royal  family.  Catherine  of  Russia  hastened  to  make 
peace  with  Turkey,  hoping,  indeed,  to  further  her  own  designs  upon 
Poland  by  engaging  the  forces  of  Austria  and  Prussia  in  the  rescue  of 
France.  The  divided  jurisdiction  of  the  border  provinces  between  France 
and  Germany  called  for  immediate  action  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  and 
the  Diet.  By  the  famous  Act  of  Aug.  4,  1789  (see  §  4),  several  German 
princes  were  deprived  of  their  feudal  claims  in  Franche  Comte,  Alsace, 
and  Lorraine,  while  the  archbishop-electors  of  Treves  and  Mentz,  by  the 
civil  constitution  imposed  upon  the  clergy,  lost  their  metropolitan  rights 

.  over  Spires,  Strasbourg,  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.  At  the  conference  held 
at  Pilnitz  in  Saxony,  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Prussia 
united  in  an  appeal  to  the  other  European  powers  for  the 
reestablishment  of  Louis  XVI.  in  his  former  authority.  Troops  were 
consequently  assembled  by  Austria,  Prussia,  Sardinia,  and  Spain.  The 
Count  of  Provence,  having  fled  from  France,  assumed  command  of  the 
emigrant  forces  and  established  at  Coblentz  a  little  court  which  became 
the  head-quarters  of  the  refugees.  The  movements  of  the  Coalition  were 
delayed  by  the  death  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  and  the  assassination  of 
the  king  of  Sweden,  who  had  been  preparing  to  lead  his  own  army  in 
person.     Both  events  occurred  in  March,  1792. 

9.  Meanwhile  the  Constituent  Assembly,  having  completed  its  labors, 
presented  the  new  constitution  to  the  king,  who,  now  restored  to  his 
royal  functions,  confirmed  it  by  an  oath,  Sept.  14,  1791.     The  best  and 


WAR  AGAINST  AUSTRIA.  359 

most  permanent  part  of  their  work  was  the  abolition  of  feudalism  and 
the  arbitrary  features  of  the  government;  the  removal  of  fetters  upon 
industry  and  worship ;  the  establishment  of  juries  and  the  English  mode 
of  administering  justice.  But  they  had  provided  no  checks  upon  the 
despotism  of  the  mob,  which  was  the  most  imminent  peril  of  France. 
By  a  self-denying  ordinance  moved  by  Kobespierre,  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly declared  all  its  members  ineligible  to  the  legislative  body  which 
was  to  succeed  it.  But  France  had  sent  to  the  first  assembly  all  her  best 
men,  who  had  moreover  gained,  by  two  years'  experience,  some  skill  in 
the  difficult  and  dangerous  navigation  of  the  ship  of  state.  The  second 
assembly  proved  inferior  in  talents  and  authority.  Its  ablest  men  were 
comprised  in  the  Girondist  party,  which  gained  ascendency  upon  the 
first  actively  hostile  movement  on  the  part  of  Austria.  The  king  was 
then  compelled  to  accept  a  ministry  composed  entirely  of  Girondists,  and 
to  declare  war  against  his  nephew,  Francis  II.,  who  had  succeeded  his 
father,  Leopold,  as  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  though  not  yet  elected 
to  the  imperial  crown. 

10.  The  confiscations  of  ecclesiastical  and  royal  property  had  filled  the 
treasury  of  the  Convention,  and  three  effective  armies  were  promptly 
marched  to  the  northern  and  eastern  frontier.  Their  first  operations 
were  unsuccessful.  Two  strong  detachments  were  routed  by  the  Aus- 
trians  near  Lisle  and  Valenciennes.  The  Girondists  were  now  forced  to 
make  further  bids  for  the  favor  of  the  mob  by  decreeing  the  banishment 
of  all  non-juring  priests,  the  dismissal  of  the  king's  guard,  and  the  for- 
mation of  a  federal  army  to  be  encamped  near  Paris.  Lafayette,  disgusted 
and  alarmed  by  these  movements,  wrote  from  his  camp  on  the  Belgian 
frontier  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  demanding  the  suppression  of  the 
Jacobin  faction  and  the  clubs  which  had  sprung  from  it.  But  his  efforts 
only  hastened  the  tragedy  which  was  to  follow. 

11.  The  king  had  dismissed  his  Girondist  ministry  on  June  13,  1792. 
One  week  later  20,000  rioters,  armed  with  scythes,  clubs,  axes,  and  pikes, 
marched  through  the  hall  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where  their 
leader,  a  brewer  named  Santerre,  addressed  the  members  in  a  violent 
harangue.  Thence  they  thronged  into  the  Tuileries,  menacing  the  royal 
family  with  insolent  language,  but  departing,  after  some  hours,  without 
actual  bloodshed.  The  "federal  army"  was  now  mustering  throughout 
France  under  the  orders  of  the  Jacobins.  Prisons  were  emptied,  and  the 
vilest  wretches,  assuming  the  national  livery,  marched  toward  Paris,  sing- 
ing the  revolutionary  song  just  written  by  Eouget  de  I'lsle  and  named 
from  the  place  of  its  publication,  the  Marseillaise.  The  passions  of  the 
mob  were  still  further  inflamed  by  the  massing  of  80,000  foreign  soldiers 
upon  the  northern  frontier,  and  they  burst  into  ungovernable  fury  when 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied  forces,  published 


360  MODERN  HISTORY. 

a  manifesto,  requiring  the  French  nation  to  submit  at  once  to  its  lawful 
sovereign,  and  threatening  to  level  Paris  itself  with  the  earth  in  case  of 
the  least  violence  to  the  royal  family.  Not  less  offensive  was  the  duke's 
promise,  in  case  of  prompt  obedience  to  these  orders,  to  obtain  from  Louis 
XVI.  a  free  pardon  for  the  crimes  of  his  rebellious  subjects. 

12.  The  guards  of  the  Tuileries  were  now  doubled  in  preparation  for 
the  hourly  expected  attack;  but  Mandat,  their  commandant,  was  sum- 
moned before  the  Commune,  or  Municipal  Council,  and  summarily  put 
to  death.  The  cannon  of  the  National  Guard  were  turned  upon  the 
palace  which  they  had  been  placed  to  defend.  As  the  dense  mass  of  in- 
surgents rolled  onward  toward  the  gates,  the  king  with  his 
family  took    refuge  with  the  Legislative  Assembly.    They 

never  returned  to  the  Tuileries.  The  Swiss  Guards  fought  bravely,  even 
when  deserted  by  the  sovereign  whom  they  served,  but  the  greater  num- 
ber were  slain.  The  royal  family  were  imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  a 
gloomy  building  which  had  once  belonged  to  the  Knights  of  the  Order 
of  that  name.  The  guillotine'^  was  set  up  beneath  the  windows  of  the 
palace,  and  among  its  first  victims  was  a  member  of  the  queen's  house- 
hold. 

13.  The  Keign  of  Terror  had  begun.  Three  thousand  persons  were 
seized  by  night  in  their  own  houses  and  hurried  away  to  prison.  Twenty- 
four  priests,  who  had  refused  the  civic  oath,  were  the  first  victims  of  the 
September  massacres.  Two  hundred  more  were  slaughtered  in  the  Church 
of  the  Carmelites.  The  same  terrible  scenes  went  on  five  days  in  the 
prisons  of  Paris  —  women,  children,  paupers,  and  lunatics  were  put  to 
death  for  no  cause,  except  a  blind  rage  for  blood  on  the  part  of  the  mob. 
The  frenzy  spread  to  Meaux,  Rheims,  Lyons,  and  Orleans,  until  all  the 
prisons  and  asylums  were  emptied  of  their  wretched  inmates. 

14r.  The  chief  directors  of  the  massacres  at  Paris  were  Danton^  Robes- 
pierre, and  Marat,  the  latter  a  bloodthirsty  wretch  whose  malignity 
amounted  to  madness.  Danton  was  well  fitted  by  his  enormous  stature 
and  the  deafening  loudness  of  his  voice  to  be  the  leader  of  a  mob;  by 
the  singular  inconsistency  of  the  times  he  bore  the  title,  Minister  of 
Justice.  Robespierre  was  small  and  of  insignificant  appearance,  nor  did 
the  qualities  of  his  mind  compensate  his  personal  defects.  His  intense 
and  unscrupulous  ambition  made  him,  however,  for  two  years  the  tyrant 
and  leader  of  the  Revolution.  In  the  September  massacres,  he  had  the 
art,  by  working  through  others,  to  avoid  all  apparent  participation. 

15.  In  the  meantime,  the  grand  army  of  the  Coalition  now  numbering 


*  This  famous  instrument  of  .public  execution  derived  its  name  from  Dr.  Guillotin,  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  who  invented  it  from  motives  of  humanity.  Its 
constant  and  murderous  employment  during  the  Revolution  dragged  the  name  of  the 
merciful  physician  into  unenviable  fame. 


LOUIS  XVI.  BEFORE  THE  CONVENTIOX.  361 

110,000  men,  had  crossed  the  borders,  captured  Longwy  and  Verdun  by- 
short  sieges,  and  threatened  Paris.  They  were  opposed  by  Dumouriez  in 
the  defiles  of  the  Forest  of  Argonne.  Though  no  great  battles  were 
fought,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  disappointed  of  the  supplies  of  provisions 
which  he  had  hoped  to  draw  from  a  friendly  peasantry,  was  compelled  to 
recross  the  Rhine  with  a  loss  of  30,000  men.  Elsewhere  the  republican 
armies  were  victorious ;  and  Dumouriez,  after  a  hard-fought 

Nov.  179'\ 

battle  at  Jemappes  received  the  submission  of  the  entire 
Austrian  Netherlands.     This  result  was  largely  due,  however,  to  the  revo- 
lutionary spirit  of  the  people,  who  under  French  influence,  immediately 
abjured  their  allegiance  to  the  Hapsburgs,  and  again  proclaimed  the  Bel- 
gian Republic.     (See  Book  IV.,  §§  217,  218.) 

16.  The  Legislative  Assembly  at  Paris,  after  sitting  less  than  a  year, 
merged  into  the  National  Convention,  which  began  its  sessions,  Sept.  22. 
At  its  first  meeting,  royalty  was  abolished  and  a  Republic  proclaimed. 
The  Girondists,  now  the  more  moderate  or  conservative  party,  had  the 
advantage  both  in  numbers  and  intelligence;  but  the  "Mountain,"  as 
the  Jacobin  delegates  began  to  be  called,  exerted  greater  force  through 
the  audacity  of  its  members  and  the  support  of  the  mob.  Amid  the 
excitement  consequent  upon  the  victories  of  Dumouriez,  it  was  resolved 
that  every  French  general  should  proclaim  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 
and  the  overthrow  of  monarchy  in  whatever  country  he  should  invade, 
and  should  treat  as  enemies  any  people  which  should  refuse  "liberty, 
fraternity,  and  equality."  In  defiance  of  the  treaties  of  Miinster  and 
Fontainebleau,  the  Scheldt  was  declared  open,  and  war-ships  of  the  Re- 
public forced  a  passage  up  that  river  to  bombard  Antwerp.  The  Con- 
vention thus  asserted  itself  .the  arbiter  of  international  law,  even  setting 
aside  treaties  which  former  French  governments  had  confirmed. 

17.  After  long  and  fierce  discussion  between  the  Mountain  and  the 
Gironde,  it  was  decreed  that  "Louis  Capet"  should  be  brought  to  trial 
before  the  Convention,  and  on  the  10th  of  December  his  accusation  was 
read.  The  main  articles  charged  him  with  having  invited  foreign  powers 
to  invade  France,  with  having  occasioned  the  loss  of  Longwy  and  Verdun 
by  neglect  of  the  army,  and  with  having  provoked  the  insurrection  of  the 
10th  of  August  in  order  to  sacrifice  the  lives  of  his- people.  The  inno- 
cence of  the  kipg  was  ably  set  forth  by  three  lawyers,  who  risked  their 
lives  in  his  defense ;  but  neither  reason  nor  eloquence  could  be  heard  in 
the  whirlwind  of  passion.  Louis  was  almost  unanimously  declared  guilty ; 
the  mode  of  punishment  was  yet  to  be  determined.  Each  deputy  rose  as 
his  name  was  called,  and  gave  his  vote  for  death,  exile,  or  imprisonment. 
The  Duke  of  Orleans,  who,  under  the  name  .of  Philip  Egalite,  sat  as  a 
member  of  the  Convention,  covered  himself  with  infamy  by  voting  im- 
mediate death.     A  bare  majority  agreed  in  the  same  verdict;  the  Giron- 


362  MODERN  HISTORY. 

dists,  who  desired  to  save  the  life  of  the  king,  were  equally  lacking  in 
courage  and  effective  organization. 

On  the  morning  of  Jan.  21,  Louis,  accompanied  by  his  faithful  friend 
and  confessor,  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  was  escorted  to  the  guillotine  in  the 
Place  de  la  Revolution.  The  crowd  received  the  melancholy  procession 
in  unbroken  silence,  save  when  a  few  women  cried  for  "mercy."  Upon 
the  scaffold  the  king  attempted  to  address  the  people,  but  his  voice  was 
drowned  by  the  beating  of  drums.  When  the  fatal  knife  had  fallen,  the 
executioner  held  up  the  dissevered  head,  crying,  "Long  live  the  Repub- 
lic!" Louis  XVI.  had  reigned  nearly  nineteen  years.  His  brother,  the 
Count  of  Provence,  assumed  the  title  of  Regent  for  his  nephew,  Louis 
XVII.,  who  was  still  imprisoned  in  the  Temple. 

18.  The  horror  and  resentment  of  the  European  courts  led  to  the  dis- 
missal of  French  embassadors  and  vigorous  preparations  for  war.  Great 
Britain  made  alliances  with  Russia,  Prussia,  the  Empire,  Sardinia,  the 
Two  Sicilies,  and  Portugal ;  no  states  remained  friendly  to  France  except 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Switzerland.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Convention 
ordered  a  levy  of  500,000  men,  and  declared  war  against  the  rulers  of 
England,  Holland,  and  Spain,  carefully  distinguishing  between  govern- 
ments and  peoples.  The  confiscated  treasures  of  Church  and  State,  which 
had  been  accumulating  for  centuries,  poured  into  the  coffers  of  the  Re- 
public greater  wealth  than  even  Louis  XIV.  had  been  able  to  command. 
The  war  thus  begun  was  to  continue,  almost  without  respite,  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  to  tax  the  physical  and  mental  energies  of  Europe 
more  severely  than  any  other  conflict  known  to  history.  Yet  so  com- 
pletely did  each  party  underrate  the  resources  of  the  other,  that  William 
Pitt,  then  the  ruling  spirit  in  England,  expected  to  see  the  war  ended 
in  one  or  two  campaigns. 

19.  After  his  conquest  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  Dumouriez  had 
returned  to  Paris,  hoping  to  save  the  life  of  the  king,  defeat  the  Jacobins, 
and  establish  a  constitutional  monarchy.  These  hopes  failing,  he  resumed 
his  command,  and  invading  Holland  seized  Breda,  Klundert,  and  Ger- 
truydenberg.  He  was  followed,  however,  by  spies  of  the  Jacobins,  who 
knew  his  enmity  to  their  proceedings,  and  upon  whose  report  the  Con- 
vention sent  orders  for  his  arrest.  Dumouriez,  on  the  contrary,  arrested 
the  commissioners  and  handed  them  over  to  the  Austrians.  His  army 
refused  to  march  with  him  to  Paris,  and  the  disappointed  general  took 
refuge  in  the  Austrian  camp.  He  never  again  appeared  in  the  civil  or 
military  service  of  France. 

20.  MeanAvhile  the  deadly  strife  between  the  Gironde  and  the  Mount- 

ain led  to  the  establishment  of  a   Revolutionary  Tribunal 
A.  D.  1793.  .  .  "^         . 

to  decide  without  appeal  upon  all  crimes  against  "liberty, 

equality,   and    the   indivisibility   of    the    Republic."      A    Committee   of 


WORSHIP  OF  REASON  PROCLAIMED.  363 

Public  Safety  was  invested  with  dictatorial  powers.  The  Gironde  was 
doomed  to  fall  by  the  same  mob  violence  which  it  had  itself  conjured 
up  against  the  priests,  the  nobles,  and  the  throne.  In  the  country  at 
large,  a  vast  majority  desired  the  return  of  order  and  justice.  If  the 
"French  people,"  so  often  apostrophized  and  so  seldom  consulted,  had 
been  really  predominant,  a  rational  and  beneficent  government  might 
have  arisen  upon  the  ruins  of  old  despotism.  The  supremacy  of  the 
Parisian  rabble  was  the  downfall  of  all  reasonable  hope  from  the  revolu- 
tion. On  June  2,  eighty  thousand  armed  men  surrounded  and  overawed 
the  Convention,  demanding  the  arrest  of  the  Girondist  members.  Thirty- 
two  were  imprisoned,  and  seventy-three  more  who  protested  against  this 
violence,  were  expelled.  Many  of  these  escaped  to  the  provinces  and  took 
part  in  a  counter-revolution  which  had  already  begun. 

21.  About  this  time,  Charlotte  Corday,  a  young  woman  of  genius  and 
exalted  character,  a  warm  partisan  of  the  Gironde,  hastened  from  Caen 
to  Paris,  obtained  admission  to  the  house  of  Marat,  and  stabbed  him  to 
the  heart.  Making  no  attempt  to  escape,  she  bravely  met  her  death  by 
the  sentence  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal.  Blasphemous  honors  were 
paid  to  the  memory  of  Marat.  His  heart,  deposited  in  an  agate  vase, 
was  placed  upon  an  altar,  and  surrounded  with  flowers  and  the  smoke 
of  incense.  Maddened  by  the  increase  of  the  forces  of  the  Coalition, 
both  upon  the  northern  and  southern  frontiers,  and  strengthened  by  the 
accession  of  Robespierre  to  the  Committee  of  Safety,  the  Parisian  govern- 
ment proceeded  to  still  more  ferocious  violence.  A  levy  en  masse  of  all 
the  citizens  was  ordered.  A  "  Law  of  the  Suspected "  destroyed  the  last 
vestige  of  personal  security,  and  crowded  the  prisons  throughout  France 
with  more  than  200,000  victims.  General  Custine  was  guillotined  for  the 
loss  of  a  battle  and  of  the  tow^n  of  Valenciennes. 

22.  The  captive  queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  was  tried,  condemned,  and 
beheaded  upon  charges  which,  so  far  as  they  concerned  her  character, 
were  not  less  false  than  vile  and  malignant.  The  Girondists  were  the 
next  victims.  Madame  Roland  exclaimed  upon  the  scaffold,  "  O,  Liberty ! 
what  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name ! "  Those  wiio  had  escaped  into 
the  provinces  were  hunted  to  death  like  wild  beasts.  The  Duke  of  Or- 
leans was  guillotined  amid  the  curses  of  the  mob.  In  its  zeal  for  inno- 
vation, the  Convention  abolished  the  names  of  months  and  days  of  the 
week,  and  decreed  that  every  tenth  day  only  should  be  a  period  of  rest. 
The  French  era  was  dated  from  Sept.  22,  1792.  Little  remained  of  the 
ancient  order  except  the  rites  of  Christian  worship,  and  these  were  abol- 
ished with  insolent  and  brutal  profanity.  A  woman  personating  Reason 
was  enthroned  at  Notre  Dame,  and  w^orshiped  by  the  members  of  the 
Convention  and  the  Commune. 

23.  A  counter-revolution  had  meanwhile  broken  out  in  La  Vendee,  a 


364  MODERN  HISTORY, 

country  noted  for  the  simple  and  loyal  character  of  its  people.  The 
republican  generals  were  several  times  defeated  ;  but  in  the  autumn  of 
1793  the  tide  turned  against  the  insurgents,  who  thenceforth  confined 
their  enterprises  to  a  sort  of  brigandage  among  the  marshes  of  the  lower 
Loire.  A  wretch  named  Carrier  was  intrusted  by  the  Convention  with 
the  work  of  vengeance,  and  so  constant  were  his  "  drownings  "  at  Nantes 
that  the  waters  of  the  river  were  poisoned,  and  the  fishes  became  unfit 
for  food.  No  fewer  than  15,000  persons  were  destroyed  by  his  orders 
during  the  last  three  months  of  1793.  At  Lyons  the  Girondists  joined 
the  royalists  and  defeated  the  army  of  the  Convention.  The  city  was 
reduced  by  famine;  and  it  was  then  ordered  that  its  name  should  be 
blotted  out  and  that  the  poorer  dwellings,  which  alone  were  permitted  to 
stand,  should  be  known  henceforth  as  the  "Free  Commune." 

24.  Toulon,  having  revolted  against  the  Eepublic,  received  an  English 
fleet  into  its  harbor  and  an  allied  garrison  of  16,000  men  into  its  forts. 
It  was  besieged  by  a  republican  army,  and  the  Convention  decreed  that 
the  city  should  be  taken  or  the  general  guillotined.  It  was  captured, 
through  the  alertness  and  skill  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte ;  then  an  obscure 
young  captain  of  artillery ;  and  the  garrison  in  its  departure  carried  sev- 
eral thousands  of  royalist  refugees. 

Famine  in  France,  plots  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  indiscretions  of  the  queen  hasten 
the  Revolution.  Necker  dismissed,  and  the  first  blood  shed  in  a  riot.  The  Bastile  de- 
stroyed ;  the  king  accepts  the  revolution,  and  recalls  Necker.  Emigration  of  the  nobles. 
Constituent  Assembly  abolishes  all  feudal  customs  and  makes  Declaration  of  Rights. 
Rioters  storm  Versailles.  The  king  and  Assembly  remove  to  Paris.  Supremacy  of  the 
Jacobins.  Great  numbers  of  the  clergy  refuse  the  civic  oath.  F^te  of  the  Federation ; 
flight  of  the  royal  family,  their  return.  Conference  at  Pilnitz;  Europe  arms  in  defense 
of  monarchy.  New  Constitution  accepted  by  the  king.  Close  of  Constituent  and  opening 
of  Legislative  Assembly ;  Girondists  in  ascendency.  War  declared  against  Austria.  Defeat 
of  the  French,  Muster  of  federals  under  Jacobin  control.  Irritating  manifesto  of  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick.  Attack  upon  the  Tuileries,  murder  of  the  Swiss  guards.  Imprisonment 
of  the  king  and  his  family  in  the  Temple.  Reign  of  Terror  begun  by  September  Massa- 
cres. Invasion  of  France  by  the  allies.  Victories  of  Dumouriez.  Proclamation  of  French 
and  Belgian  Republics.  National  Convention  declares  itself  the  liberator  of  all  nations. 
Trial  and  execution  of  Louis  XVI,  Coalition  of  all  Europe  against  France.  Defection 
of  Dumouriez.  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  Committee  of  Public  Safety  at  Paris.  Over- 
throw of  the  Gironde.  Assassination  of  Marat.  Levy  in  mass,  and  law  of  the  suspected. 
Execution  of  the  queen,  Christianity  abjured  and  Worship  of  Reason  proclaimed.  Royalist 
insurrections  in  La  Vendue,  Lyons,  and  Toulon,    Rise  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

The  French  Eevolution. — Continued. 

25.  In  Paris  the  Terrorists  soon  became  divided  among  themselves. 
The  ultra-democrats  —  called  Hebe rtists  from  their  leader — desired  still 
wilder  excesses  of  profanation  and  havoc.  By  reaction  a  "  party  of 
Clemency"  had  sprung   up,  to  which  even  Danton   belonged.     Between 


END  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR.  365 

the  two  stood  Robespierre  and  others  who  called  themselves  the  "party 
of  Justice,"  desiring  terror  still,  but  under  regular  forms.  Robespierre 
allied  himself  for  a  time  with  the  party  of  Clemency,  that  he  might 
crush  the  Hebertists,  who  were  in  fact  guillotined  in  March,  1794,  to  the 
number  of  nineteen  —  their  leader,  after  all  his  insolent  bravado,  meeting 
death  like  a  coward.  Danton  and  fourteen  of  his  party  were  next  ar- 
rested and  guillotined  after  a  show  of  trial.  Robespierre  for  three  months 
reigned  supreme ;  and  to  prove  that  he  was  not  to  be  accused  of  mercy 
or  moderation,  the  butchery  of  the  guillotine  went  on  more  constantly 
and  atrociously  than  ever.  But  he  had  never  been  an  atheist,  and  among 
his  first  acts  was  the  obtaining  of  a  decree  from  the  Convention  affirming 
the  existence  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

26.  At  the  height  of  his  power  Robespierre  received  intimations  which 
alarmed  him.  He  succeeded,  nevertheless,  in  gaining  absolute  control  of 
the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  whose  powers  were  enormously  increased,  so 
that  the  lives  of  the  whole  French  nation  were  at  his  disposal.  Fourteen 
hundred  heads  fell  beneath  the  guillotine  in  less  than  seven  weeks.  A 
secret  proscription-list  was  discovered,  containing  the  most  illustrious 
names  in  the  Convention.  But  the  confederacy  against  Robespierre  gath- 
ered strength,  and  on  the  27th  of  July,  suddenly  declared  itself  Vainly 
striving  to  obtain  a  hearing,  he  was  carried  out  together  with  four  of 
his  associates  amid  tumultuous  cries  of  "  Down  with  the  tyrant ! "  The 
Commune  armed  in  his  defense,  broke  open  his  prison  and  carried  him 
in  triumph  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  troops  of  the  Convention  sur- 
rounded the  building;  the  prisoners  surrendered,  and  at  sunrise  the  next 
morning  were  led  out  to  execution.  As  the  head  of  Robespierre  fell,  the 
shouts  of  the  multitude  proclaimed  that  the  Reign  of  Terror  was  ended. 
Eighty  of  his  accomplices,  including  the  infamous  Carrier,  followed  him 
to  the  guillotine. 

27.  A  counter-movement  thus  began,  which  destroyed  the  Jacobin  Club 
and  the  influence  of  the  Commune.  The  seventy-three  deputies  who  had 
protested  against  the  imprisonment  of  the  Girondists  were  readmitted  to 
the  Convention ;  10,000  of  the  "  suspected "  were  released  from  the  dun- 
geons of  Paris  alone;  decrees  for  the  banishment  of  priests  and  nobles, 
and  for  the  death  of  English  and  Hanoverian  prisoners,  were  repealed ; 
divine  worship  was  restored.  The  reckless  conduct  of  the  revolutionary 
government,  followed  by  the  hardships  of  a  severe  winter,  had  produced 
so  frightful  a  scarcity,  that  each  inhabitant  of  Paris  had  to  be  put  upon 
a  fixed  allowance  of  bread.  The  rich  being  proscribed,  the  poor  were 
without  employment.  Assignats — the  paper  money  of  the  time  —  had 
fallen  so  low,  that  24,000  francs  were  paid  for  a  load  of  fire-wood,  and 
6,000  for  a  single  fare  in  a  hackney  coach.  In  the  provinces,  especially 
in   the   south,   the   counter-re v^olution  was  even   more  violent,  and  the 


366  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Jacobins  became  in  turn  the  victims  of  the  "White  Terror" — a  system 
of  wholesale  massacres  —  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "Red  Ter- 
ror" of  which  they  had  been  authors.  Scarcely  a  town  of  southern 
France  was  without  its  band  of  assassins,  led,  in  most  cases,  by  an  exiled 
royalist  or  Girondist,  who  avenged  his  own  wrongs  by  fresh  barbarities. 

28.  During  the  year  1794,  France  had  thirteen  armies  in  the  field, 
numbering  between  600,000  and  700,000  men.  On  the  side  of  the  Neth- 
erlands and  Germany,  the  allies  were  posted  in  lines  extending  with  little 
interruption  from  Ypres  through  Treves,  Mentz,  and  Heidelberg,  to  Basle. 
Most  of  them  were  subsidized  by  England,  whose  commercial  interest 
affected  by  the  war  was  greater,  though  her  political  concern  was  less 
than  that  of  any  other  power.  The  king  of  Prussia  was  absorbed  in  his 
designs  upon  Poland,  and  a  strong  party  in  Austria,  including  the  chief 
minister,  preferred  a  share  of  Polish  spoils  or  the  prosecution  of  the 
emperor's  claims  upon  Bavaria,  to  war  with  France.  Francis  II.  accord- 
ingly withdrew  to  Vienna  and  abandoned  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  To 
keep  up  appearances  with  the  allies,  the  imperial  armies  were  left  in  the 
field,  with  orders  to  dissemble  and  even  suffer  themselves  to  be  defeated, 
rather  than  waste  their  forces.  They  were  in  fact  beaten  by  inferior 
numbers  at  Fleurus,  and  the  Belgian  towns  without  delay  opened  their 
gates  to  the  French. 

29.  The  republican  party  in  Holland  welcomed  the  French,  who  by 
a  series  of  easy  victories  obtained  possession  of  the  whole  country.  The 
Prince  of  Orange  took  refuge  in  England,  and  the  States-General,  abolish- 
ing the  stadtholderate,  proclaimed  the  Batavian  Eepublic  in  close  alliance 

with  that  of  France.  The  following  April  peace  was  signed 
at  Basle  between  Prussia  and  the  French,  the  latter  retain- 
ing the  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  fickle,  selfish,  and 
short-sighted  policy  of  Frederic  William  II.  was  a  chief  cause  of  his 
subsequent  calamities.  Most  ardent  in  promoting  the  Coalition,  he  was 
now  the  first  to  desert  it.  Instead  of  performing  his  allotted  part  in  the 
military  service,  he  had  spent  the  English  subsidies  in  obtaining  larger 
shares  of  Poland;  while  by  opening  a  way  for  the  French  into  the  heart 
of  the  Empire  he  was  preparing  for  the  despoiling  of  his  own  kingdom 
ten  or  twelve  years  later. 

30.  By  their  operations  in  the  south-east,  the  French  had  grasped 
the  keys  of  Italy,  in  capturing  Mont  Cenis  and  the  passes  of  the  Mari- 
time Alps.  Alarmed  by  their  advance,  the  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany  aban- 
doned his  brother  the  emperor,  revoked  his  adherence  to  the  Coalition, 
and  signed  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  the  French.  The  latter  had  been 
less  successful  on  the  sea.  Corsica  had  revolted  and  placed  itself  under 
the  government  of  Great  Britain.  Lord  Howe  had  gained  a  great  victory 
off  Ushant  over  a  French  fleet  of  superior  force  to  his  own ;  and  in  the 


TBE  FRENCH  DIRECTORY.  367 

West  Indies,  Martinique,  St.  Lucie,  Guadaloupe,  and  St.  Domingo  were 
successively  captured  by  the  English. 

31.  The  year  1795  was  mainly  spent  in  negotiations.  The  Diet  at 
Eatisbon  expressed  a  desire  for  peace,  and  when  this  failed  to  be  nego- 
tiated several  princes  of  the  Empire  made  separate  treaties  with  France 

by  the  mediation  of  Prussia.     The  death,  in  his  loathsome 

•^  '  June,  1795. 

dungeon,  of  the  young  king  Louis  XVII.  opened  the  way 

for  peace   between    the   king  of  Spain   and   the   French   Kepublic,   for 

so  long  as  the  young  prince  lived,  the  honor  of  his  kinsman  demanded 

his  liberation  as  the  first  condition  of  any  treaty.     By  a  peace  signed 

in  July,  Spain  recognized  both  the  French  and  the  Batavian  Republic. 

The  worthless  favorite,  Godoy,  who  ruled  the  court  of  Madrid,  received 

the  title  Prince  of  the  Peace,  for  his  share  in  the  treaty  which  diffused 

unbounded  joy  throughout  the  country. 

32.  A  fresh  insurrection  in  La  Vendee,  led  by  generals  Stofflet  and 
Charette,  was  aided  by  the  descent  of  an  English  squadron  bearing  3,000 
French  emigrants.  The  latter  proclaimed  Louis  XVIII.  and  established 
themselves  on  the  island  or  peninsula  of  Quiberon;  but  they  were  re- 
duced by  General  Hoche,  who  ordered  all  the  survivors  to  be  shot. 
Charette  retaliated  by  the  massacre  of  more  than  a  thousand  republicans 
who  were  in  his  power.  The  insurgents  on  the  mainland  were  not  more^ 
fortunate.  In  February  and  March,  1796,  their  two  generals  were  cap- 
tured, and  their  execution  ended  the  Vendean  war  which  had  cost  the 
lives  of  100,000  Frenchmen. 

38.  A  new  revolution  at  Paris  had  now  overthrown  the  Constitution 
of  1793,  and  restored  to  the  middle  class  its  natural  importance  in  the 
government.  The  legislative  power  was  vested  in  two  Councils,  the  one 
consisting  of  five  hundred  members,  the  other  of  250.  The  latter,  com- 
posed of  men  over  forty  years  of  age,  was  called  the  Council  of  the 
Ancients.  The  former  alone  could  propose  laws,  but  the  consent  of  the 
latter  was  essential  to  their  enactment.  The  executive  power  was  in- 
trusted to  a  Directory  of  five  persons  who  were  chosen  by  the  Ancients 
from  a  list  of  ten  presented  by  the  Five  Hundred.  The  new  constitu- 
tion was  not  established  without  armed  resistance,  led  by  the  royalists 
and  persons  formerly  of  rank,  who,  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  had 
returned  in  great  numbers  to  Paris.  Between  25,000  and  30,000  persons 
attacked  the  Tuileries  where  the  Convention  was  sitting,  but  the  prompt 
and  decisive  measures  of  General  Bonaparte,  who  had  posted  his  cannon 
around  the  palace,  gained  a  victory  for  the  government.  General  am- 
nesty, except  to  emigrants  and  their  families,  was  now  proclaimed ;  Bel- 
gium was  annexed  to  France;  and  the  Convention  closed  its  tragical 
history  of  three  years  and  two  months  by  declaring  itself  dissolved. 

34.  The  Directory  began  its  administration  with  a  treasury  absolutely 


368  MODERN  HISTORY. 

empty,  a  paper  currency  so  reduced  that  it  was  not  worth  the  expense 
of  printing  it,  and  a  starving?  mob  to  be  maintained  at  the 

Oct    1795  i.  o  <-j 

■'       *  charge  of  the  government.     Each  poor  inhabitant  of  Paris 

had  to  subsist  upon  two  ounces  of  bread  and  a  handful  of  rice  each  day, 
and  even  this  wretched  pittance  often  failed.  The  army  was  without 
clothes  or  rations ;  roads,  bridges,  and  canals  had  fallen  into  ruin  during 
the  reign  of  assassination  which  called  itself  a  government,  while  bands 
of  robbers  scoured  the  country  in  every  direction,  plundering  and  mur- 
dering without  check.  Under  the  more  just  and  orderly  management 
of  the  Directory,  civilization  revived,  public  confidence  was  restored, 
commerce  began  to  flourish,  and  abundance  took  the  place  of  scarcity. 
The  advantages  arising  from  the  abolition  of  the  old  restraints  upon 
industry  were  now  first  perceived. 

35.  But,  not  contented  with  prosperity  at  home,  the  Republic  began 
with  energy  to  direct  its  movements  abroad,  and  the  Revolution  became 
aggressive,  aiming  to  overthrow  or  radically  reform  all  existing  govern- 
ments. Thus  the  war  became  universal.  Holland,  by  her  subserviency 
to  France,  was  already  involved  in  a  war  with  Great  Britain,  by  which 
she  had  lost  colonies  on  both  sides  of  the  world.  Demerara,  Berbice,  and 
Essequibo  in  the  West,  Ceylon,  Malacca,  the  Spice  Islands,  Cochin,  and 
other  settlements  in  the  East  Indies,  as  well  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  Africa,  were  the  prizes  of  the  English.  The  French  operations  on 
the  Rhine  during  1795  resulted  mainly  in  disaster.  In  their  lines  around 
Mentz  they  were  attacked  by  the  Austrian  general  Clairfait,  and  ruin- 
ously defeated,  with  the  loss  of  all  their  artillery,  ammunition,  and  bag- 
gage. This  was  partly  owing  to  the  treachery  of  Pichegru,  the  French 
general,  who,  like  Dumouriez,  had  dreamed  of  playing  the  part  of  Monk 
in  England,  and  restoring  the  Bourbons  to  their  throne.  His  indecisive 
movements,  however,  only  lost  him  the  confidence  of  the  Directory,  and 
he  retired  from  the  army.  In  1797  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Temple, 
and,  a  few  months  later,  v/as  transported  in  an  iron  cage  to  Cayenne. 

36.  For  the  campaign  of  1796,  three  French  armies  were  voted  by  the 
Directory ;  two  in  Germany  under  generals  Moreau  and  Jourdan,  and 
one  in  Italy  under  Bonaparte.  The  Italian  campaign,  conducted  in  his 
twenty-seventh  year,  was  the  opening  act  in  the  surprising  military 
career  of  Bonaparte.  He  found  his  army  of  35,000  men  at  Nice,  in  a 
wretched  state  of  disorder  and  ineflficiency  through  the  neglect  of  the 
government.  But  he  soon  infused  into  them  his  own  energetic  spirit, 
firing  their  imaginations  with  promises  of  wealth  in  Italy  and  applause 
in  France,  and  without  delay  marched  toward  Genoa.  The  Austrian 
army  was  at  Tortona  and  Alessandria,  the  Sardinian  at  Ceva.  A  strong 
detachment  of  the  former  was  defeated  at  Montenotte,  and  by  capturing 
the  fortress  of  Cherasco,  Bonaparte  separated   the  Sardinians  from  their 


BONAPARTE  IN  ITALY.  369 

allies.  The  old  and  feeble  king,  Victor  Amadeus,  renounced  the  Co- 
alition and  made  peace  with  France,  ceding  to  the  Kepublic  the  duchy 
of  Savoy  and  the  county  of  Nice,  and  expelling  all  French  emigrants 
from  his  dominions,  including  even  his  own  daughters,  who  were  married 
to  the  two  brothers  of  Louis  XVI.  The  strongest  fortresses  of  his  king- 
dom were  placed  as  securities  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  until  the  con- 
clusion of  a  general  peace. 

37.  Bonaparte  next  defeated  the  Austrians  by  a  furious  battle  at  Lodi 
which  gained  him  all  Lombardy  except  the  city  and  fortress 

of  Mantua.  Fixing  his  head-quarters  at  Milan  he  proceeded 
to  sell  peace  to  the  minor  princes  of  Italy  at  the  price  of  heavy  contri- 
butions. Not  only  money  and  war-materials  were  exacted,  but  inestima- 
ble works  of  art,  with  which  Paris  was  afterward  adorned.  The  great 
object  with  the  French  was  now  the  reduction  of  Mantua,  the  strongest 
place  in  Italy,  and  the  key  to  all  further  operations  against  Austria.  It 
was  besieged  seven  months,  and  the  strenuous  efforts  of  the  imperial  gen- 
erals to  relieve  it  showed  their  sense  of  its  importance.  Marshal  Wurm- 
ser  with  70,000  men,  twice  advanced  from  the  Tyrol  for  that  purpose ; 
but  he  was  defeated  at  Brescia  and  Castiglione,  at  Roveredo,  and  Bas- 
sano.  Alvinzi,  with  almost  equal  numbers,  was  not  more  successful ;  he 
was  routed  by  a  three  days'  battle  at  Arcole,  and  still  more  signally  at 
Rivoli,  where  the  triumph  of  the  French  was  won  against  tremendous 
odds  by  the  perfection  of  military  science.  Mantua  surrendered,  and  the 
way  was  open  into  Austria. 

38.  But  first,  by  a  sudden  and  rapid  movement,  Bonaparte  overran  the 
States  of  the  Church.  He  had  received  orders  from  the  Directory  to 
overthrow  the  papal  government ;  but  either  feeling  or  policy  led  him  to 
disregard  his  instructions,  and  sign  the  Peace  of  Tolentino,  by  which  a 
third  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Pope  were  ceded  to  France,  beside  a 
contribution  of  15,000,000  francs.  During  less  than  a  year  in  Italy, 
Bonaparte  had  conquered  Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  destroyed  or  cap- 
tured four  Austrian  armies,  detached  the  kings  of  Sardinia  and  Naples, 
the  dukes  of  Parma,  Modena,  and  Tuscany  from  the  Coalition,  laid 
Venice  and  Genoa  under  heavy  contribution,  and  added  to  the  French 
dominion  Avignon  and  the  Venaissin,  Nice  and  Savoy,  and  the  terri- 
tories of  Bologna,  Fcrrara,  and  the  Romagna.  The  spoils  of  war  had  not 
only  supported  its  expense,  but  had  enriched  both  officers  and  soldiers, 
and  enabled  their  general  to  remit  six  millions  of  dollars  to  France. 

30.  Leaving  Italy,  he  now  led  his  army  through  the  narrow  defiles  of 
the  Tyrolese  Alps  into  the  Austrian  territories.  The  archduke  Charles, 
one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  time,  awaited  him  in  Friuli,  but  was 
defeated  in  a  series  of  sharp  engagements  and  driven  beyond  the  Save. 
Bonaparte  advanced  within  a  few  days'  march  of  Vienna,  when  he  con- 
M.  H.— 24. 


370  MODERN  HISTORY. 

sented  to  the  proposal  of  the  court  for  a  suspension  of  hostilities.  Mean- 
while the  Venetians  had  risen  against  the  French,  upon  a  false  report 
of  the  defeat  of  Bonaparte  in  the  Tyrol.  Four  hundred  sick  soldiers  in 
hospital  at  Verona,  as  well  as  many  others,  were  massacred.  Bonaparte 
instantly  declared  war  against  the  Venetian  Republic,  and  sent  a  force 
to  occupy  its  arsenal  and  forts.  He  then  demanded  the  overthrow  of  the 
aristocratic  government,  the  arrest  and  trial  of  the  principal  magistrates, 
the  release  of  all  political  prisoners,  and  a  total  suppression  of  the  fleet 
and  army.  The  French  party  prevailed.  The  Council  of  Ten  abdicated 
its  sovereignty  and  acknowledged  that  of  the  people.  A  riot  which  broke 
out  in  the  city  served  as  a  pretext  for  the  introduction  of  French  troops, 
which  seized  the  fleet  and  with  its  aid  conquered  the  Ionian  Isles  for 
France. 

40.  A  strong  party  in  the  French  Directory  desired  a  continuance  of 
the  war.  Bonaparte,  on  the  contrary,  was  strenuous  in  favor  of  peace. 
He  was  intrusted  with  the  whole  conduct  of  the  negotiations  with  Aus- 
tria, and,  Oct.  17,  1797,  signed  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio,  so  called  from 
the  ruined  castle  near  Udine  where  it  was  concluded.  In  this  treaty, 
Francis  II.  deserted  the  interests  of  the  Empire,  and  acted  only  as  sov- 
ereign of  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Austria.  He  promised  to  withdraw  the 
imperial  troops  from  the  fortresses  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  case  the  Diet 
refused  peace  on  these  terms,  to  contribute  only  his  contingent  as  arch- 
duke of  Austria.  The  Austrian  Netherlands  were  ceded  to  France,  and 
their  former  sovereign  received  in  exchange  the  whole  Venetian  territory, 
ceding  a  tract  on  its  western  border  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  which  had 
lately  been  formed  of  Milan,  Modena,  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and  Romagna, 
with  all  their  dependencies,  and  which  the  emperor  by  this  treaty  form- 
ally acknowledged.  The  republic  of  Venice,  which  thus  disappeared  from 
the  family  of  states,  was  the  oldest  government  in  Europe,  having  lasted, 
from  its  foundation  to  its  fall,  1345  years..  On  the  other  side  of  the 
peninsula,  Genoa  and  some  surrounding  territories  were  formed  into  a 
Ligurian  Republic. 

41.  Although  Bonaparte  had  spared  the  Pope,  the  Directory  had  not 
abandoned  its  views,  and  the  less,  because  the  States  of  the  Church  were 
known  to  be  swarming  with  malcontents  who  would  readily  join  in  a 
revolution.  General  Berthier,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
army  in  Italy,  marched  to  Rome,  was  welcomed  by  the  people  as  a  de- 
liverer and  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  Republic.  Pius  VI. 
made  no  resistance,  though  his  personal  property  was  inventoried  and 
publicly  sold,  even  to  the  rings  upon  his  hands.  He  refused  a  pension 
from  his  captors,  and  was  conveyed  like  a  prisoner  to  a  convent  at  Siena. 
A  year  later  he  was  carried  away  to  the  fortress  of  Brian5on  in  the  high 
Alps,  a  region  of  almost  perpetual  frost,  to  which  French  soldiers  were 


RE  VOL  UTION  IN  S  WITZERLAND.  371 

sent  for  punisliment.  With  a  change  in  the  Parisian  government,  this 
unprovoked  severity  was  discontinued,  and  the  aged  pontiff 
was  permitted  to  die  in  the  milder  climate  of  Valence.  Rome 
was  delivered  over  to  a  pillage  unsurpassed  in  former  days  by  Goths, 
Vandals,  or  Normans.  Priestly  robes  were  burned  for  the  gold  in  their 
embroidery,  palaces  and  churches  were  ransacked,  and  their  treasures  of  art 
carried  away  or  destroyed.  The  people,  disappointed  in  the  friends  who 
had  won  them  by  the  pleasant-sounding  names  of  liberty  and  brother- 
hood, rose  against  the  usurpers,  but  their  efforts  were  put  down  with 
slaughter.  Berthier,  disgusted  by  the  violation  of  his  own  engagements 
to  respect  private  property,  deriianded  to  be  recalled,  and  Massena,  who 
was  sent  to  relieve  him,  was  so  notorious  a  freebooter,  that  the  army 
itself  mutinied  and  refused  to  receive  him. 

42.  Switzerland,  hitherto  neutral,  now  drew  the  covetous  eyes  of  the 
Directory,  especially  as  occupying  some  military  roads  from  France  into 
northern  Italy,  In  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  where  the  French  language  and 
ideas  were  most  prevalent,  revolutionary  doctrines  had  made  great  prog- 
ress, and  several  fruitless  insurrections  against  the  assumed  sovereignty 
of  Berne,  had  already  occurred.  Talleyrand,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
to  the  Directory,  discovered  a  pretext  for  interference  in  some  old  treaties 
of  Charles  IX.  and  his  brother,  by  which  France  guaranteed  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Vaudois.  A  French  force  from  Italy  advanced  without 
serious  resistance  into  Switzerland,  and  proclaimed  at  Lausanne  the  free- 
dom of  the  Pays  de  Vaud.  The  Forest  Cantons  made  brave  and  obstinate 
resistance,  and  in  several  battles  inflicted  heavy  loss  upon  the  invaders; 
but  at  length  they  were  overpowered  by  superior  numbers,  and  a  terrible 
massacre  was  the  punishment  of  their  efforts.  The  ancient  confederation 
gave  way  to  the  "Helvetic  Republic,  one  and  indivisible,"  which  by  a 
treaty  of  peace  and  alliance,  became  the  humble  vassal  of  the  French, 
and  secured  to  them  two  military  roads — one  into  southern  Germany,  and 
one  over  the  Simplon  into  Italy. 

43.  Thus  ended,  so  far  as  the  European  continent  was  concerned,  th^ 
first  war  of  the  French  Revolution.  France  had  begun  to  surround  her- 
self with  a  cluster  of  republics  constituted  after  her  own  model,  and  had 
renewed  with  Spain  and  Austria  —  the  nations  most  firmly  devoted  to 
ancient  principles  of  government  —  the  cordial  alliances  formed  by  those 
powers  with  a  sovereign  whom  the  revolution  had  destroyed.  The  Treaty 
of  San  Ildefonso  (Aug.,  1796)  was  based  upon  the  Family  Compact  of  1761. 
It  placed  the  resources  of  Spain  at  the  disposal  of  France,  and  especially 
engaged  the  former  power  in  the  war  against  England.  Godoy  became 
a  pensioner  of  the  Directory,  and  through  the  ascendency  of  this  insolent 
and  rapacious  courtier,  France  acquired  a  sovereign  control  of  Spanish 
affairs.     Portugal  was  withdrawn  by  Spanish  influence  from  the  Coalition. 


372  MODERN  HISTORY. 

England  alone  remained  at  war,  and  an  invasion  of  the  British  Isles  was 
planned  by  the  Directory,  to  be  commanded  by  Bonaparte.  It  was  re- 
solved, however,  to  substitute  the  conquest  of  Egypt  for  that  of  England, 
thus  securing  a  base  of  operations  either  against  the  British  Empire  in 
India  or  for  intervention  in  the  aflairs  of  Turkey,  xi  French  conquest 
of  Egypt  had  indeed  been  proposed  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  again  in  1781,  when  Turkey  seemed  likely  to  fall  under  the  attacks 
of  Catherine  II.,  and  France  desired  to  share  in  the  spoils. 

44.  In  May,  1798,  the  forces  of  the  Egyptian  Expedition  —  an  army 
of  nearly  40,000  men,  convoyed  by  a  fleet,  and  accompanied  by  a  scien- 
tific commission  of  artists  and  savants  —  was  gathered  in  the  harbor  of 
Toulon.  Beside  Bonaparte,  who  was  in  chief  command,  many  other  gen- 
erals yet  to  attain  high  distinction  —  Berthier,  Kleber,  Murat,  Junot, 
Desaix,  Davoust,  Lannes,  and  others  —  were  included  in  the  corps.  A 
first  object  was  the  capture  of  Malta,  still,  after  nearly  300  years,  held 
by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  Last  of  the  military  orders 
which  had  sprung  from  the  Crusades,  the  Knights  had  long  outlived  the 
valiant  spirit  of  their  predecessors;  their  Grand  Master,  unworthy  heir 
of  La  Valette  (Book  III.,  §  212),  was  in  secret  correspondence  with  the 
French.  The  defense  was  merely  nominal,  and  upon  the  surrender,  ships, 
cannon,  and  stores,  with  the  treasures  of  the  churches,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victors. 

45.  Leaving  a  strong  garrison  in  Malta,  Bonaparte  sailed  for  Egypt, 
where  finding  the  Mamelukes  unprepared,  he  easily  took  possession  of 
Alexandria  and  pursued  his  march  toward  Cairo.  In  the  great  plain  of 
the  Pyramids  opposite  that  city,  an  army  of  30,000  Mamelukes  and  Arabs 

was  drawn  up  to  receive  him ;  and  the  furious  combat 
which  followed,  was  among  the  most  remarkable  of  his 
battles.  The  desperate  valor  of  the  soldiers  of  fate  gave  way  at  last 
before  the  resolute  spirit  of  Bonaparte  which  animated  all  his  men.  The 
next  day  the  French  took  possession  of  Cairo.  Tlie  English  admiral  Nel- 
son, who  had  vainly  sought  to  encounter  the  French  fleet  on  its  way  to 
Egypt,  now  came  up  with  it  at  its  moorings  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir. 
The  battle  of  the  Nile,  Aug.  1  and  2,  resulted  in  a  decisive  victory  of 
the  English,  and  an  almost  total  destruction  or  capture  of  the  French 
vessels.  The  consequences  of  this  disaster  were  far  more  important  than 
the  cutting  off"  of  Bonaparte's  retreat.  In  Europe  it  awakened  fresh  hopes 
among  the  enemies  and  unwilling  subjects  of  the  Directory.  The  Sultan, 
who  was  not  deceived  by  the  assurances  of  friendly  intentions,  and  was 
naturally  incensed  that  France,  the  earliest  ally  of  his  dynasty,  should 
be  watching  to  partake  his  spoils,  sent  magnificent  gifts  to  Nelson  and 
hastened  to  make  a  treaty  with  Russia,  hitherto  his  bitterest  enemy. 

46.  A  second  coalition  was  formed,  consisting  of  Russia,  Turkey,  Great 


WARS  OF  THE  DIRECTOR  Y.  373 

Britain,  Austria,  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  Ferdinand  IV.  of  the  latter  king- 
dom, without  awaiting  the  signing  of  the  treaties,  marched  40,000  men 
into  the  States  of  the  Church,  in  three  columns,  of  which  the  central 
one,  led  by  General  Mack,  moved  directly  upon  Rome.  The  French 
evacuated  the  city,  leaving  a  garrison  in  the  Castle  of  St. 
Angelo  ;  and  the  Neapolitan  king  was  welcomed  with  accla-  °^''   '    ' 

mations.  Mack  was  defeated,  however,  with  great  loss  in  several  battles, 
the  French  reoccupied  Rome,  and  King  Ferdinand  was  not  only  pursued 
into  his  own  territories,  but  compelled  to  embark  upon  the  English  fleet 
for  Palermo.  The  French  advanced  upon  Naples,  which  for  several  days 
was  defended  only  by  lazzaroni  and  peasants.  This  irregular  force  was 
won  over  to  the  French  cause  by  a  miracle.  The  blood  of  St.  Januarius, 
which  is  still  preserved  in  a  vial  as  the  most  precious  possession  of  the 
Neapolitans,  had  refused  to  liquefy  at  the  departure  of  the  king ;  but  a 
prince  who  favored  the  French  having  threatened  to  kill  the  archbishop 
in  case  of  further  delay,  the  miracle  was  duly  performed  in  favor  of  the 
General  Championnet.  The  people  were  satisfied;  monarchy  was  abol- 
ished, and  the  Parthenopean  Republic  was  proclaimed. 

47.  In  March,  1799,  the  Directory  declared  war  against  Austria  and 
Tuscany.  Massena  was  first  in  the  field  and  gained  several  advantages, 
but  the  archduke  Charles  defeated  Jourdan — who  had  assumed  for  his 
command  the  name  of  "  Army  of  the  Danube  "  —  and  by  the  two  battles 
of  Ostrach  and  Stockach,  drove  him  even  to  the  French  side  of  the 
Rhine.  The  armies  in  Italy  had  been  ordered  to  cooperate  by  advancing 
through  the  >Engadine,  but  their  dearly  bought  captures  of  Martinsbriick 
and  Miinsterthal  were  rendered  useless  by  Jourdan's  retreat.  A  congress 
of  diplomats  at  Rastadt  was  abruptly  terminated  by  the  a  -i  - 
recall  of  the  imperial  minister  and  the  announcement  that 

the  emperor  annulled  all  previous  proceedings.  The  French  ministers 
were  assassinated  as  they  ■v\iere  quitting  the  town  —  an  outrage  upon  the 
laws  of  civilized  nations,  which  was  only  too  clearly  chargeable  upon  the 
imperial  'court. 

48.  In  Italy,  meanwhile,  Gauthier  had  overrun  Tuscany,  and  the 
grand-duke  had  retired  to  Venice.  The  main  French  army  under 
Scherer  was  repulsed  after  several  days'  obstinate  and  continuous  fight- 
ing at  Verona,  and  still  more  severely  defeated  at  Magnano.  In  less 
than  a  fortnight  Schcrer  lost  half  his  army  and  was  succeeded  by  Moreau. 
The  Russian  general  Suwarof  now  assumed  command  of  the  allied  forces, 
defeated  Moreau  at  Cassano  and  entered  Milan,  Moreau  would  doubtless 
have  been  crushed  by  overwhelming  numbers  had  not  the  Aulic  Council 
at  Vienna,  with  its  usual  dignified  dullness,  interfered  for  his  relief. 
Suwarof  was  ordered  to  besiege  Mantua,  Peschiera,  and  other  places 
which  were  deemed  essential  to  the  preservation  of  what  he  had  already 


374  '  MODERN  HISTORY. 

gained;  and  Moreau,  with  consummate  skill,  effected  his  retreat  to  Coni, 
where  he  strongly  posted  himself  in  communication  with  Genoa  and  with 
France.  Macdonald  now  marched  from  Naples  with  his  victorious  army, 
which  was  joined  at  Florence  by  that  of  Gauthier,  and  might  have  placed 
the  French  in  northern  Italy  upon  an  equal  footing  with  the  allies,  had 
he  united  at  once  with  Moreau.  Desiring,  however,  to  make  an  inde- 
pendent display  of  his  ability,  he  marched  to  meet  Suwarof  near  the 
Trebia,  and  sutfered  in  a  three  days'  battle  one  of  the  most 
disastrous  overthrows  ever  experienced  by  an  officer  of  the 
Eepublic.  All  the  conquests  of  Bonaparte  were  lost.  The  allies  entered 
Turin,  and  occupied  Pignerol,  Susa,  and  other  strong  points,  while  the 
Cossacks  even  penetrated  through  the  mountains  into  Dauphiny.  Jou- 
bert,  arriving  to  supersede  Moreau,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Novi;  by 
another  disaster  Tortona  was  lost  to  the  French,  and  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
public submitted  to  Francis  II. 

49.  About  the  same  time  a  fresh  Russian  army  under  Korsakoff  ar- 
rived in  Switzerland,  whither  Suwarof  proceeded  in  order  to  cooperate 
with  it.  But  before  his  arrival  Korsakoff  had  been  attacked  and  routed 
by  Massena,  while  another  French  army,  led,  by  Soult,  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  under  Hotze.  The  defeated  Russians  took  refuge  in  Zurich,  where, 
on  the  26th  of  September,  a  terrible  massacre  was  perpetrated  by  the 
French.  Among  the  victims  was  the  philosopher  Lavater,  shot  and 
dangerously,  if  not  mortally  wounded,  by  a  French  officer  who  had  lately 
been  his  guest.  Suwarof,  meanwhile,  was  advancing  from  Italy  by  the 
St.  Gothard,  when  he  found  himself  surrounded  by  the  French,  and  for 
the  first  time  learned  the  disaster  which  had  befallen  Korsakoff.  He  was 
defeated  in  the  attempt  to  cut  his  way  through  Massena's  lines,  and  was 
compelled  to  retreat  into  the  Grison  territory,  whence  with  the  rem- 
nants of  the  two  armies  he  returned  to  Russia. 

50.  A  formidable  demonstration  of  the  allies  in  southern  Italy  mean- 
while effected  a  counter-revolution,  and  Ferdinand  IV.  returned  to  his 
throne.  A  combined  force  of  Russians,  Turks,  and  Neapolitans,  then 
marched  upon  Rome,  and  that  city  capitulated,  Sept.  27.  A  descent  of 
the  allies  upon  the  Batavian  Republic  was  less  successful ;  and  the  Czar, 
disgusted  by  a  series  of  failures,  abandoned  the  Coalition. 

Meanwhile,  Bonaparte,  cut  off  from  France  by  the  destruction  of  his 
fleet,  had  fixed  himself  the  more  firmly  in  Egypt,  conciliating  the  people 
by  professing  a  belief  in  their  prophet,  and  contenting  his  army  by  in- 
troducing into  Cairo  all  the  luxuries  and  amusements  of  Paris.  The 
learned  men  pursued  their  researches  among  the  palaces  and  tombs  of 
the  Pharaohs,  while  the  soldiers  found  their  diversion  in  French  news- 
papers printed  in  the  camp,  as  well  as  in  cafes,  lyceums,  and  gaming- 
tables.    The  active  mind  of  the  general  struck  out  a  new  and  extraor- 


BONAPARTE'S  RETURN  FROM  EGYPT.-  375 

dinary  plan  —  to  conquer  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  capture  Constantinople, 
attack  Austria  in  the  rear,  and  thus  march  to  Paris.  With  12,000  men 
and  his  best  generals  he  left  Egypt  in  February,  1799.  Gaza  was  taken 
at  the  first  assault;  Jaffa  resisted  and  was  punished  by  a  general  massa- 
cre. At  Acre  his  progress  was  staid  by  1,000  Turks  and  fewer  than  300 
English  marines  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith.  They  withstood  a  siege  of 
sixty  days,  and  the  plague  breaking  out,  Bonaparte  was  compelled  to  re- 
tire with  a  loss  of  one-third  of  his  army.  During  his  absence  from 
Egypt,  Desaix  had  advanced  to  the  Cataracts  of  the  Nile,  the  farthest 
station  of  the  Eoman  legions.  A  Turkish  army  which  arrived  shortly 
after  the  retreat  from  Syria,  was  wholly  destroyed  at  Aboukir,  by  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  complete  of  Napoleon's  victories. 

51.  Learning  the  French  disasters  in  Italy,  and  the  exhausted  state 
of  the  government  at  home,  Bonaparte  sailed  for  France, 
accompanied  only  by  five  generals  who  were  devoted  to  his 
interests.  The  universal  dissatisfaction  felt  with  the  existing  state  of 
affairs  opened  a  way  to  his  ambition,  and  with  the  Abbe  Sieyes,  the  most 
active  member  of  the  new  Directory,  he  planned  a  virtual  overthrow  of 
the  Republic.  The  Council  of  Five  Hundred  was  dispersed  by  military 
force ;  and  a  minority  of  its  members,  reassembling,  voted  to  abolish  the 
Directory  and  intrust  the  executive  power  to  three  Consuls  —  Bonaparte, 
Sieyes,  and  Eoger  Ducos.  A  committee  of  fifty  was  chosen  equally  from 
the  two  legislative  bodies,  to  propose  changes  in  the  constitution.  The 
"Constitution  of  the  Year  VIII"  overthrew  popular  sovereignty  by  de- 
stroying municipal  governments,  and  committing  to  the  Consuls  the  sole 
right  of  originating  laws.  The  Senate  of  eighty  members  was  chosen  for 
life  by  the  Consuls,  the  Tribunate  of  one  hundred  and  the  legislature  of 
three  hundred  members  for  a  limited  period  by  the  Senate,  from  a  body 
called  Notables  of  France,  which  was  elected  only  at  third  remove^  by 
the  people.  The  second  and  third  Consuls  were  merely  counselors,  all 
real  power  and  responsibility  being  vested  in  the  first.  Thus,  under  the 
name  of  a  Eepublic,  France  was  again  an  autocracy. 

By  overthrow  of  Danton  and  the  Hebertists,  Robespierre  becomes  absolute;  restores 
worship  of  the  Supreme  Being,  but  increases  the  slaughter  of  the  guillotine.  His  fall  and 
execution  end  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Dissolution  of  the  Jacobin  Club ;  massacres  of  "Red 
Republicans  "  in  the  south  of  France ;  starvation  in  Paris.  In  the  campaign  of  1794,  Franco 
conquers  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  the  Prussian  provinces  west  of  the  Rhine ;  makes 
Holland  a  dependency,  by  the  Treaty  of  Basle  detaches  Prussia  from  the  Coalition;  is 
victorious  in  Italy,  but  defeated  upon  the  sea.     Death  of  Louis  XVIL,  and  peace  with 


*The  whole  mass  of  citizens  voted  for  "  Notables  of  the  Communes;"  these  elected  one- 
tenth  of  their  own  number  as  "  Notables  of  the  Departments,"  of  whom  one-tenth  were 
likewise  chosen  as  "Notables  of  France." 


376  •  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Spain.  End  of  the  Convention;  establishment  of  the  Directory,  Council  of  Ancients  and 
the  Five  Hundred.  Revival  of  prosperity  at  home  and  aggressions  abroad.  First  Italian 
campaign  of  Bonaparte;  conquest  of  Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  departure  of  five  Italian 
sovereigns  from  the  Coalition.  Mantua  taken  by  destruction  of  four  Austrian  armies ; 
Papal  states  despoiled  by  Peace  of  Tolentino.  Invasion  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  overthrow 
of  Venice,  whose  territories  are  ceded  to  Austria  in  exchange  for  the  Netherlands ;  Peace 
of  Campo  Formio.  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  Republics  dependent  upon  France.  Pillage 
of  Rome  and  overthrow  of  the  papal  government.  The  Swiss  Confederation  gives  way 
to  the  Helvetic  Republic  one  and  indivisible.  Spain  under  Godoy  becomes  subservient 
to  France.  Bonaparte  sails  for  Egypt,  captures  and  garrisons  Malta,  occupies  Alexandria, 
gains  Battle  of  the  Pyramids  and  takes  Cairo ;  loses  his  fleet  in  Battle  of  the  Nile ;  at- 
tempts the  conquest  of  Syria,  fails,  defeats  the  Turks  at  Aboukir,  leaves  Kleber  in  com- 
mand and  returns  to  France.  New  Coalition  against  the  French  Republic.  Revolution 
in  Naples,  Parthenopean  Republic  proclaimed.  Defeat  of  Jourdan  in  Germany  and  of 
Scherer  in  Italy ;  close  of  Congress  at  Rastadt.  Suwarof  defeats  Macdonald  on  the  Trebia 
and  Joubert  at  Novi.  Defeat  of  the  allies  in  Switzerland,  of  Suwarof  in  the  pass  of  St. 
Gothard.  Overthrow  of  the  Parthenopean  and  Roman  Republics.  Failure  of  the  allies  iu 
Holland;  the  Czar  deserts  the  Coalition.  Bonaparte  overthrows  the  Directory  and  becomes 
First  Consul. 

The  Consulate  and  the  Empire. 

52.  Bonaparte,  being  intrusted  with  almost  absolute  power,  dismissed 
his  provisional  colleagues,  and  appointed  in  their  places  Cambaceres  and 
Lebrun,  men  distinguished  not  more  by  talents  and  acquirements  than 
by  pliability  of  character.  The  First  Consul  established  a  court  at  the 
Tuileries,  and  his  great  administrative  talents  soon  restored  confidence. 
Forced  loans  were  abolished;  thousands  of  non-juring  priests  were  released 
from  prison ;  the  churches  were  opened  and  the  observance  of  the  Sab- 
bath restored.  Strongly  desirous  of  peace,  the  First  Consul  addressed 
conciliatory  letters  to  the  sovereigns  of  England  and  Austria;  but  both 
powers  refused  to  treat  except  upon  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 
War  being  renewed,  Bonaparte  himself  undertook  the  campaign  in  Italy, 
where  only  Genoa  and  the  Riviera  now  remained  to  the  French.  For- 
cing a  passage  across  the  Grand  St.  Bernard  —  most  difficult  and  danger- 
ous of  the  Alpine  routes  —  he  descended  into  Piedmont  in  the  rear  of 
the  Austrian  lines,  and  being  joined  by  columns  which  had  crossed  Monts 
Cenis  and  St.  Gothard,  moved  siviftly  upon  Milan.  That  city  surrendered 
without  opposition ;  but,  on  the  other  side,  Genoa,  which  had  withstood  a 
two  months'  siege  by  the  British  fleet,  capitulated  three  days  later. 

The  Austrian  general  Melas,  finding  his  communications  severed  by  the 
sudden  and  decisive  movements  of  the  French,  gave  battle  at  Marengo. 
June  1800  ^^^  fighting  was  long  and  obstinate,  but  at  length  Bona- 

parte was  victorious.  Melas,  a  veteran  of  eighty  years,  lost 
his  presence  of  mind,  and  by  the  convention  of  Alessandria  abandoned 
twelve  great  fortresses,  including  those  of  Milan,  Turin,  and  Genoa,  with 
all  northern  Italy  as  far  as  the  Mincio  to  the  French.  The  Cisalpine 
Republic    was  restored,  and    after   a   brilliant    campaign  of  five   weeks, 


BONAPARTE  FIRST  CONSUL.  377 

Bonaparte  returned  to  Paris  more  powerful  and  secure  of  popular  favor 
than  ever. 

53.  The  campaign  of  Moreau  in  Germany  was  almost  equally  success- 
ful. The  Austrians  by  a  series  of  defeats,  were  driven  from  Wirtemberg 
and  Bavaria,  and  the  French  had  occupied  Munich,  when  news  of  the 
agreement  between  Bonaparte  and  Melas  led  to  a  cessation  of  hostilities. 
Efforts  toward  a  permanent  and  general  peace  were,  however,  unavailing, 
and  late  in  November  the  war  was  renewed.  The  archduke  John  of 
Austria,  attempting  to  approach  Munich  through  the  forest  of  Hohen- 
linden,  was  fiercely  attacked  by  Moreau,  and  sustained  a  ruinous  defeat; 
15,000  imperialists  were  either  killed,  wounded,  or  prisoners,  while  a 
hundred  cannon  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  victors.  The  archduke 
Charles,  whose  inclination  for  peace  had  occasioned  his  removal  from 
command,  was  now  reinstated ;  and  among  his  first  acts  was  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  truce  which  was  shortly  followed  by  the  Peace 

^  X        .    Ml  A  ^eb.,  1801. 

of  Luneville.     Austria  recognized  the  independence  of  the 

Batavian,  Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine  Republics,  and  added  to  the 
latter  the  duchy  of  Modena.  By  a  subsequent  treaty  with  Spain,  Tus- 
cany was  erected  into  a  kingdom  of  Etruria  and  conferred  upon  a  son- 
in-law  of  Charles  IV.,  while  France,  by  this  concession  in  Italy,  bought 
back  the  vast  territory  of  Louisiana  in  North  America. 

54.  England,  still  fiercely  active  in  the  war,  had  conquered  Malta  in 
September,  1800,  and  resolved  to  wrest  Egypt  from  the  French.  Kleber 
had  been  assassinated  by  a  Turk,  on  the  same  day  that  his  former  com- 
rade, Desaix,  expired  on  the  battle-field  of  Marengo.  His  successor, 
Menou,  was  defeated  by  the  British  general  Abercrombie  in  the  battle 
of  Canopus,  and  was  at  length  compelled  to  surrender 
Alexandria,  and  consent  to  the  transportation  of  his  army 

on  English  vessels  to  France.  Separate  treaties  of  peace  were  made  by 
the  French  government  with  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  with  Portugal,  and 
with  Turkey.  The  Coalition  was  already  weakened  by  the  defection  of 
Paul  I.  of  Russia  and  his  reassertion  of  the  Armed  Neutrality  of  1780. 
The  offensive  conduct  of  both  English  and  French  officers  in  seizing  and 
searching  neutral  vessels,  had  offended  the  northern  nations  of  Europe  as 
well  as  the  United  States  of  America,  whose  commerce  with  Great  Britain 
was  already  lucrative  and  extensive.  The  Czar,  who  had  constituted  him- 
self the  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  was  moreover  incensed 
by  the  English  retention  of  Malta ;  and  in  December,  1800,  he  entered 
into  a  Quadruple  Alliance  of  Russia,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Prussia  to 
maintain  the  rights  of  neutrals. 

55.  Denmark  was  the  only  sufferer  by  the  new  Coalition.  Admiral 
Nelson,  now  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile,  passed  the  Sound  and  defeated 
the  Danish  fleet  before  Copenhagen,  notwithstanding  its  brave  and  reso- 


378  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lute  resistance.  The  Swedish  port  of  Carlscrona  was  similarly  threatened, 
when  the  assassination  of  Paul  I.  suddenly  changed  the  balance  of  affairs. 
His  successor,  Alexander  I.,  agreed  with  England  upon  a  new  maritime 
code,  to  which  the  other  northern  powers  acceded.  In  October,  1801, 
Russia  made  treaties  of  peace  and  alliance  with  Spain  and  France.  At 
last  a  change  of  ministry  in  England  favored  peace,  and  after  long  ne- 
gotiations the  Treaty  of  Amiens  was  signed  by  the  com- 
missioners of  that  power  with  those  of  France,  Spain,  and 
the  Batavian  Republic.  England  restored  all  her  conquests  except  Ceylon 
and  Trinidad ;  and  evacuated  all  ports  and  islands  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Malta  was  guaranteed  by  all  the  European .  powers  to  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.  Egypt  again  submitted  to  the  Turkish  dominion.  The  Ionian 
Islands  were  recognized  as  an  independent  republic,  under  the  joint 
protection  of  Turkey  and  Russia.  The  results  of  these  negotiations  added 
immensely  to  the  fame  of  Bonaparte,  and  in  August,  1802,  he  was  elected 
First  Consul  for  life. 

56.  The  power  thus  established  was  used  for  the  promotion  of  enlight- 
enment and  social  order,  long  interrupted  by  the  storms  of  revolution.  A 
commission  of  the  ablest  lawyers  was  intrusted  with  the  preparation  of  a 
civil  code  —  the  first  since  St.  Louis  —  evolving  a  clear  and  equitable 
system  of  laws  from  the  perplexing  mass  of  local  customs  and  traditions.^" 
Great  public  works  were  vigorously  carried  on  —  among  others,  a  mag- 
nificent military  road  across  the  Simplon  from  France  into  Italy.  Every 
department  of  public  and  private  industry  received  an  impulse  from  the 
energetic  genius  of  Bonaparte,  while  institutions  of  learning  were  the 
especial  objects  of  his  munificence.  By  his  Concordat  with  Pope  Pius 
VIL,  the  rites  of  the  Roman  Church  were  reestablished  as  the  religion 
of  the  state,  though  equal  freedom  was  guaranteed  to  Protestant  worship. 
All  former  sees  were  suppressed ;  ten  new  archbishoprics  and  fifty  bishop- 
rics were  created,  the  incumbents  of  which  were  to  be  appointed  by  the 
First  Consul.  By  an  Act  of  Amnesty  150,000  emigrants  were  permitted 
to  return,  and  such  of  their  confiscated  estates  as  still  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  government,  were  restored  to  them. 

57.  The  French  colony  of  St.  Domingo  had  formed  itself  into  a  negro 
republic,  with  Toussaint  I'Ouverture,  once  a  slave,  at  its  head.  A  force 
was  now  sent  for  its  reduction  under  General  Leclerc,  a  brother-in-law 
of  Bonaparte.  After  several  months'  desperate  fighting,  Toussaint  was 
captured  and  conveyed  to  a  dungeon  in  France ;  but  his  followers,  aided 


*  Voltaire,  in  the  previous  century,  had  remarked  that  a  traveler  through  France 
changed  laws  oftener  than  he  changed  horses,  and  that  an  advocate  might  be  profoundly- 
learned  in  one  city  and  an  ignoramus  in  the  next.  Roman  laws,  provincial  customs, 
and  local  usages  were  endlessly  modified  by  royal  edicts,  ordonnanccs,  and  arrets  of 
parliaments,  making  at  least  SOO  distinct  and  often  conflicting  systems. 


BONAPARTE  MASTER  OF  GERMANY.  379 

by  the  ravages  of  yellow  fever,  which  destroyed  more  than  two-thirds  of 
the  invaders,  held  out  until  a  renewal  of  the  war  between  France  and 
England  brought  a  fleet  of  the  latter  to  their  assistance.  The  French 
were  expelled,  and  the  independence  of  the  republic,  under  its  ancient 
name  of  Hayti,  was  proclaimed. 

58.  The  execution  of  the  Treaty  of  Luneville  laid  the  Empire  at  the 
feet  of  Bonaparte.  Of  all  the  free  imperial  cities,  only  six  remained.  In 
the  process  of  indemnifying  temporal  princes  out  of  the  territories  of  the 
Church,  two  of  the  ecclesiastical  electorates  disappeared,  and  the  third  was 
transferred  with  the  primacy  to  Ratisbon.  The  number  of  electors  was 
more  than  made  good  by  the  elevation  of  one  Catholic  and  three  Prot- 
estant princes  to  that  dignity.  The  archbishopric  of  Salzburg  was  made 
an  electorate  and  conferred  upon  the  emperor's  brother,  Ferdinand,  in 
exchange  for  his  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany.  In  defiance  of  promises, 
Bonaparte  annexed  to  France  all  that  part  of  Piedmont  which  had  not 
been  absorbed  into  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  with  the  duchies  of  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Guastalla,  the  canton  of  Valais,  and  the  cities  of  Geneva 
and  Basle.  Nineteen  Swiss  cantons,  under  the  Act  of  Mediation,  resumed 
a  federal  government.  The  Batavian  Republic  received  a  new  constitu- 
tion corresponding  nearly  to  the  Consulate  in  France,  the  Grand  Pension- 
ary enjoying  even  greater  authority  than  had  been  conferred  upon  the 
stadtholders. 

59.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  was  not  of  long  duration.  England  violated 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  by  refusilig  to  quit  Malta,  and  by  maintaining  an 
army  in  Egypt  more  than  a  year  after  its  evacuation  by  the  French. 
These  and  other  provocations  had  long  indicated  a  rupture,  when  George 
III.  suddenly  ordered  the  seizure  of  all  French  vessels  in  English  harbors, 
and  followed  this  act  by  a  declaration  of  war.  Bonaparte  retaliated  by 
the  arrest  of  all  British  travelers  in  France,  and  a  French  army  imme- 
diately took  possession  of  the  electorate  of  Hanover.  The  First  Consul 
hastened  to  sell  Louisiana  to  the  United  States  with  a  view  both  to  aug- 
ment ills  resources  in  the  war,  and  to  keep  that  distant  possession  from 
falling  into  English  hands.^  Spain  and  Portugal  purchased  the  privilege 
of  neutrality  with  enormous  subsidies.  Great  preparations  were  made  by 
Bonaparte  for  an  invasion  of  England,  a  vast  army  was  assembled  on  the 
coast,  and  a  fleet  of  transports  was  distributed  in  the  various  ports  from 
the  Seine  to  the  Texel. 

60.  The  popularity  of  the  First  Consul  was  only  increased  by  a  nefari- 
ous plot  for  his  assassination,  formed  by  royalist  refugees  in  London  and 
believed  by  many  to  have  the  sanction  of  the  British  government.     The 


*  Congress  agreed  to  pay  $11,250,000  and  to  assume  the  debts  of  the  French  government 
to  American  citizens,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $3,750,000. 


380  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Count  of  Artois  boasted  that  he  maintained  sixty  assassins  in  Paris.  The 
brave  and  able  general,  Moreau,  though  he  had  cause  of  complaint 
against  Bonaparte,  refused  to  take  part  in  the  conspiracy.  He  was  tried, 
nevertheless,  and  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  which  Bonaparte 
commuted  to  exile  in  America.  Eleven  of  the  chief  conspirators  were 
put  to  death.  The  provocation  was  great,  but  it  could  not  excuse  the 
murder  of  the  Duke  of  Enghien,  a  member  of  the  House  of  Bourbon, 
who  was  seized  on  neutral  territory  near  the  French  frontier,  brought 
by  order  of  Bonaparte  to  the  castle  of  Vincennes,  and  shot  after  a 
mere  mockery  of  trial  for  complicity  in  the  plot. 

01.  The  chief  result  of  the  conspiracy  was  the  more  speedy  transfor- 
mation of  the  Consulate  into  the  Empire.  The  country  was  insecure,  so 
long  as  one  man's  death  involved  the  overthrow  of  the  government.  By 
decree  of  the  Senate,  ratified  by  the  Legislative  Chamber,  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  declared  Emperor  of  the  French,  and  the  throne  was  made 
hereditary  in  his  family.  Cambaceres  became  Arch  Chancellor,  Lebrun 
Arch  Treasurer,  Prince  Joseph  Bonaparte  Grand  Elector,  and  Prince 
Louis  Constable.  Eighteen  of  Napoleon's  most  illustrious  generals  were 
named  Marshals  of  the  Empire.  Pope  Pius  VII.  made  the  journey  to 
Paris,  in  order  to  bless  the  coronation  of  the  new  Caesar, 
who  had  fixed  the  seat  of  his  universal  monarchy  on  the 
Seine  instead  of  the  Tiber.  It  was,  in  truth,  a  second,  though  brief  re- 
vival of  the  Western  Empire,  against  which  the  obsolete  pretensions  of 
the  Hapsburgs  availed  no  more  than  had  those  of  the  Byzantine  Caesars 
against  the  first  Prankish  emperor.^  The  Cisalpine  Kepublic  was  trans- 
formed into  the  kingdom  of  Italy;  Napoleon  received  its  crown  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Milan,  May,  1805,  and  appointed  his  step-son,  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais,  to  act  as  his  viceroy.  The  Ligurian  Republic  was  annexed  to 
France. 

62.  A  third  Coalition  against  France  was  now  concerted  by  the  reso- 
lute energy  of  William  Pitt.  The  Czar  entered  heartily  into  the  scheme. 
Austria  acceded  in  August,  1805.  Prussia  claimed  to  be  neutral,  and 
ultimately  became  the  chief  victim  of  the  war.  Hostilities  began  in 
September,  when  General  Mack,  with  an  Austrian  army  of  80,000,  ad- 
vanced upon  Munich.  Napoleon,  abandoning  the  invasion  of  England 
(§  59),  rapidly  moved  the  forces  which  he  had  gathered  for  that  enter- 
prise, from  the  Channel  to  the  Rhine,  and,  contrary  to  the  expectation 
of  the  Austrians,  undertook  in  person  the  German  campaign.  By  a  series 
of  brilliant  maneuvers,  he  gained   the  rear  of  his  opponent  at  Ulm,  cut- 


*  Napoleon  constantly  maintained  the  parallel  between  himself  and  Charlemagne,  by- 
assuming  the  iron  crown  of  the  Lombards  at  Milan,  by  conferring  upon  his  son  the  title 
King  of  Rome,  and,  in  annexing  the  papal  states  to  his  dominion,  by  "revoking  the  do- 
pations  of  his  predecessors,  the  Frankish  emperors." 


AUSTERLITZ  AND  TRAFALGAR.  381 

ting  him  off  both  from  Vienna  and  from  his  Russian  allies.  Mack  was 
compelled  to  surrender  the  30,000  men  who  remained  with 
him,  with  all  their  colors,  magazines,  and  artillery.  A  divis- 
ion of  nearly  20,000  which  had  escaped  from  Ulm  before  the  capitula- 
tion, was  surrounded  and  captured  at  Nordlingen.  The  French  army 
pushed  forward  and  entered  Vienna,  Nov.  13.  Frederic  William  III.  of 
Prussia  was  now  forced  or  persuaded  by  Alexander  I.  to  join  the  Coali- 
tion. During  a  visit  of  the  Czar  at  Berlin,  the  two  sovereigns,  at  the 
tomb  of  Frederic  the  Great,  swore  eternal  friendship  for  each  other 
and  enmity  to  Napoleon.  Yet  a  month  had  hardly  elapsed  when  the 
king  tore  the  treaty  he  had  signed,  and  sent  to  congratulate  the  French 
conqueror  upon  his  victory  at  Austerlitz.  Napoleon  coldly  replied, 
"This  compliment  was  intended  for  another,  but  Fortune  has  changed 
the  address." 

C3.  The  archduke  Charles,  commanding  in  Italy,  heard  of  Mack's  crit- 
ical position  and  hastened  to  his  relief,  but  arrived  too  late.  Napoleon, 
crossing  the  Danube,  gained  one  of  his  greatest  victories  over  the  Austro- 
Russian  armies  at  Austerlitz  in  Moravia.  Ten  thousand  of  his  enemies 
lay  dead  upon  the  field,  while  120  cannon  and  20,000  prisoners  remained 
in  his  hands.  The  allies  were  still  superior  in  numbers;  for  beside  the 
80,000  men  of  the  archdukes  Charles  and  John,  the  unworn  levies  of  the 
Hungarian  barons  were  approaching ;  but  the  defeated  sovereigns  gave  up 
the  game  in  despair,  and  the  Czar  began  his  homeward  march.  By  the 
Peace  of  Presburg,  the  Hapsburgs  renounced  not  only  their  last  foot-hold 
in  Italy  —  Venice  being  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Napoleon — but  the 
most  ancient  patrimony  of  their  house,  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  which 
were  added  to  the  dominion  of  the  elector,  now  king,  of  Bavaria.  The 
royal  titles  of  the  electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg,  allies  of  the 
French,  were  recognized  by  the  treaty.  By  a  disastrous  campaign  of 
only  two  months,  Austria  had  lost  three  millions  of  subjects  and  a  rev- 
enue of  nearly  14,000,000  florins. 

64.  The  marvelous  success  of  Napoleon  on  land  was  balanced  by  the 
naval  battle  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  in  which  Nelson  destroyed  the  French 
and  Spanish  fleets,  and  secured  to  England  the  undisputed  dominion  of 
the  seas.  But  this  victory  was  dearly  bought  with  the  life  of  the  great 
admiral.  A  no  less  serious  check  to  the  prosecution  of  the  war  was  the 
death  of  Mr.  Pitt  in  January,  1806.  He  had  been  the  soul  of  the  war- 
policy  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  elevation  of  his  rival,  Mr.  Fox,  to  the 
ministry  was  followed  by  negotiations  for  peace.  But  Fox  died  a  few 
months  later,  and  the  war  went  on.  Prussia  was  forced  to  take  an  active 
part  in  hostilities,  by  the  dictate  of  Napoleon,  who  required  Frederic  Wil- 
liam to  occupy  the  German  territories  of  George  III.,  and  to  close  all 
Prussian  ports  against  English  vessels. 


382  MODERN  HISTORY. 

65.  The  kingdom  of  Naples  having  violated  its  neutrality,  was  invaded 
by  the  French  army  under  Massena,  just  as  the  Eussian  and  English 
troops  were  withdrawn  in  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  King 
Ferdinand  fled  to  Sicily ;  but  his  queen,*  with  a  spirit  worthy  of  her 
empress-mother,  remained  at  Naples  and  raised  an  army  of  lazzaroni  and 
brigands  which  she  reinforced  by  convicts  from  the  jails.  The  better 
class  of  Neapolitans,  however,  hailed  the  French  as  deliverers  from  this 
disorderly  and  dangerous  rabble,  and  Massena  was  able  to  enter  the 
capital  without  resistance.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  who  had  accompanied  the 
army,  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  though  in  a  certain  de- 
pendence upon  the  imperial  crown  of  France.     His  army 

"  ^'       ■  was  defeated  at  Maida  by  the  English  general  Stuart,  and 

a  general  rising  of  the  peasantry  incited  by  the  agents  of  Queen  Caro- 
line, still  further  threatened  the  new  dominion;  but  Massena,  having 
captured  Gaeta,  put  down  the  insurrection  and  restored  order. 

66.  Proceeding  to  the  organization  of  his  vast  dominions,  Napoleon 
endowed  his  sisters  with  Italian  principalities  and  his  brothers  with  king- 
doms (see  §  72).  His  favorite  generals  were  rewarded  by  the  investiture 
of  newly  created  "fiefs  of  the  Empire;"  Berthier  became  Prince  of  Neu- 
chatel ;  Talleyrand  of  Benevento ;  Bernadotte  of  Ponte  Corvo.  The  most 
decisive  act  in  his  foreign  policy  was  the  overthrow  of  the  Eoman  Em- 
pire, 1,836  years  from  its  establishment  by  Csesar  Augustus,  and  1,006 
from  its  revival  under  Charlemagne.  Sixteen  German  princes,  including 
the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg,  the  grand  dukes  of  Baden  and 
Hesse  Darmstadt,  and  the  Primate,  declared  themselves  separated  from 
the  Empire  and  formed  the  Confederation  of  the  Ehine  in  strict  alliance 
with  France.  The  French  embassador  at  Eatisbon  thereupon  notified  the 
Au'^  1  1806        "^^^^  *^^*  ^^^  master,  having  accepted  the  protectorate  of 

the  Confederation,  "no  longer  recognized  the  existence  of 
the  Empire."  Francis  II.,  the  one  hundred  and  twentieth  of  the  Caesars, 
hastened  to  resign  his  shadowy  dignity.  In  a  declaration  on  Aug.  6th, 
he  stated  that,  finding  it  impossible  to  fulfill  the  obligations  which  he  had 
assumed  with  the  imperial  crown,  he  considered  the  bonds  which  attached 
him  to  the  Germanic  body  as  dissolved,  released  its  members  from  their 
allegiance,  and  retired  to  the  government  of  his  hereditary  dominions. 
He  had  already  assumed  the  title  still  borne  by  his  house  —  Hereditary 
Emperor  of  Austria. 

67.  The  accession  of  so  numerous  and  powerful  a  clientage  was  of  im- 
mense importance  to  Napoleon,  for  it  placed  at  his  immediate  disposal  an 
army  of  70,000  men  —  a  number  which  by  the  enlargement  of  the  Confed- 


*  Maria  Caroline,  queen  of  Naples,  was  a  sister  of  the  emperors  Joseph  II  and  Leopold 
II.,  and  of  the  unfortunate  queen  Marie  Antoinette  of  France. 


NAPOLEON  AT  BERLIN,  383 

eration  was  afterward  increased  to  120,000.  The  Confederates  had  kept 
their  movements  secret  from  the  king  of  Prussia,  though  his  brother-in- 
law,  the  Prince  of  Orange,  was  thereby  made  a  vassal  of  Murat,  the  new 
grand-duke  of  Berg.  At  the  same  time  it  became  known  that  Napoleon 
was  proposing  to  restore  Hanover  to  the  king  of  England.  This  province 
had  been  forced  upon  Frederic  William  in  order  to  plunge  him  into  a 
war  with  Great  Britain,  and  had  been  regarded  as  the  badge  of  his  hu- 
miliation; that  it  should  now  be  wrested  from  him  to  suit  the  further 
convenience  of  the  conqueror,  was  a  mark  of  contempt  too  obvious  to  be 
endured.  A  strong  war-party  arose  at  the  court  of  Berlin,  in  which  the 
queen  was  the  chief  mover,  but  which  included  the  leading  statesmen 
and  generals.  Unhappily,  Prussia  had  forfeited  the  confidence  of  all 
Europe  for  the  sake  of  peace  with  France,  and  had  to  brave  the  entire 
force  of  Napoleon  with  no  other  immediate  aid  than  that  of  the  elector 
of  Saxony. 

68.  Most  of  the  Prussian  generals  were  old  men ;  their  leader,  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick,  had  won  his  spurs  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  as  comrade 
in  arms  of  Frederic  the  Great.  Napoleon  began  the  campaign  with  his 
customary  energy,  and  surprised  the  duke  by  the  same  maneuver  which 
he  had  already  practiced  upon  the  Austrians,  Melas  at  Marengo,  and 
Mack  at  Ulm.  While  the  Prussian  general  vainly  thought  to  find  the 
French  forces  dispersed  in  Franconia,  they  were  turning  his  left  wing 
and  cutting  him  off  from  communication  with  the  Russians.  Bernadotte 
gained  a  victory  at  Schleitz  and  Lannes  at  Saalfeld  over  detached  corps 
of  the  Prussians,  but  it  was  not  until  a  large  French  force  was  marching 
upon  Leipzig  directly  in  his  rear,  that  the  duke  perceived  the  true  con- 
dition of  affairs.  He  then  attempted  a  retreat,  accompanied  by  the  king, 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  many  of  the  most  distinguished  generals,  leav- 
ing Prince   Hohenlohe   with   part   of  the   army   at   Jena, 

where  he  was  defeated  by  Napoleon  in  person.  On  the 
same  day  the  retreating  army  was  defeated  still  more  signally  at  Auer- 
stadt  by  Marshal  Davoust.  A  panic  seized  the  troops;  14,000  surrend- 
ered at  Erfurt  to  Murat  and  Ney,  and  in  the  north  the  strong  and  well 
provisioned  fortresses  of  Stettin,  Custrin,  even  Magdeburg  with  a  gar- 
rison of  20,000  men,  were  given  up  to  inferior  numbers  of  French. 
Blucher  was  overtaken  at  Lubec  and  surrendered  himself  with  his 
entire  division  of  20,000  men. 

69.  The  elector  of  Saxony  hastened  to  desert  his  ally  and  make  peace 
with  Napoleon,  from  whom  he  accepted  the  title  of  King  and  a  place  in 
the  Rhenish  Confederation.  The  French  emperor  entered  Berlin  as  a 
conqueror,  less  than  a  year  from  the  day  when  he  similarly  occupied 
Vienna.  The  sword  and  insignia  of  Frederic  the  Great  were  sent  as 
trophies  to  Paris.     The  Duke  of  Brunswick,  fatally  wounded  at  Auer- 


384  MODERN  HISTORY. 

stadt,  wrote  to  the  conqueror  begging  mercy  for  his  subjects.  He  was 
answered  with  bitter  reproaches.  During  his  flight  from  his  capital  he 
died  in  the  arms  of  his  son,  who  swore  to  avenge  him. 

70.  From  the  royal  palace  at  Berlin,  Napoleon  issued  his  famous  Decree 
declaring  the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of  blockade,  confiscating  all  English 

merchandise,  and  prohibiting  all  commerce  and  correspond- 
ence with  that  country.  The  court  at  London  responded 
by  an  Order  in  Council,  declaring  the  blockade  of  all  ports  in  Europe 
from  which  the  British  flag  was  excluded,  and  claiming  the  right  to 
seize  and  search  all  vessels  bound  for  such  ports.  The  "  Milan  Decree  " 
of  Napoleon  (Dec.  17,  1807)  retaliated  by  declaring  all  vessels  submitting 
to  the  English  regulations  to  be  lawful  prizes.  All  these  and  several 
subsequent  decrees  were  in  pursuance  of  the  Continental  System  by 
which  Napoleon  hoped  to  ruin  the  commerce  of  England  and  thus  strike 
a  mortal  blow  at  the  prosperity  of  his  chief  enemy.  The  paralyzing 
effects  of  his  policy  were,  however,  most  severely  felt  by  the  continental 
states ;  and  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  in  spite  of  the  decrees,  contracts  for 
the  clothing  of  French  soldiers  had  actually  to  be  made  in  England,  the 
Hanse  towns  being  unable  to  execute  them. 

71.  The  Prussian  Poles  were  easily  roused  by  French  emissaries  to 
rebel  against  their  late  masters,  but  the  patriot  Kosciusko,  who  had  ac- 
cepted the  protection  of  the  Czar  and  felt  that  his  countrymen  had 
nothing  to  gain  by  a  change  of  tyrants,  disavowed  and  discouraged  the 
enterprise.  The  Russian  armies  appeared  on  the  field  in  November,  1806, 
and  inflicted  great  losses  upon  the  French,  though  no  decisive  victory 
was  gained  by  either  side  until  February.  After  a  few  weeks  in  winter- 
quarters,  both  armies  resumed  operations,  and  one  of  the  most  tremen- 
dous of  Napoleon's  battles  was  fought  at  Eylau,  Feb.  8.  The  field  re- 
mained to  the  French,  but  so  terrible  was  their  loss  of  men,  that  Na- 

r>  i«n7  poleon,  falling  back  on  the  Vistula,  made  propositions  for 

peace.  It  was  refused  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  was 
reassured  by  a  new  convention  with  Eussia  and  Great  Britain,  and  a 
subsidy  of  $5,000,000  from  the  latter.  The  French  were,  however,  vic- 
torious at  Friedland,  May  14,  and  the  surrender  of  Dantzic  on  the  24th 
of  the  same  month,  restored  to  active  service  30,000  of  their  troops  who 
had  been  engaged  in  its  siege.  Konigsberg  fell  into  their  hands,  and  the 
Czar  was  now  the  one  to  offer  terms  of  peace. 

72.  The  two  emperors  met  on  a  raft  moored  in  the  Niemen  at  Tilsit, 
and  their  conference  came  to  a  more  speedy  conclusion  than  is  customary 
with  diplomatic  dealings.  The  Czar  seems  to  have  conceived  a  sudden 
and  romantic  admiration  for  Napoleon,  not  unlike  tliat  of  his  predecessor, 
Peter  III.,  for  the  military  genius  of  Frederic  the  Great.  He  assured 
the  French  emperor  that  he  fully  shared  his  dislike  for  England,  and 


10 


EUROPE 

during  tlie 
Beign  of  Napoleon 

by 
A.  von  Steinwelir. 


KDM.  ^  KINODOM , 
G.  D.  "  Grand.  Ducliy. 


I 


THE  PEACE  OF  TILSIT.  385 

was  ready  to  concert  measures  for  diminishing  her  power;  whereupon 
Napoleon  declared  that,  if  that  were  the  case,  peace  was  already  made. 
Alexander  recognized  the  three  brothers  of  the  French  emperor — Joseph 
as  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  Louis  of  Holland,  and  Jerome  of  a  new 
kingdom  of  Westphalia  which  was  formed  of  the  spoils  of  Prussia  and 
Brunswick.  Prussian  Poland,  under  the  name  of  Grand-duchy  of  War- 
saw, was  ceded  to  the  king  of  Saxony.  It  had  been  proposed  in  the 
French  cabinet  to  blot  out  Prussia  from  the  map  of  Europe ;  at  the  in- 
tercession of  the  Czar,  Frederic  William  was  permitted  to  retain  his  crown 
and  somewhat  more  than  half  his  dominions. 

The  details  of  the  scheme  by  which  the  emperors  of  the  East  and  the 
W^est  divided  the  world  between  them  can  not  here  be  recorded.  Eussia 
was  to  have  the  Turkish  dominion,  except  Constantinople,  with  whatever 
more  she  could  conquer  on  the  side  of  Asia;  and  was  to  become  the  head 
of  a  new  League  in  northern  Europe  which  aimed  to  reduce  the  mari- 
time supremacy  of  Great  Britain.  A  Bonaparte  was  to  become  king  of 
Spain  and  Portugal.  The  trade  of  the  Mediterranean  was  limited  to  the 
two  contracting  powers  with  their  dependents.  The  general  result  of  the 
northern  war  and  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  was  to  make  Napoleon  more  abso- 
lutely than  ever  the  master  of  Europe.  Eussia,  the  only  power  which 
could  cope  with  him  on  land,  was  changed,  for  a  time,  from  a  foe  into 
an  ally. 

73.  England  and  Sweden  were  still  at  war  with  France.  Denmark, 
though  hitherto  neutral,  was  forced  into  the  war  by  the  extraordinary 
action  of  the  British  government  in  sending  a  fleet  to  bombard  Copen- 
hagen. The  town,  after  three  days'  cannonade,  was  forced  to  surrender 
with  the  entire  Danish  fleet,  artillery,  and  naval  stores.  It  was  two 
months  after  this  high-handed  violation  of  her  peace  and  neutrality,  that 
England  declared  war  against  Denmark.  The  Danish  West 
Indies  were  the  immediate  sufferers,  their  colonies  of  St.  •'       • 

Thomas  and  St.  Croix  falling  at  once  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 
The  Czar's  offer  of  mediation  being  rejected,  Eussia  and  Austria  entered 
with  France  into  a  league  against  Great  Britain,  which  thus  became  in 
her  turn  the  object  of  a  Coalition  embracing  all  Europe  except  Sweden 
and  Turkey.  All  the  ports  of  Eussia,  Prussia,  Denmark,  Germany,  Hol- 
land, France,  Italy,  and  Dalmatia  were  closed  to  the  commerce  of  Eng- 
land, and  her  trade  with  Hamburg  was  conducted  by  way  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  details  of  the  war  between  Sweden  and  Eussia  need  not 
be  related.  It  was  virtually  closed  by  the  forced  abdication  of  Gustavus 
IV.,  and  the  accession  of  his  uncle,  Charles  XIIL,  who  soon  made  peace 
with  the  allied  powers.  Finland,  with  the  Aland  Isles  and  part  of  West 
Bothnia,  was  ceded  to  Eussia. 

M.  H.— 25. 


386  MODERN  HISTORY. 


Il<E  C^:PIT1JIj-A.TI02«T. 

As  First  Consul,  Bonaparte  restores  order  and  security  at  Paris.  Gains  a  great  victory 
at  Marengo,  reconquers  Italy,  restores  the  Cisalpine  Republic  and  becomes  its  president ; 
while  Moreau  in  Germany  wins  the  battle  of  Hohen-linden.  By  Peace  of  Lunfiville  with 
Austria,  four  republics  are  recognized,  the  kingdom  of  Etruria  established,  Louisiana 
regained  by  France.  England,  still  at  war,  wrests  Malta  and  Egypt  from  the  French; 
Naples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey  make  peace  with  France.  The  Czar  proclaims  armed  neu- 
trality ;  forms  a  coalition  of  northern  powers  to  maintain  it.  Nelson  defeats  the  Danes 
before  Copenhagen  and  threatens  the  Swedes.  Murder  of  Paul  I.  of  Russia;  Alexander 
makes  peace  with  England.  Peace  of  Amiens.  Concordat  with  Pius  VII.  restores  Roman- 
ism as  the  state-religion  of  France.  Captivity  of  Toussaint  I'Ouverture ;  independence  of 
Hayti  established  with  English  aid.  Terms  of  the  Peace  being  violated.  Napoleon  prepares 
for  invasion  of  England ;  sells  Louisiana  to  United  States ;  retaliates  plots  against  his  life 
by  execution  of  the  Duke  of  Enghien ;  assumes  an  imperial  crown ;  in  campaign  against 
Austria  forces  the  capitulation  of  :Mack  at  Ulm ;  defeats  the  Austro-Russian  army  at  Aus- 
terlitz,  and  dictates  the  Peace  of  Presburg.  Nelson  gains  a  great  naval  victory  at  Trafal- 
gar. The  French  conquer  Naples.  Francis  of  Lorraine  abdicates  his  title  as  Emperor  of 
the  Romans.  Confederate  princes  place  themselves  under  Napoleon's  protection.  Defeat 
of  Prussian  armies  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt;  surrender  of  Stettin,  Custrin,  and  Magdeburg. 
Napoleon  occupies  Berlin,  whence  he  issues  a  Decree  enforcing  his  Continental  System 
of  commercial  hostility  to  England.  Grand-duchy  of  "Warsaw  formed  from  Prussian  Po- 
land. Napoleon  victorious  at  Eylau  and  Friedland;  receives  surrender  of  Dantzic  and 
Konigsberg.  Peace  of  Tilsit  concluded  by  Napoleon  and  the  Czar.  Bombardment  of 
Copenhagen  by  the  English,  forces  Denmark  into  the  war  by  which  she  loses  her  West 
Indian  possessions. 

The  Peninsular  War. 

74.  In  southern  Europe,  Napoleon's  continental  blockade  was  completed 
by  the  subjugation  of  Portugal,  the  old  and  steadfast  commercial  ally  of 
Great  Britain.  It  was  accomplished  by  General  Junot  with  an  army  of 
30,000  men.  The  insane  queen,  Maria  I.,  and  the  Prince  Eegent,  her  son, 
sailed  to  Brazil,  accompanied  by  most  of  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  king- 
dom ;  and  the  new  empire  of  the  Braganyas  was  established  at  Rio 
Janeiro,  Jan.,  1808.  A  few  weeks  later  the  Pope's  temporal  power  was 
overthrown  by  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  French  troops.  General  Mi- 
ollis  was  directed  to  assume  the  temporary  government  of  the  States  of 
the  Church.  Pius  VII.  responded  by  a  brief  of  excommunication  against 
Napoleon ;  but  this  harmless  manifesto  was  only  followed  by  the  annex- 
ation of  the  richest  provinces  of  the  Church  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
(See  note,  p.  880.) 

75.  Spain  was  the  next  victim.  A  violent  dissension  existed  between 
Prince  Ferdinand,  the  heir  of  that  kingdom,  on  one  side,  and  his  father, 
mother,  and  the  unworthy  favorite  Godoy,  on  the  other.  This  quarrel 
was  made  the  occasion  of  ruin  to  all.  Under  various  pretenses  the  north- 
ern provinces  of  Spain  were  occupied  by  a  French  army  of  100,000  men. 
The  king,  having  in  vain  attempted  to  reach  the  coast  and  embark  for 
his  American  dominions,  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  who  assumed  the 


THE  BONAPABTES  IN  SPAIN.  387 

title  of  Ferdinand  VII.  and  was  welcomed  to  Madrid  by  the  joyful  ac- 
clamations of  the  people.  Charles  IV.,  however,  was  no  sooner  relieved 
from  immediate  danger  than  he  regretted  the  loss  of  his  crown,  and  be- 
sought the  aid  of  Napoleon  to  regain  it.  The  whole  royal  family  were 
drawn  by  various  motives  to  Bayonne,  where,  after  a  personal  interview 
with  their  conqueror,  both  father  and  son  resigned  their  sovereign  rights 
to  their  "dearly  beloved  friend  and  ally,  the  Emperor  of  the  French." 
Ferdinand  had  previously  refused  the  kingdom  of  Etruria  as  the  price 
of  his  inheritance.  He  was  imprisoned  with  his  brother  Carlos  in  the 
castle  of  Valen9ai.  His  father  sold  Spain  and  the  Indies  for  the  castle 
of  Chambord  and  a  yearly  pension  of  7,500,000  francs. 

76.  The  crown  of  Spain  was  bestowed  upon  Joseph  Bonaparte,  who  re- 
signed that  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  his  brother-in-law,  Murat. 

The  Spanish  people,  thus  bartered  away  like  a  flock  of 
sheep,  were  filled  with  indignation.  Though  a  formal  assent  to  the  acces- 
sion of  Joseph  was  extorted  from  the  Council  of  Castile,  Juntas  in  oppo- 
sition to  his  government  were  formed  in  the  principal  towns ;  and  that 
of  Seville  declared  war  upon  Napoleon,  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
The  Peninsular  War  began  with  the  seizure  of  six  French  war-vessels 
in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  and  a  disastrous  defeat  of  Marshal  Moncey  in 
his  advance  upon  Valencia.  The  Spaniards  were  subsequently  defeated 
at  Medina  del  Eio  Seco,  but  more  than  retrieved  that  loss  by  the  vic- 
tory of  Baylen  in  Andalusia.  General  Dupont  and  20,000  French  be- 
came prisoners  of  war.  The  heroic  defense  of  Saragossa  equally  proved 
the  Spanish  spirit.  Though  but  slightly  fortified,  the  city  sustained  a 
two  months'  siege  and  many  desperate  assaults.  The  French  forces, 
fearfully  reduced  by  their  hardships,  were  at  length  compelled  to  retreat 
without  their  guns. 

77.  Portugal  followed  the  Spanish  example  and  organized  an  insurrec- 
tion. The  British  government  sent  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  —  afterward 
Duke  of  Wellington  —  with  an  army  to  her  aid.  In  the  battle  of  Vim- 
eira,  Junot  was  decisively  defeated,  and  by  the  Convention  of  Cintni 
barely  obtained  permission  to  evacuate  the  country  with  his  surviving 
troops.  A  Russian  squadron  in  the  Tagus  was  surrendered  about  the 
same  time,  and  the  English  took  possession  of  Lisbon.  In  order  to  con- 
centrate his  forces  in  the  south.  Napoleon  now  drew  closer  his  alliance 
with  the  Czar  in  a  congress  at  Erfurt,  where,  beside  the  two  emperors, 
a  crowd  of  inferior  sovereigns  were  in  attendance.  Alexander  consented 
to  all  the  changes  in  Italy  and  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  return  for  Na- 
poleon's agreement  to  his  annexation  of  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and  Fin- 
land. A  joint  request  for  peace  was  addressed  to  the  king  of  Great 
Britain,  but  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  the  Spanish  nation  was  not 
recognized  as  a  party  to  the  transactions  at  Erfurt. 


388  MODERN  HISTORY, 

78.  In  November,  1808,  Napoleon  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  armies 
in  Spain,  and  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  cleared  his  way  to  the  capital, 
which  he  entered  Dec.  4.  By  an  imperial  decree  he  abolished  the  Inqui- 
sition, reduced  the  number  of  convents  to  one-third,  and  annulled  all 
feudal  rights  and  provincial  barriers.  Sir  John  Moore,  at  the  head  of 
the  British  forces,  commenced  a  most  difficult  retreat  into  Galicia;  and 
Napoleon,  being  at  the  same  time  recalled  into  Germany,  left  the  pursuit 
to  Soult.  The  marshal  only  overtook  the  British  at  Corunna,  where  in 
spite  of  his  superior  numbers,  he  sustained  a  severe  defeat.  But  Moore 
was  struck  by  a  cannon-ball  in  the  very  moment  of  his  victory ;  and  his 
followers  having  buried  him  "at  dead  of  night,"  hastily  embarked  for 
England.  Galicia  submitted  to  the  French;  but  these  had  been  so  dis- 
abled by  their  losses  as  to  remain  comparatively  inactive  for  several 
months. 

79.  Austria,  always  restive  under  the  humiliating  conditions  of  the 
Peace  of  Presburg,  had  been  silently  mustering  her  forces  until  their 
numbers  were  more  than  double  those  of  Napoleon.  England  promised 
aid  to  the  amount  of  four  millions  sterling.  The  moment  when  the  best 
troops  of  Napoleon  were  absorbed  in  the  Spanish  campaign  seemed  fa- 
vorable for  the  attempt,  but  Francis  little  appreciated  his  adversary's 
power  of  swift  and  decisive  action.     Learning  at  Paris,  April  13,  of  the 

invasion  of  Bavaria  by  the  archduke  Charles,  Napoleon  pro- 
ceeded at  once  to  Stuttgardt  and  Carlsruhe,  organized  the 
forces  of  Wirtemberg  and  Baden,  and  by  the  18th  had  fixed  his  head- 
quarters at  Ingolstadt.  By  five  battles  fought  in  as  many  successive 
days,  he  forced  the  Austrians  to  draw  off  their  shattered  columns  toward 
Bohemia,  leaving  the  road  to  Vienna  open  to  his  advance.  That  city 
capitulated,  May  12. 

80.  At  the  first  outbreak  of  the  war,  the  Tyrolese  had  risen  against 
their  new  masters,  the  Bavarians,  and  had  either  killed  or  imprisoned 
8,000  French  soldiers  between  Innsbriick  and  Brixen.  The  Bavarians 
were  driven  from  the  Tyrol,  except  the  fortress  of  Kufstein  on  their  own 
border,  which  was  besieged.  The  advance  of  Marshal  Lefevre  turned  the 
scale.  He  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Morgel  and  captured  Schwatz  and 
Innsbruck.  Even  after  the  Austrian  troops  were  withdrawn,  the  brave 
and  loyal  Tyrolese  maintained  the  conflict  until  the  innermost  recesses 
of  their  mountains  had  been  ransacked  by  the  French  troops.  Their 
leader,  Andrew  Hofer,  was  at  length  taken,  tried  by  court-martial  and 
shot  at  Mantua,  Feb.,  1810. 

81.  The  efforts  of  the  Austrians  on  the  side  of  Poland  were  equally 
unsuccessful.  In  Italy  the  archduke  John  was  effectually  opposed  by  the 
Viceroy  Eugene  Beauharnais;  his  defeat  on  the  Piave  was  followed  by 
the  loss  of  Gortz  and  Laybacb,  and  being  pursued  even  into  Hungary 


A  USTRIAIy^  MARRIA  GE  OF  NAPOLEON.  389 

he  suffered  another  overthrow  near  Raab.  The  archduke  Charles  in  com- 
mand of  the  main  army,  had  meanwhile  taken  up  his  position  on  the 
Marchfield  near  Vienna,  where  the  fortunes  of  Austria  and  Germany 
liad  more  than  once  before  been  decided.     Here  a  two  days' 

*'  May,  1809. 

battle  was  fought  with  great  loss  on  both  sides  and  no  de- 
cisive victory  on  either ;  but  Napoleon  was  at  length  compelled  to  order 
a  retreat.  The  battles  are  usually  named  from  the  two  villages,  Aspern 
and  Essling,  near  which  they  occurred.  A  few  weeks  later  the  decisive 
battle  of  Wagram  resulted  in  victory  to  the  French.  The  archduke 
Charles  retired  into  Moravia  and  was  again  defeated  at  Znaym,  July  11. 

82.  The  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Schonbrunn  which  followed,  were  even 
more  humiliating  to  Austria,  after  all  her  efforts  and  sacrifices,  than  those 
of  the  treaty  of  Presburg.  The  countries  about  the  head  of  the  Adriatic, 
under  the  name  of  Illyrian  Provinces,  became  members  of  the  French 
Empire.  The  greater  part  of  Austrian  Poland  was  divided  between  the 
Czar  and  the  king  of  Saxony ;  Salzburg  with  its  territories  was  ceded  to 
Bavaria.  Francis  II.  renounced  his  alliance  with  England,  and  engaged 
to  uphold  the  Continental  System  of  hostility  to  her  commerce.  The 
deposition  and  imprisonment  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  had  been  accomplished 
during  the  Austrian  war.  Refusing  a  liberal  endowment  and  the  pos- 
session of  the  Vatican  —  where  he  might  reign  as  the  spiritual  head  of 
Catholic  Christendom  without  the  distraction  of  worldly  interests  —  the 
Pope  shut  himself  up  in  the  Quirinal  with  his  Swiss  Guards;  but  his 
palace  was  surrounded  at  midnight  by  the  French  soldiery,  and  he  was 
conveyed  as  a  prisoner  first  to  Grenoble  and  finally  to  Fontainebleau. 
Rome  was  declared  the  second  city  of  the  Empire. 

83.  Shortly  after  the  Peace  of  Schonbrunn,  Napoleon  resolved  upon 
the  dissolution  of  his  marriage  with  Josephine,  the  faithful  and  beloved 
companion  of  his  rising  fortunes,  and  the  formation  of  a  new  alliance 
with  one  of  the  ancient  dynasties  of  Europe.  The  empress  gave  her  un- 
willing consent  to  what  was  pronounced  a  state  necessity,  and  the  divorce 
was  ratified  by  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  at  Paris.  Napoleon 
then  demanded  from  the  Austrian  emperor  the  hand  of  his  daughter, 
Maria  Louisa.  However  averse  he  may  have  been  to  the  match,  Francis 
dared  not  refuse;  the  marriage  was  celebrated  at  Vienna,  March  11,  and 
at  Paris  April  2,  1810.  It  was  perhaps  the  turning  point  in  the  career 
of  Napoleon  —  the  moment  when  his  star  reached  its  zenith  and  began 
to  decline.  The  man  who  by  mere  force  of  genius  had  raised  himself 
from  a  penniless  charity  student  at  Brienne  to  be  master  of  all  the 
crowned  heads  in  Europe,  had  nothing  to  gain  by  connection  with  a 
family  which,  now  at  least,  had  nothing  but  antiquity  to  recommend  it; 
while  by  the  people  of  France  he  was  regarded  as  having  abjured  the 
principle  on  which  his  greatness  rested. 


390  MODERN  HISTORY. 

84.  The  just  and  liberal  policy  of  King  Louis  of  Holland,  especially 
his  resistance  to  the  'Continental  System  in  favor  of  the  commercial  in- 
terests of  his  people  —  bitterly  displeased  his  brother,  who  sent  an  army 
to  occupy  the  country.  Louis  abdicated  and  retired  into  Austria.  Hol- 
land, with  the  Hanse  Towns  and  an  important  district  on  the  North  Sea, 
was  annexed  to  France.  The  electorate  of  Hanover  was  already  added  to 
the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  the  Valais  in  Switzerland  was  incorpo- 
ra4;ed  with  France  in  order  to  secure  the  road  over  the  Simplon  in  the 
undisturbed  possession  of  that  power. 

85.  The  Peninsular  War  was  still  in  progress.  Saragossa  surrendered 
to  the  French,  Feb.,  1809,  after  a  resistance  unsurpassed  in  heroism  even 
by  that  of  the  Numantines  against  the  Romans.  Monks  and  even  women 
had  taken  part  in  the  defense ;  and  40,000  dead  bodies  lying  in  the  streets 
bore  silent  witness  to  the  courage  which  had  yielded  only  to  necessity. 
The  great  battle  of  Talavera  resulted,  after  an  obstinate  and  long  con- 
tinued struggle,  in  the  defeat  of  the  French  by  the  combined  forces  of 
British,  Spaniards,  and  Portuguese.  Wellington,  however,  was  compelled 
to  retire  even  north  of  the  Tagus,  while  his  allies  were  repeatedly  worsted 
by  the  French.  Gerona,  the  bulwark  of  Catalonia,  was  reduced  by  fam- 
ine after  six  months'  siege  and  many  assaults.  Foreseeing  a  concentration 
of  all  Napoleon's  forces  in  the  peninsula,  Wellington  proceeded  to  fortify 
himself  in  the  famous  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  where  by  defending  Lisbon 
to  the  last  he  secured  at  once  the  free  entrance  of  supplies  and  an  un- 
obstructed retreat  in  case  of  need.  The  three  lines  were  made  impregna- 
ble with  forts,  batteries,  and  redoubts,  while  the  surrounding  country  was 
stripped  of  all  that  could  afford  subsistence  to  an  enemy. 

86.  Napoleon,  meanwhile,  once  more  at  peace  with  all  the  rest  of  the 
continent,  had  collected  from  his  subject  nations  an  army  of  more  than 
300,000  men  for  the  recovery  of  Portugal,  and  the  reestablishment  of  his 
power  in  the  peninsula.  Massena  opened  the  campaign  by  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  soon  followed  by  that  of  Almeida,  a  frontier 
fortress  of  great  strength.  Wellington  retired  within  his  lines,  and  Mas- 
sena placed  his  army  in  winter-quarters  at  Santarem.  In  the  spring  of 
1811  the  British  besieged  Almeida  and  Badajoz,  and  defeated  Massena  at 
Fuentes  de  Onor.  A  still  more  disastrous  defeat  was  suffered  by  Soult 
at  Albuera;  but  his  object  was  nevertheless  attained,  for  learning  that 
he  was  to  be  reinforced,  Wellington  abandoned  the  siege  of  Badajoz. 
Already  in  the  preceding  year.  King  Joseph  had  captured  Cordova,  Sev- 
ille, Granada,  and  Malaga,  and  the  Spanish  government  had  taken  refuge 
in  Cadiz,  which  was  closely  invested  by  the  French. 

87.  Wellington  opened  the  campaign  of  1812  by  the  reduction  of  the 
two  strong  fortresses  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz.  Then  penetrating 
to  the  interior  of  Spain  he  gained  a  great  victory  at  Salamanca.    The 


THE  INVASION  OF  RUSSIA.  391 

French  were  forced  to  evacuate  New  Castile  and  Andalusia  and  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Cadiz  with  the  abandonment  of  all  their  artillery.  Madrid 
was  occupied  by  the  English,  but  was  soon  abandoned.  The  national 
pride  ot  the  Spaniards,  which  sustained  them  against  the  power  of  Na- 
poleon, made  them  almost  equally  jealous  of  their  English  allies,  and 
seriously  abated  their  success. 

88.  Russia  was  now  the  only  continental  power  which  could  resist  Na- 
poleon, and  Russia  had  many  causes  of  complaint — her  commerce  ruined 
by  the  system  of  blockades,  her  peace  threatened  by  the  aggrandizement 
of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  her  sovereign  insulted  by  the  annexation 
of  Oldenburg,  a  possession  of  the  Romanoffs,  to  the  French  empire.  The 
threatened  establishment  of  a  French  maritime  arsenal  at  Lubec,  the  con- 
tinued occupation  of  the  Prussian  fortresses  and  concentration  of  French 
troops  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  together  with  the  attempt  to 
combine  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  in  a  Northern 
Confederation  under  Napoleon's  protection  —  all  indicated  a  design  to 
violate  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  as  soon  as  it  should  suit  the  convenience  of 
the  French  emperor  to  dispense  with  it.  The  Czar  prepared  for  resist- 
ance by  placing  an  army  of  90,000  men  upon  his  frontiers ;  at  the  same 
time  excluding  or  limiting  the  introduction  of  French  merchandise,  while 

he  admitted  products  of  the  British  colonies.     He  closed  a  _,      ,„,„ 

*^  May,  1812. 

three  years'  war  with  the  Turks  by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest, 
in  which  the  Porte  ceded  Bessarabia,  Ismail  and  Kilia,  one-third  of  Mol- 
davia, and  the  fortresses  of  Chotzim  and  Bender. 

89.  War  with  Napoleon  was  hastened  by  the  influence  of  Sweden. 
Charles  XIII.  having  no  son,  the  four  Estates  of  that  kingdom  had,  in 
1810,  elected  Charles  John  Bernadotte  (§  66)  to  be  crown-prince  and 
ultimately  sovereign.  The  choice  had  been  made  in  the  hope  of  gaining 
the  good-will  of  Napoleon;  but  Bernadotte's  sincere  disapproval  of  the 
Continental  System,  and  the  admission  of  English  goods  into  Pomerania 
soon  led  to  hostilities  between  Sweden  and  France.  Swedish  ships  in 
German  harbors  were  seized,  and  their  crews  sent  in  irons  to  Antwerp. 
Davoust,  commanding  the  French  in  northern  Germany,  occupied  Pom- 
erania, imprisoned  the  Swedish  civil  officers  at  Hamburg,  and  filled  their 
places  with  French.  Bernadotte,  ruling  Sweden  during  the  illness  of  his 
adoptive  father,  appealed  for  aid  to  the  Czar.  It  was  granted,  and  the 
war  which  followed  was  on  a  grander  scale  than  any  that  had  preceded 
it.  Austria  and  Prussia  allied  themselves  with  Napoleon;  Russia  and 
Sweden  with  Great  Britain. 

90.  On  the  29th  of  May,  Napoleon  left  Dresden  — where  he  had  met 
the  emperor  Francis  and  a  throng  of  German  princes,  and  had  displayed 
his  magnificence  by  a  series  of  gorgeous  entertainments,  while  he  com- 
pleted his  preparations  for  the  campaign.     On  the  frontier  of  Russia  he 


392  MODERN  HISTORY. 

first  declared  war  against  the  Czar.  His  army  of  nearly  half  a  million 
of  men  crossed  the  Niemen  in  five  columns,  followed  by  a  train  of  i,200 
cannon.  Napoleon  himself  with  half  his  force  sought  to  gain  the  water- 
shed between  the  Dwina  and  Dnieper,  whence  by  a  decisive  battle  he 
might  command  the  road  either  to  St.  Petersburg  or  Moscow.  His  move- 
ments were  delayed  by  a  terrible  storm  which,  sweeping  over  Lithuania, 
impeded  the  march  of  King  Jerome  and  Prince  Eugene.  In  the  hurri- 
cane, inundations,  and  the  excessive  cold  which  followed,  many  horses 
perished,  and  the  movements  of  artillery  were  seriously  embarrassed. 

91.  The  Russians,  retreating  before  superior  forces,  burned  their  mag- 
azines, and  the  French  already  suffered  for  want  of  food.  Smolensk© 
was  taken  after  a  furious  assault  which  lasted  an  entire  day,  but  it  was 
dearly  purchased  with  the  lives  of  12,000  men,  for  it  was  only  a  heap  of 
smoking  ruins.  Pursuing  the  same  policy,  the  Russians  burned  and 
abandoned  Dorogobourg,  Viazma,  and  Gjatsk.  Before  reaching  Moscow, 
Napoleon  found  the  army  of  Kutusoff"  strongly  posted  at  Borodino,  and 
by  a  severe  and  terrible  contest  won  another  costly  victory.  Of  the 
80,000  killed  or  wounded  men  who  lay  upon  the  field,  more  than  half 
were  Russians ;  Kutusoff",  with  his  remaining  troops,  retreated  upon  Mos- 
cow. Unable  to  defend  that  ancient  capital,  he  passed  through  its  streets 
to  the  great  eastern  plain,  followed  by  all  the  inhabitants  who  were  able 
to  remove.  The  French,  following,  entered  the  gates  without  opposition, 
and  Napoleon  took  up  his  abode  in  the  Kremlin  or  fortress.  But  in  the 
night  innumerable  fires  broke  out  in  all  parts  of  the  city.  Trains  had 
been  laid  from  house  to  house  and  heaps  of  combustible  materials  were 
fired  by  men  left  behind  for  the  purpose.  For  five  days  the  city  was  an 
ocean  of  flames.  Returning  to  the  Kremlin  after  the  conflagration  had 
subsided,  Napoleon  attempted  to  negotiate  with  his  former  partner  in  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit.  He  had  fancied  that  from  that  ancient  palace  of  the 
Czars  he  might  again  dictate  terms  to  Europe;  but  the  act  of  the  gov- 
ernor had  shown  the  futility  of  the  dream. 

92.  Alexander  adhered  to  his  former  declaration  that  he  would  treat 
with  no  enemy  on  Russian  soil.     A  terrible  winter  was  coming  on ;  and 
Oct  19  1812        vanquished  both  by  frost  and  flame.  Napoleon  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat.     The  roads  were  already  obstructed  by 

snow,  and  troops  of  Cossacks  were  ready  to  seize  stragglers  from  the  main 
body.  In  one  terrible  night  (Nov.  6-7),  thousands  of  men  and  nearly  all 
the  horses  perished  with  cold.  The  line  of  retreat  was  strewn  with  corpses 
like  a  continuous  battle-field.  In  crossing  the  river  Beresina,  a  bridge  be- 
came clogged  with  carriages  and  men.  The  Russian  general  Witgenstein 
came  up  and  directed  a  terrible  cannonade  upon  the  crowded  mass.  The 
hideous  carnage  which  followed  may  be  imagined  but  can  not  be  de- 
scribed.    Those  were  happiest  who  found  a  speedy  grave  beneath  the  icy 


GERMAN  WAR  OF  LIBERATION.  393 

waters.  But  a  small  fragment  remained  of  the  grand  army  which  had 
undertaken  the  conquest  of  Russia,  and  that  consisted  of  charred,  maimed, 
and  shattered  specimens  of  humanity,  victims  of  the  most  disastrous  re- 
treat since  that  of  Xerxes. 

93.  Leaving  Murat  in  chief  command.  Napoleon  hastened  to  Paris, 
where  a  false  report  of  his  death  had  led  to  a  dangerous  insurrection. 
The  presence  of  the  emperor  restored  order,  and  by  extraordinary  con- 
scriptions he  was  soon  at  the  head  of  nearly  half  a  million  of  men,  but 
the  immense  destruction  of  horses  in  the  Russian  campaign  rendered  his 
remarkable  victories  of  1813  ineffective.  As  a  natural  result  of  his  mis- 
fortunes, many  of  his  German  allies  deserted  him.  The  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine  was  dissolved.  Frederic  William  of  Prussia  allied  himself  with 
the  Czar,  and  welcomed  a  Russian  army  in  Berlin.  Austria  and  Saxony 
for  a  few  months  maintained  an  armed  neutrality.  The  people  of  Ham- 
burg rose  against  the  French  garrison,  and  opened  their  gates  to  the 
Russians,  their  harbor  to  the  English. 

94.  The  campaign  of  1813  embraced  the  whole  continent  of  Europe. 
The  left  of  the  French  army  rested  on  Hamburg  and  Lubec,  its  right  on 
Venice  and  Verona.  The  main  action  took  place  in  the  northern  portion 
of  the  line  and  chiefly  in  the  Saxon  territory.  The  first  general  encounter 
was  upon  the  plain  of  Lutzen,  rendered  famous  nearly  two  hundred  years 
before  by  the  victory  and  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  Russian  and 
Prussian  monarchs  commanded  in  person;  they  were  defeated,  and  the 
Saxon  capital  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  French.  A  more  decisive 
victory  was  gained  by  Napoleon  in  a  two  days'  battle  at  Bautzen.  Ham- 
burg was  retaken  by  Davoust  with  a  corps  of  French  and  Danes.  In 
revenge  for  the  expulsion  of  the  garrison,  8,000  houses  were  destroyed 
and  48,000  people  rendered  homeless. 

95.  Napoleon  now  consented  to  a  truce  of  eight  weeks,  to  afford  time 
for  negotiations.  A  Peace  Congress  assembled  at  Prague ;  but  the  allies 
were  insincere,  and  the  time  was  spent  in  perfecting  the  Fifth  Coalition 
of  European  powers  against  Napoleon.  England  was  most  active  in  the 
use  of  money  and  influence.  Austria  gave  in  her  adhesion,  increasing 
the  allied  armies  to  a  marked  superiority  over  their  opponents.  Napo- 
leon meanwhile  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Danes.  War  was  renewed 
Aug.  10 ;  and  in  the  great  battle  of  Dresden,  Napoleon  was  again  victori- 
ous. Throughout  the  campaign,  however,  the  advantages  gained  where 
he  commanded  in  person  were  balanced  by  the  almost  uniform  defeat  of 
his  generals.  Oudinot  lost  a  battle  at  Grossbeeren,  Macdonald  at  Katz* 
bach ;  a  French  division  pursuing  the  allies  after  their  defeat  at  Dresden, 
was  cut  off  from  the  main  body  and  20,000  men  were  either  killed  or 
captured.  Ney  in  his  march  upon  Berlin  was  defeated  by  Bernadotte 
v/ith  great  loss. 


394  MODERN  HISTORY. 

96.  Bavaria  joined  the  Coalition  Oct.  1.  Napoleon,  outnumbered  and 
partly  surrounded  by  the  allies  —  who,  reinforced  by  60,000  Eussians,  had 
advanced  again  into  Saxony  —  resolved  to  stake  all  upon  a  great  battle, 
which  was  fought  accordingly  at  Leipzig,  Oct.  16-18.  On  the  first  day 
the  French  had  generally  the  advantage ;  but  at  night  Napoleon,  con- 
scious of  the  tremendous  odds  against  him,  renewed  proposals  for  peace. 
They  were  rejected,  and  after  a  day's  respite  the  battle  recommenced, 
this  time  with  still  greater  superiority  of  numbers  on  the  part  of  the 
allies.  The  French  were  driven  from  their  positions,  and  at  night  began 
a  retreat,  which  but  for  the  milder  eeason  would  have  been  as  disastrous 
as  that  from  Moscow.  The  Bavarians  under  Wrede  tried  in  vain  to  in- 
tercept their  march,  but  were  routed  at  Hanau. 

97.  The  vast  empire  built  up  by  the  genius  of  Napoleon  rapidly  fell 
to  pieces.  French  garrisons  were  expelled  from  towns  on  the  Elbe,  the 
Vistula,  the  Oder,  and  the  Baltic.  Hanover  was  reoccupied  by  the  king 
of  England;  Holland  proclaimed  the  Prince  of  Orange  as  sovereign  of 
the  Netherlands  under  the  name  of  William  I.  Jerome  Bonaparte  aban- 
doned his  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  the  sovereigns  of  Hesse,  Olden- 
burg, and  Brunswick  resumed  their  hereditary  dominions.  The  Danes 
made  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  ceding  Norway  to  the 
latter  power,  and  receiving  in  exchange  Swedish  Pomerania  and  the  Isle 
of  Riigen.  They  entered  the  Coalition  and  accepted  a  liberal  subsidy 
from  Great  Britain  for  the  maintenance  of  10,000  troops.  The  Austrians 
had  meanwhile  recovered  Illyria,  Carinthia,  and  Dalmatia ;  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  Tyrol  to  the  allies  had  driven  Eugene  beyond  the  Mincio. 
Murat,  believing  his  brother-in-law  irretrievably  ruined,  accepted  the 
promises  of  the  allies  and  declared  war  against  Napoleon.  Eugene  was 
offered  the  crown  of  Lombardy  on  similar  terms,  but  he  remained  faithful 
to  his  emperor. 

98.  In  Spain,  some  of  the  best  French  troops  having  been  withdrawn, 
Wellington  gained  the  great  battle  of  Vittoria,  which  decided  the  fate 
of  the  peninsula.  Joseph  Bonaparte  retired  into  France.  Nearly  a  week 
of  severe  fighting  in  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees  resulted  in  the  expulsion 
of  Soult  from  the  Spanish  territory.  San  Sebastian  was  taken  by  storm, 
Pampeluna  by  siege,  and  even  Bayonne  was  invested  by  a  force  of  Eng- 
lish and  Portuguese.  Napoleon  released  Ferdinand  VII.  from  his  captiv- 
ity of  six  years,  and  solemnly  recognized  his  dignity  as  King  of  Spain 
and  the  Indies.  The  Pope  was  likewise  released  from  Fontainebleau, 
and  resumed  his  sovereignty  over  the  States  of  the  Church. 

99.  In  the  campaign  of  1814,  the  allies  prepared  to  converge  their 
columns  from  the  north,  east,  and  south,  upon  Paris.  Schwartzenberg, 
with  the  grand  army  of  Austria,  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Basle  ;  Blucher, 
with  that  of  Silesia,  between  Mannheim  and  Coblentz ;  while  the  Russians 


FIRST  ABDICATION  OF  NAPOLEON.  395 

approached  through  the  Netherlands.  Before  the  end  of  January  nearly 
one-third  of  France  was  actually  occupied  by  the  allies.  In  this  desper- 
ate condition,  the  wonderful  resources  of  Napoleon's  genius  appeared 
more  inexhaustible  than  at  the  height  of  his  good  fortune.  Though  de- 
feated by  Blucher  at  Brienne,  he  persevered  in  assaulting  that  general 
until  by  successive  victories  he  drove  hipa  back  upon  Billow's  advancing 
columns.  Then  turning  upon  Schwartzenberg,  he  defeated  him  at  Mon- 
tereau  so  decisively  that  the  Austrian  made  proposals  for  a  peace. 
Blucher  again  advanced  and  gained  a  victory  at  Laon.  Leaving  Mar- 
mont  and  Mortier  to  hold  him  in  check,  Napoleon  attacked  Schwartzen- 
berg at  Arcis-sur-Aube ;  but  the  battle,  though  the  most  fiercely  contested 
of  the  whole  campaign,  had  no  decisive  result. 

100.  Napoleon  then  determined  to  get  into  the  rear  of  the  Austrians, 
and  carry  the  war  into  Germany.  Learning  his  design,  the  allies  re- 
solved to  take  advantage  of  it  by  hastening  their  march  upon  Paris.  The 
emperor  was  at  St.  Dizier  when  he  discovered  the  snare  into  which  he 
had  fallen.  Traveling  with  extraordinary  swiftness  in  advance  of  his 
army,  he  arrived  at  Fontainebleau  late  at  night,  only  to  find  that  the 
battle  which  deprived  him  of  a  throne  had  been  fought  that  very  day 
on  the  heights  of  Montmartre,  Belleville,  and  Romainville.  The  empress- 
regent  and  her  son  had  retired  to  Rambouillet.  Marmont  and  Mortier 
with  the  National  Guards  and  8,000  regular  troops  had  defended  the 
capital  to  the  last  extremity,  until,  further  efforts  proving  hopeless,  they 
had  been  authorized  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  to  agree  with  Schwartzenberg 
upon  terms  of  capitulation. 

101.  The  Czar  and  the  king  of  Prussia  entered  Paris,  March  31,  fol- 
lowed by  their  victorious  armies.  After  a  conference  with  the  principal 
ofiicers  of  the  government,  they  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that  they 
would  no  longer  treat  with  Napoleon  Bonaparte  nor  with  any  member 
of  his  family.  The  next  day  the  Senate  pronounced  his  deposition  from 
the  throne.  Finding  armed  resistance  impossible.  Napoleon  signed  an 
abdication  in  favor  of  his  son.  This  was  rejected  by  the  allies,  who  ex- 
ulted in  having  their  great  enemy  absolutely  at  their  disposal ;  and  he 
was  compelled  to  follow  it  by  an  unconditional  surrender  of  the  crowns 
of  France  and  Italy,  accepting  as  a  nominal  exchange  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Island  of  Elba  and  a  pension  of  two  millions  of  francs.  The  war 
in  the  south  was  already  ended  by  the  victories  of  the  British  at  Orthez 
and  Toulouse.  Bordeaux  had  proclaimed  Louis  XVIII.,  and  Wellington 
was  marching  northward  with  his  victorious  army.  The  Count  of  Artois, 
appointed  by  his  brother  Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom,  signed  a 
convention  with  the  allied  sovereigns  at  Paris.  On  the  20th  of  April, 
Napoleon  took  leave  of  his  guard  at  Fontainebleau,  and  departed  for 
Elba. 


396  MODERN  HISTORY. 

102.  The  allied  sovereigns  in  possession  of  France  proceeded  to  settle 
its  government  and  boundaries  to  their  own  satisfaction.  The  Czar,  to 
his  lasting  honor,  became  the  guarantee  of  a  liberal  constitution  ;  and  it 
was  only  after  signing  this  document  that  Louis  XVJII.,  having  arrived 
from  England,  was  permitted  to  make  his  public  entry  into  Paris.  The 
throng  of  royalists  who  had  returned  under  the  protection  of  the  allied 
armies,  received  him  of  course  with  acclamations,  but  it  was  noticed  that 
the  people  in  the  streets  regarded  the  royal  cortege  with  ominous  silence. 
The  charter  which  the  king  granted  to  his  people  was  dated  in  the  nine- 
teenth year  of  his  reign !  It  conceded  many  invaluable  rights —  freedom 
of  person,  security  of  property,  unobstructed  exercise  of  religion,  and 
liberty  of  the  press  —  but  its  refusal  to  recognize  the  eventful  history  of 
the  Republic  and  the  Empire  was  worse  than  a  silly  affectation ;  it  went 
far  to  prove,  to  the  great  discontent  of  the  people,  that  the  Bourbons 
during  their  long  exile  had  "learned  nothing  and  forgotten  nothing." 

103.  By  the  Peace  of  Paris,  May  30,  France  was  reduced  to  her  limits 
at  the  beginning  of  1792,  with  a  few  slight  additions;  independence  was 
restored  to  Germany;  Holland  was  increased  by  the  annexation  of  Bel- 
gium, and  the  Prince  of  Orange  became  King  of  the  Netherlands.  Upon 
learning  of  Napoleon's  abdication,  Eugene  Beauharnais  surrendered  the 
fortresses  of  northern  Italy  into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  On  the  2d 
of  October  all  the  European  sovereigns  assembled  either  in  person  or  by 
embassadors  at  Vienna  to  rearrange  the  affairs  of  the  continent.  But 
there  is  the  less  heed  to  record  their  decisions,  as  their  conferences  were 
interrupted  by  a  most  unwelcome  event. 

104.  Napoleon  had  quitted  Elba,  Feb.  26,  and  having  landed  at  Cannes, 
was  marching  toward  Paris,  joined  every-where  by  companies  of  his  old 
soldiers,  whose  idolatrous  affection  for  his  person  quickly  effaced  their 
allegiance  to  Louis.  The  presence  of  Napoleon  upon  a  battle-field  had 
been  estimated  by  his  opponents  as  equal  to  an  additional  force  of  40,000 
or  even  100,000  men.  Never  had  his  personal  ascendency  been  so  mani- 
fest as  when  he  stood  alone  and  unarmed  in  the  presence  of  royal  bri- 
gades sent  to  arrest  his  progress.  Whole  battalions  passed  over  to  his  side 
as  soon  as  officers  and  men  caught  sight  of  his  familiar  face  and  figure. 
The  Count  of  Artois  fled  almost  unattended,  his  whole  army  serving  to 
swell  the  triumphal  escort  of  the  emperor.     The  king  quitted  his  capital, 

and  Napoleon,  entering  the  same  evening,  was  reestablished 
March,  1815.  •     ,,      rr^  .,     .  -i     ,       .  .  \     .  .    ,,     , 

m  the  Tuilenes  amid  the  joy  and  congratulations  of  all  the 

dignitaries  of  the  Empire.    Most  of  the  Bourbons  took  refuge  in  England, 

but  Louis  XVIII.  resided  in  Belgium  during  the  "Hundred  Days"  that 

comprised  the  brief  and  eventful  second  reign  of  Napoleon. 

105.  The  emperor  sought  the  approval  and  support  of  the  liberal  party 
by  an  "  Act  additional  to  the  Constitutions  of  the  Empire,"  in  which  he 


THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO.  397 

granted  even  greater  securities  for  popular  freedom  than  had  been  con- 
ceded by  the  charter  of  1814.  Laboring  night  and  day  at  the  organiza- 
tion of  his  army,  he  was  surrounded  on  the  1st  of  June  by  a  magnificent 
array  of  367,000  men,  including  the  National  Guard.  A  few  weeks  more, 
he  afterward  remarked,  would  have  placed  around  France  "a  wall  of 
brass  which  no  earthly  power  would  have  been  able  to  break  through." 
But  the  Belgian  frontier  was  already  threatened  by  the  English  and 
Prussian  armies  under  Wellington  and  Blucher.  Marching  northward 
with  his  usual  promptitude.  Napoleon  attempted  to  divide  his  enemies — 
himself  attacking  Blucher,  while  he  ordered  Ney  to  keep  the  British 
engaged  and  prevent  their  rendering  aid  to  their  allies.  Blucher  was  in 
fact  driven  back  from  Ligny  with  tremendous  loss;  but  Ney  was  at  the 
same  time  repulsed  from  Quatre  Bras. 

106.  The  general  and  decisive  conflict  took  place  at  Waterloo  on  the 
18th  of  June.  The  splendid  valor  of  the  French  was  never  more  signally 
displayed ;  all  depended  upon  their  capture  of  the  two  positions  of  Hou- 
goumont  and  la  Haye  Sainte,  before  Blucher,  who  was  contesting  with 
Grouchy  the  defile  of  St.  Lambert,  could  come  to  the  aid  of  Wellington. 
English  steadfastness  won  the  day.  Late  in  the  afternoon  the  Prussians 
began  to  arrive;  the  imperial  Guard,  the  last  reserve  of  Napoleon,  was 
brought  into  action,  surrounded  and  overpowered  by  the  British.  Seeing 
this  disaster,  the  French  broke  and  fled.  Napoleon,  exclaiming  "All  is 
lost!"  commenced  his  flight  toward  Paris.  Here  he  signed  a  second  act 
of  abdication,  but  proclaimed  his  son  as  Emperor  of  the  French.  Lafay- 
ette, who  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  had  held  himself  aloof  from  public 
affairs,  was  now  a  member  of  the  legislature  and  insisted  on  uncondi- 
tional abdication.  He  was  also  one  of  an  embassy  sent  to  the  allied 
sovereigns  to  treat  for  peace.  They  refused  all  negotiations  until  "  Bona- 
parte "  should  be  placed  in  their  custody  as  a  guarantee  against  his  ever 
again  disturbing  the  peace  of  Europe. 

107.  On  the  6th  of  July  the  allies  again  entered  Paris  and  on  the  8th 
Louis  XVIII.  was  reinstated.  Napoleon  designed  to  take  refuge  in  the 
United  States,  but  finding  it  impossible  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the 
English  who  blockaded  the  coast,  he  resolved  to  throw  himself  on  their 
generosity.  In  a  letter  to  the  Prince  Kegent  (afterward  George  IV.)  he 
compared  himself  to  Themistocles  seeking  the  protection  of  Admetus. 
The  "  first  gentleman  of  Europe "  appears  at  a  disadvantage  compared 
with  the  Molossian  chief  The  humiliated  emperor  was  not  even  per- 
mitted to  land  in  England,  but  after  being  kept  several  weeks  on  board 
ship,  he  was  conveyed  to  the  prison  rock  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  lingered 
out  six  years  of  captivity  in  a  noxious  climate,  and  died  May  5,  1821. 
Twenty  years  later  a  more  generous  spirit  animated  the  British  govern- 
ment.    The   remains  of  Napoleon  were  permitted  to  be  conveyed  by  a 


398  MODERN  HISTORY. 

guard  of  honor  to  Paris,  where  they  rest  under  the  dome  of  an  institu- 
tion which  his  munificence  had  fostered. 

108.  The  faults  and  crimes  of  this  remarkable  man  are  too  evident  to 
need  enumeration.  He  drained  the  life-blood  of  France  by  reckless  con- 
scriptions ;  he  overthrew  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  of  opinion ;  he  in- 
volved his  empire  in  two  ruinous  Avars  by  a  tyrannical  commercial  policy 
arising  from  his  resentment  against  England;  he  heartlessly  pursued  his 
own  ends  at  the  expense  of  the  life,  liberty,  and  happiness  of  others  — 
both  individuals  and  nations.  Yet  it  may  be  questioned  whether  he  was 
more  selfish,  or  only  more  able,  than  the  hereditary  sovereigns,  into 
whose  feebly  ceremonious  courts  his  energetic  movements  struck  terror 
and  confusion.  He  found  Europe  encumbered  with  lifeless  forms,  the 
remains  of  institutions  of  former  ages;  his  mission  seems  to  have  been 
to  clear  the  ground  for  new  and  better  growths.  If  his  fall  was  owing 
to  his  errors,  his  extraordinary  success  was  not  less  the  natural  result 
of  profound  knowledge,  untiring  industry,  and  irresistible  will. 

Napoleon  was  the  heir  of  the  Eevolution,  but  he  knew  how  to  avail 
himself  of  its  opportunities  without  sharing  its  godless  and  cruel  fanati- 
cism. Nor  is  it  just  to  charge  the  twenty  years'  war  in  which  he  was 
the  leading  actor  wholly  to  his  unscrupulous  ambition.  With  the  two 
exceptions  of  the  Peninsular  and  the  Eussian  war,  brought  about  by  his 
Continental  System,  the  remaining  conflicts  may  be  more  justly  attrib- 
uted to  the  allies,  especially  to  Great  Britain,  who  refused  all  overtures 
for  peace,  or  violated  a  treaty  as  soon  as  it  had  been  made.  It  is  doubt- 
less true,  however,  that  the  Napoleonic  style  of  government  could  never 
have  long  coexisted  in  peace  with  the  old  European  system,  which  the 
Revolution  had  overthrown  and  which  the  four  Great  Powers  were  de- 
termined to  build  up ;  war  may  therefore  be  charged  upon  their  irrecon- 
cilable differences  of  character  rather  than  upon  any  man's  will. 

i 
Enforcement  of  the  Continental  System  in  southern  Europe  leads  to  the  Peninsular  War,i 

in  which  Portugal  and  finally  Spain  become  dependencies  of  Napoleon.  Empire  of  Brazil! 
is  founded  by  the  exiled  Bragangas.  Dissensions  between  Charles  IV.  and  his  son  lead  to 
abdication  of  the  Spanish  crown,  which  is  conferred  upon  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Murat  be- 
coming King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Victories  of  the  Spaniards  at  Valencia  and  Baylen ; 
defense  of  Saragossa.  Junot  defeated  in  Portugal;  Lisbon  taken  by  the  English.  In  the 
Congress  of  Erfurt  the  Czar  confirms  his  alliance  with  Napoleon.  The  latter  gains  vic- 
tories at  Spain  and  dictates  laws  at  Madrid.  Victory  and  death  of  Sir  John  INIoore  at 
Corunna.  Austria  begins  a  war  by  invading  Bavaria;  is  many  times  defeated,  but  most 
decisively  at  Eckmuhl,  and  Vienna  is  surrendered  to  Napoleon.  Andrew  Hofer  leads  a 
revolt  of  the  Tyrol  against  Bavaria;  it  is  subdued  by  the  French.  Severe  but  indecisive 
battles  of  Aspcrn  and  Essling  followed  by  great  victory  of  Napoleon  at  Wagram.  By  Peace 
of  Schonbrunn,  Austria  resigns  her  Adriatic  provinces  and  her  share  in  the  spoils  of  Po- 
land. Deposition  of  Pius  VII. ;  annexation  of  papal  states  to  the  French  Empire.  Marriage 
of  Napoleon  with  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria.  Abdication  of  King  Louis  of  Holland  ;  annex- 
ation of  that  and  other  territories  to  France, 


I 


ANGLO-AMERICAN  WAR.  399 

Surrender  of  Saragossa ;  victory  of  Wellington  at  Talavera ;  his  fortifications  at  Torres 
Vedras.  Capture  of  fortresses  by  Mass6na ;  defeat  of  the  French  at  Fuentes  de  Onor  and 
Albuera.  In  campaign  of  1812,  Wellington  takes  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz;  gains  a 
great  victory  at  Salamanca;  drives  the  French  from  Cadiz. 

Aggressions  of  France  upon  Russia,  retaliatory  edicts  of  the  Czar  and  resistance  of 
Sweden  to  the  Continental  System,  lead  to  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon,  Smolensko 
and  other  cities  burned  and  abandoned  by  the  Russians.  Victory  of  Napoleon  at  Boro- 
dino; his  occupation  of  Moscow.  It  is  burned,  and  the  French  in  retreating  are  over- 
whelmed with  disasters.  In  campaign  of  1813,  all  Europe  forms  a  Fifth  Coalition  against 
Napoleon,  who  is  victorious  at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  but  his  generals  suffer  many 
reverses  and  he  is  finally  defeated  at  Leipzig.  Loss  of  dependencies  of  the  Empire.  Vic- , 
tory  of  Wellington  in  Spain  leads  to  restoration  of  Ferdinand  VII.  In  1814,  France  be- 
comes the  field  of  war.  Able  but  desperate  resistance  by  the  emperor.  Capitulation  of 
Paris.  Napoleon  abdicates  and  retires  to  Elba.  Restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  who  grants 
a  charter  of  liberties.  Holland  and  Belgium  united  under  sovereignty  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  Return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba;  flight  of  the  Bourbons;  the  Hundred  Days' 
reign  of  Napoleon;  his  campaign  in  Belgium;  final  defeat  at  Waterloo;  second  abdication ; 
imprisonment  and  death  on  St.  Helena. 

War  of  the  United  States  with  England. 

109.  Though  the  absorbing  interest  of  the  period  just  narrated  centers 
in  the  movements  of  Napoleon,  important  events  had  meanwhile  occurred 
west  of  the  Atlantic.  The  United  States  had  long  been  justly  offended 
by  the  maritime  policy  of  Great  Britain,  whose  officers  claimed  the  right 
to  board  and  search  all  vessels  and  impress  American  seamen  into  their 
own  service,  on  the  plea  that  no  British  subject  could  ever  become  an 
alien.  The  tendency  of  Napoleon's  Continental  System  and  of  the  Eng- 
lish Orders  in  Council  was  to  annihilate  neutral  commerce.  The  retali- 
atory acts  of  Presidents  Jefferson  and  Madison  were  doubtless  more 
injurious  to  the  United  States  than  to  the  European  powers;  but  they 
were  part  of  a  series  of  events  which  led  to  a  declaration  of  war  against 
England  in  June,  1812.  The  American  coast  was  then  almost  unfortified, 
and  a  navy  could  scarcely  be  said  to  exist;  the  main  action  upon  the 
sea  was  therefore  carried  on  by  privateers,  which,  during  the  two  and  a 
half  years  of  the  war,  captured  more  than  1,500  British  merchantmen. 
The  details  of  the  conflict  must  be  sought  in  American  history ;  we  have 
room  but  for  the  briefest  outline. 

110.  Repeated  attempts  to  persuade  or  force  the  Canadas  to  throw  off 
their  allegiance  to  Great  Britain  were  unavailing;  and  in  August,  1812, 
General  Hull's  surrender  of  Detroit  threw  open  the  whole  territory  of 
Michigan  to  a  Canadian  and  Indian  army.  During  the  same  summer, 
however,  our  infant  navy  had  several  victorious  encounters  with  English 
war-vessels  on  equal  terms,  which  w^ent  far  to  disprove  the  boasted  su- 
premacy of  Great  Britain  on  the  sea.  The  next  year  Ogdensburgh  was 
taken  by  the  British,  but  the  Americans  captured  York,  the  capital  of 
Upper  Canada,  gained  the  entire  control  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  drove  their 
opponents  from  Niagara  River.     Still  more  brilliant  was  the  success  of 


400  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Commodore  Perry  on  Lake  Erie.  Creating  a  squadron  from  the  forests 
on  its  shores,  he  conquered  the  English  fleet,  and  obtained  the  mastery 
of  the  upper  lakes.  Following  up  this  victory.  General  Harrison  recov- 
ered all  that  General  Hull  had  lost,  and  imposed  peace  on  the  Indians 
of  the  North-west. 

111.  In  1814,  decisive  victories  were  gained  by  the  Americans  at  Chip- 
pewa, at  Niagara  Falls,  and  at  Plattsburg,  where  battles  were  fought  at 
the  same  time  on  land  and  on  the  waters  of  Lake  Champlain.  All  the 
cities  of  the  Atlantic  coast  were  meanwhile  blockaded  by  British  vessels. 
A  strong  force  occupied  the  Chesapeake  and  levied  contributions  from 
the  towns  upon  its  shores;  while  General  Eoss  with  6,000  men  march- 
ing upon  Washington,  burned  the  Capitol,  the  President's  house  and 
other  public  buildings.  An  attack  upon  Baltimore  was  unsuccessful. 
The  last  act  of  the  war  was  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  in  which  the 
American  general  Jackson  gained  a  decisive  victory.  But  before  it  was 
fought,  the  triumph  of  the  allies  in  Europe  had  removed  the  direct  causes 
of  the  American  war ;  and  soon  after  the  battle,  news  arrived  of  a  peace 
concluded  at  Ghent  by  the  commissioners  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  Happily  exempted  by  distance  from  taking  part  in  Euro- 
pean strife,  the  American  Republic  enjoyed  thirty  years  of  undisturbed 
tranquillity  —  a  period  marked  by  an  unexampled  increase  of  material 
prosperity  and  advance  in  civilization. 

112.  By  the  second  treaty  of  Paris,  France  was  reduced  to  her  limits 
in  1790,  and  was  rendered  incapable  of  again  disturbing  the  peace  of 
Europe,  by  the  quartering  of  a  foreign  army  of  150,000  men  upon  her 
borders.  This  army  was  maintained  by  the  conquered  people,  who  were 
also  compelled  to  pay  the  allies  seven  hundred  millions  of  francs  toward 
their  expenses  in  the  war,  beside  a  still  larger  sum  for  injuries  wrought 
by  French  troops  in  other  countries.  The  pictures  and  statues  brought 
from  German  and  Italian  cities  for  the  decoration  of  Paris,  were  returned 
to  their  rightful  owners.  A  second  Congress  at  Vienna  undertook  the 
difficult  task  of  restoring  the  balance  of  power  so  long  disturbed  by  the 
irresistible  ascendency  of  Napoleon.  It  was  indeed  impossible  to  reestab- 
lish boundaries  and  political  relations  as  they  had  been  before  the  revo- 
lution; but  the  sincere  desire  of  the  sovereigns  for  peace,  aided  by  the 
patient  ingenuity  of  the  diplomats,  resulted  in  a  new  order  of  things 
which  lasted  with  little  interruption  until  1848.  To  secure  the  con- 
tinuance of  concord  and  amity,  the  Czar  persuaded  the  Austrian  and 
Prussian  sovereigns  to  join  him  in  a  Holy  Alliance,  binding  themselves 
"  to  remain  united  in  the  bonds  of  true  and  indissoluble  brotherly  love ; 
to  govern  their  subjects  as  parents;  to  maintain  religion,  peace,  and 
justice." 

113.  Thirty-nine  sovereigns  and  cities,  with   Austria  and  Prussia  at 


b 


BALANCE  OF  POWER  RESTORED.  401 

their  head,  formed  a  German  Confederation  whose  capital  was  Frankfort 
on  the  Main.  Austria  received  back  her  lost  provinces  and  was  con- 
firmed in  possession  of  those  which  she  had  gained  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio.  These  were  erected  into  a  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom, 
while  Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  and  Piacenza  were  secured  to  younger 
branches  of  the  Hapsburgs.  The  empress,  Maria  Louisa,  not  choosing  to 
share  the  exile  of  her  husband,  was  endowed  with  the  duchies  of  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Guastalla.  Her  son  spent  most  of  his  short  life  near  the 
imperial  court  of  Vienna,  and  died  in  1832. 

114.  Prussia  resumed  her  place  among  the  Five  Great  Powers,  being 
indemnified  for  her  losses  by  nearly  half  the  Saxon  kingdom,  the  duchies 
of  Posen,  Cleves,  and  Berg,  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Ehine  to  the  Saar. 
England  and  Kussia  emerged  from  the  conflict  with  a  great  increase  of 
power  and  fame.  The  former,  indeed,  had  nearly  quadrupled  her  national 
debt,  of  which  the  annual  interest,  now  amounting  to  $140,000,000,  in- 
volved an  inconceivable  burden  of  taxation  and  misery ;  but  her  domin- 
ion of  the  sea,  so  far  as  any  European  rival  w^as  concerned,  was  estab- 
lished beyond  dispute.  Eussia,  on  the  other  hand,  by  wars  with  Sweden, 
Turkey,  and  Persia,  had  vastly  increased  her  territories  on  the  Baltic, 
the  Danube,  and  the  Caspian ;  while  Poland,  reconstituted  as  a  kingdom, 
was  now  added  to  the  dominions  of  the  Czar.  A  subsequent  Congress  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  providing  for  the  withdrawal  of  the 

army  of  occupation  from   France,  restored   that  nation  to 

her  rank  among  the  Five  Great  Powers.     The  supremacy  of  the  Five  in 

the   States  System  was  more  distinctly  marked   than  ever,  each  being 

charged  with  the  duty  of  maintaining   the  existing  balance  by  war,  if 

diplomacy  should  fail ;  while  minor  powers  might  indeed  protest  against 

any  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium,  but  were  not  required  to  arm  for  its 

preservation. 

115.  Hereditary  monarchy  was  restored  in  all  countries  of  any  extent 
except  Switzerland.  That  confederacy,  by  the  addition  of  Geneva,  Valais, 
and  Neuchatel,  now  attained  its  present  number  of  twenty-two  Cantons. 
Of  the  five  leading  nations  only  England  and  France  possessed  represent- 
ative constitutions;  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  were  governed  by  the 
arbitrary  will  of  their  sovereigns;  and  the  struggle  between  absolutism 
and  popular  rights  occasioned  a  great  intellectual  ferment  throughout 
Europe  until  it  resulted  in  the  revolutions  of  1848.  In  France,  Talley- 
rand, the  profound  and  dexterous  diplomatist,  who  had  been  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  under  four  governments,  w^as  succeeded,  Sept.,  1815,  by  the 
Duke  of  Richelieu,  a  royalist  of  the  most  extreme  and  uncompromising 
type.  The  nation  seemed  to  have  undergone  one  of  those  violent  re- 
actions, both  religious  and  political,  of  which  its  history  affords  so  many 
examples.     In  Nismes,  Avignon,  and  Toulouse  the  sanguinary  scenes  of 

M.  H.— 26. 


402  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  Revolution  were  revived  in  the  massacre  of  Protestants,  Republicans, 

and  Bonapartists. 

11().  The  collateral  branches  of  the  Bourbons  were  restored  to  their 

thrones  in  Spain  and  Italy.     Ferdinand   VII.  reestablished  the  Spanish 

Inquisition  and  all  the  suppressed  convents.     The  Spanish  colonies  in 

America,  encouraged  partly  by  the  example  of  the  United  States,  partly 

by  the  absorption  of  the  mother  country  in  the  wars  of  Napoleon  and 

the  anarchy  which  followed  his  fall,  commenced  in   1810  a  revolution 

,„,„  which  resulted  in  the  independence  of  Colombia  and  the 

Dec,  1819.  ^ 

Argentine  Republic.  Chili,  Peru,  and  Bolivia  gained  their 
independence  a  few  years  later.*  In  Mexico  the  popular  chieftain, 
Iturbide,  proclaimed  himself  Emperor  in  1822,  but  he  was  dethroned  the 
next  year,  and  the  Republic  of  Mexico  was  established  in  alliance  with 
that  of  Colombia.  The  exhausted  treasury  of  Spain  was  taxed  with  vain 
attempts  to  recover  these  lost  provinces;  and  the  unpaid  soldiers,  uniting 
with  great  numbers  of  discontented  citizens,  organized  a  revolution  which 
overthrew  the  Inquisition  and  the  convents,  and  restored  the  liberal  con- 
stitution of  1812. 

117.  The  Holy  Alliance  interfered  and  required  the  restoration  of  ab- 
solute monarchy.  The  Cortes  refusing,  Spain  was  invaded  by  a  French 
army  of  100,000  men,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Angouleme.  The 
Liberals  were  every- where  defeated;  the  French  traversed  the  peninsula 
to  Cadiz,  which  was  taken  by  assault;  and  King  Ferdinand  VII.,  who 
had  been  detained  in  captivity  by  the  Cortes,  was  reestablished  at 
Madrid  in  1823.  The  French  generals  exerted  their  influence  in  favor 
of  moderation,  but  their  counsels  could  not  abate  the  revengeful  spirit 
of  the  king,  and  despotism  in  its  most  odious  form  was  again  fastened 
upon  Spain. 

118.  Portugal,  offended  by  the  continued  residence  of  the  Regent  — 
now  King  John  VI.  —  in  Brazil,  revolted  in  1820,  and  established  a  gov- 
ernment even  more  liberal  than  that  of  the  revolutionists  in  Spain.  But 
the  king  was  the  next  year  driven  from  Brazil  by  a  revolution,  and 
leaving  his  eldest  son,  Pedro,  as  Regent  of  that  country,  returned  to 
Lisbon.  His  younger  son,  Miguel,  rebelled,  both  during  the  life  and  after 
the  death  of  John,  in  182G,  and  was  even  declared  King  by  the  Cortes; 
but  he  was  subdued  by  an  English  fleet,  and  Maria  da  Gloria,  daughter 
of  Pedro  of  Brazil,  reigned  undisturbed  from  1834  till  1853.     Brazil,  in 


*The  hero  of  these  revolutions  was  Simon  Bolivar,  a  Spanish  native  of  Caraccas.  While 
pursuing  his  studies  in  Europe,  he  witnessed  the  two  coronations  and  part  of  the  ex- 
traordinary career  of  Napoleon.  The  memoirs  of  Washington  and  Franklin  excited  his 
emulation ;  and  upon  the  Sacred  Mount  at  Rome  he  vowed  to  become  the  liberator  of  his 
country.  He  failed  to  unite  all  South  America  in  one  great  Federal  Republic,  and  died  — 
perhaps  by  poison  —  in  December,  1830,  at  the  age  of  47. 


LIBERALISM  IN  ITALY,  HUNGARY,    GERMANY.         403 

1822,  constituted  itself  an  independent  empire  with  Pedro  I.  at  its  head ; 
and  in  1825  it  was  recognized  as  such  by  John  VI. 

119.  In  Italy  tlie  arbitrary  rule  of  the  Hapsburgs  and  the  Neapolitan 
Bourbons  was  threatened  by  several  secret  political  societies,  among  which 
the  most  widely  extended  was  that  of  the  Carbonari,  numbering  half  a 
million  of  members  in  Italy  alone.  Encouraged  by  the  Spanish  revolu- 
tion of  1820,  the  Carbonari  marched  upon  Naples,  and  the  king,  Ferdi- 
nand IV.,  without  an  effort  at  resistance,  conceded  all  that  they  asked — 
replaced    his    ministers    by    liberals   and    proclaimed    the 

Spanish  constitution  of  1812.  Army,  people,  court,  and 
even  the  Crown  Prince  assumed  the  colors  of  the  Carbonari.  In  Sicily  a 
strong  party  of  counter-revolutionists  demanded  the  independence  of 
the  island-kingdom.  A  fierce  battle  was  fought  by  the  two  factions,  and 
Palermo,  for  two  days  in  the  hands  of  the  mob,  v/as  given  up  to  murder 
and  pillage.  It  was  retaken  by  the  army  of  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment at  Naples;  but  the  next  year  the  Carbonari  were  put  down  by 
the  intervention  of  the  Holy  Alliance  and  the  march  of  60,000  Aus- 
trians  into  the  Neapolitan  territories. 

120.  A  similar  insurrection  in  Piedmont  compelled  King  Victor  Em- 
manuel I.  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  brother  Charles  Felix.  In  Lom- 
bardy,  the  severity  of  the  Austrian  police  prevented  any  outbreak  of  the 
malcontents;  but  many  popular  leaders  were  imprisoned,  among  whom 
Silvio  Pellico  is  best  known  through  his  own  narrative  of  his  captivity. 
The  same  discontents  which  were  produced  in  Italy  by  the  severity  of 
the  Austrian  government,  were  encouraged  elsewhere  by  its  weakness. 
Its  treasury  was  bankrupt,  and  its  debt  every  year  greater,  even  in  time 
of  peace.  At  the  same  time,  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  a  renewed  study 
of  national  antiquities  and  literature  intensified  the  desire  for  independ- 
ence. At  the  crowning  of  the  archduke  Ferdinand  as  King  of  Hungary 
in  1830,  the  Diet  made  a  formal  demand  for  the  use  of  the  Magyar 
language  instead  of  Latin  in  its  debates,  and  the  exclusive  appointment 
of  Magyars  to  command  Hungarian  regiments.  The  Diet  was  conse- 
quently dissolved ;  when  it  reassembled  in  1832,  Louis  Kossuth  was  one 
of  its  members. 

121.  In  Germany  the  revolutionary  spirit  was  kept  alive  only  among 
the  youth,  and  chiefly  by  students  in  the  universities,  whose  imagina- 
tions, fired  by  the  new  romantic  school  of  poetry,  impelled  them  to  great 
deeds  for  the  glory  and  unity  of  the  Fatherland.  A  harmless  overflow 
of  youthful  eloquence  and  enthusiasm  upon  the  third  centennial  of  the 
Reformation,  which  happened  also  to  be  the  anniversary  of  the  last  battle 
of  Leipzig,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  minis- 
ters, and  thence  of  the  Czar,  who,  the  next  year,  formally  denounced  the  ^ 
German  Student-society  to  the  congress  of  sovereigns  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


404  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Kotzebue,  a  celebrated  dramatist  and  Russian  Consul-general  in  Germany, 
having  ridiculed  the  demonstration  through  the  press,  was  murdered  at 
Mannheim  by  a  student  of  Jena  in  1819.  This  crime  ^only  confirmed  the 
belief  of  the  German  statesmen  in  the  existence  of  a  dangerous  conspir- 
acy ;  and  at  their  congress  at  Carlsbad,  they  adopted  resolutions  limiting 
the  freedom  of  the  Universities,  and  appointing  a  commission  for  discov- 
ering and  punishing  the  supposed  plotters.  The  commission  spent  ten 
years  in  its  researches  and  filled  the  prisons  with  students,  but  failed  to 
discover  an  organization  which  probably  never  existed. 

122.  A  few  changes  among  the  European  sovereigns  may  here  be 
noted.  George  III.,  the  aged  king  of  England,  had  spent  the  last  ten 
years  of  his  long  reign  in  a  melancholy  state  of  blindness,  deafness,  and 
almost  continual  insanity;  his  son,  as  Prince  Regent,  being  the  recog- 
nized head  of  the  government.  The  latter  prince  succeeded  in  1820  to 
the  title  of  King  George  IV.  Bernadotte,  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden  by 
adoption,  had  received,  two  years  earlier,  the  full  sovereignty  with  the 
name  of  Charles  XIV.  Pope  Pius  VII.  ended  his  troubled  and  eventful 
reign  in  1823,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XII.,  whose  severe  rule  re- 
pressed for  a  time  the  activity  of  the  Carbonari  in  the  States  of  the 
Church.  The  next  year  Louis  XVIII.  died  at  Paris,  and  his  brother  the 
Count  of  Artois  received  the  crown  of  the  Bourbons.  The  royal  dignity 
having  been  so  severely  shaken  by  the  storm?  of  revolution,  the  most 
sacred  and  imposing  of  its  ancient  forms  were  revived  in  the  new  coro- 
nation. A  drop  or  two  of  the  holy  oil  which  had  served  for  the  conse- 
cration of  Clovis,  was  opportunely  discovered  at  Rheims,  and  Charles  X. 
was  seven  times  anointed  with  the  precious  fluid. 

123.  Unhappily  for  the  well-meaning  but  narrow-minded  prince,  no 
magic  could  recreate  the  vanished  superstition  of  his  people.  Every 
election  returned  a  still  larger  majority  of  liberal  deputies.  The  people 
were  incensed  by  restrictions  upon  the  freedom  of  the  press;  the  army 
was  alienated  by  the  dismissal  of  150  officers  of  Napoleon  and  the  dis- 
banding of  the  National  Guard;  and  finally  the  appointment  in  1820  of 
an  ultra-royalist  ministry  —  with  Prince  Jules  de  Polignac  at  its  head, 
and  for  war-minister  General  Bourmont,  who  had  deserted  to  the  allies 
just  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo  —  completed  the  general  discontent. 
Bourmont's  brilliant  and  permanent  conquest  of  Algiers  failed  to  awaken 
enthusiasm.  The  final  stroke  of  misgovernment  was  dealt  in  the  Ordi- 
nances of  St.  Cloud,  which  suppressed  several  liberal  journals,  limited  the 
right  of  suffrage,  and  dissolved  the  new  Chamber  of  Deputies  before  it 
had  met.  The  force  commanded  by  General  Marmont  was  insufficient  to 
suppress  the  riot  which  ensued.  The  National  Guard  reappeared  in  uni- 
form with  the  veteran  Lafayette  at  its  head.  The  tricolor  replaced  the 
white  flag  of  the  Bourbons  on  the  Hotel  de  Ville ;   the  streets  were  bar- 


REVOLUTIONS  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM.  405 

ricaded,  and  citizens  at  their  own  windows  took  an  active  part  in  the 
combat.  Symptoms  of  disaffection  appeared  in  the  army  itself,  several 
regiments  were  removed,  and  the  mob  took  possession  of  the  Tuileries, 
The  king  at  St.  Cloud  too  late  decided  to  dismiss  the  unpopular  ministry 
and  revoke  the  Ordinances.  A  municipal  commission,  organized  July  31, 
announced  to  the  royal  messenger  that  the  throne  had  fallen. 

124.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  —  head  of  the  younger  branch  of  the  House 
of  Bourbon  —  had  lived  in  retirement  since  the  Restoration,  choosing  to 
maintain  merely  the  style  of  an  opulent  citizen.  His  sons — to  the  great 
scandal  of  the  king  —  attended  the  public  colleges.  These  circumstances 
enhanced  his  popularity;  he  was  invited  by  the  peers  and  deputies  to 
Paris,  and  many  voices  already  hailed  him  as  the  "Citizen  King."  For 
a  few  days  Louis  Philippe  dissembled  —  accepted  at  once  from  the  gov- 
ernment at  St.  Cloud  and  from  that  at  Paris  the   title  of 

A.  D.  1830. 

Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom,  and  received  from 
Charles  X.  his  abdication  in  favor  of  his  grandson  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux. 
The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  Aug.  3-7,  declared  the  throne  vacant  by  the 
abdication  of  the  Elder  Line  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  and  proceeded  to 
elect  Louis  Philippe  as  "  King  of  the  French."  The  new  title  indicated 
the  fall  of  absolutism,  and  the  establishment  of  the  opposite  principle 
which  makes  the  will  of  the  people  the  source  of  power. 

125.  Charles  3^.  fled  to  Rambouillet  and  thence  to  Great  Britain, 
where  the  palace  of  Holyrood  in  Edinburgh  was  assigned  for  his  resi- 
dence. Before  his  arrival  the  crown  of  England  had  again  been  trans- 
ferred by  death,  this  time  to  William  IV.,  who  succeeded  his  brother, 
George  IV.,  in  June,  1830.  Five  years  earlier  the  Czar  Alexander  had 
died,  and  his  younger  brother,  Nicholas,  was  now  Emperor  of  all  the 
Russias. 

126.  The  French  Revolution  of  1830  w^as  shortly  followed  by  the  in- 
dependence of  Belgium.  The  people  of  the  southern  Netherlands  had 
never  been  cordial  in  their  obedience  to  the  House  of  Orange,  nor  in 
their  union  with  the  Dutch,  from  whom  they  differed  in  religion,  lan- 
guage, and  customs.  A  riot  broke  out  in  the  college  at  Louvain,  and 
the  result  of  the  "July  Days"  in  Paris  only  encouraged  a  spirit  of  in- 
surrection in  other  Belgian  cities.  The  Dutch  troops  were  every-where 
expelled;  a  provisional  government  was  established  in  Brussels;  the 
House  of  Orange-Nassau  was  declared  to  have  forfeited  its  claims  upon 
Belgium.     The  Five  Great  Powers,  by  their  representatives 

in   London,  recognized   the   independence  of  the   southern 
kingdom  and  arranged  the  terms  of  its  separation  from  Holland.     The 
latter  retained  Luxembourg,  but  was  otherwise  confined  within  its  limits 
in   1790.     A  Belgian   Congress  at  Brussels  (June,  1831)  adopted  a  new 
constitution  and  conferred  the  crown  upon  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Co- 


406  MODERN  HISTORY. 

burg.  The  siege  of  Antwerp  by  a  French  army  compelled  the  king  of 
Holland  to  withdraw  his  forces  from  the  Scheldt,  leaving  the  navigation 
of  that  river  open  to  the  Belgians. 

127.  Less  fortunate  was  the  revolt  of  the  Poles  in  Nov.,  1830.  The 
harshness  of  the  grand-duke  Constantine,  viceroy  for  his  brother  the 
Czar,  had  worn  out  the  patience  of  the  people.  They  were  joined  by  the 
Polish  regiments  in  the  Kussian  army;  and  many  princes  and  magnates 
took  part  in  the  rebellion.  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski,  a  descendant  of 
the  ancient  Lithuanian  dukes,  was  to  be  king  of  Poland  in  case  of  suc- 
cess ;  and  to  gain  the  favor  of  foreign  nations  it  was  resolved  to  establish 
a  constitutional  and  hereditary  monarchy.  The  details  of  the  heroic 
struggle  can  not  here  be  related.  The  overwhelming  force  of  the  Czar 
prevailed,  and  Poland  became  a  mere  province  of  Russia.  The  university 
of  Warsaw  was  suppressed;  the  national  archives,  libraries,  and  scientific 
collections  were  removed  to  St.  Petersburg;  the  soldiers  were  enrolled  in 
Russian  regiments.  Eighty  thousand  Poles  were  in  one  year  exiled  to 
the  frozen  deserts  of  Siberia ;  children  were  torn  from  their  parents  and 
carried  away  to  military  colonies.  Religious  persecution  was  added  to 
the  pain  of  national  extinction;  for  the  Greco-Russian  Church  was  made, 
preeminent  in  the  conquered  country. 

128.  The  two  years  following  the  French  and  Belgian  revolutions  were 
marked  by  fresh  efforts  and  triumphs  of  the  Liberals  in  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Germany,  but  in  no  case  with  any  permanent  result.  Francis  I.  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  who  had  succeeded  his  father  Ferdinand  in  1825,  died  in  1830, 
leaving  his  throne  to  his  son  Ferdinand  V.  of  Naples,  but  II.  of  Sicily. 
The  crown  of  Sardinia  devolved  in  1831  upon  Charles  Albert,  Prince  of 
Carignano,  and  the  same  year  Pope  Pius  VIII.  was  succeeded  in  the  chair 
of  St.  Peter  by  Gregory  XVI.  The  two  sons  of  the  ex-king  Louis  of 
Holland  joined  the  insurgents  in  the  papal  states.  The  elder  of  these 
brothers  died  during  the  riots  at  Forli,  leaving  the  younger,  Louis  Na- 
poleon, to  represent  —  after  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt  —  the 
Bonapartist  interests  in  France.  He  escaped  in  disguise  from  Italy  and 
spent  the  next  five  years  with  his  mother.  Queen  Hortense,  at  her  castle 
in  Switzerland.  Perceiving  the  unpopularity  of  Louis  Philippe,  he  in- 
trigued with  the  French  troops  at  Strasbourg  and  suddenly  appearing 
among  them  in  1836,  announced  himself  their  Emperor !  The  rash  at- 
tempt only  covered  him  with  ridicule.  Stripped  of  his  imperial  orna- 
ments, he  was  locked  up  in  the  guard-room  to  await  the  royal  commands. 
Louis  Philippe  allowed  him  to  depart  unmolested  for  the  United  States. 
Making  a  similar  descent  upon  Boulogne,  four  years  later,  he  was  capt- 
ured and  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Ham. 


GREECE  UNDER  THE  TURKS.  407 


I2.EC-A.:E>ITTJL.i^TIOl>r. 

Conflicting  maritime  interests  lead  to  War  of  1812  between  Great  Britain  and  the  T'nited 
States.  American  naval  victories  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Lakes.  Blockade  of  the  coast. 
Washington  burned ;  Baltimore  attacked ;  New  Orleans  victoriously  defended  by  General 
Jackson.    Peace  of  Ghent. 

Humiliation  of  France  after  the  campaign  of  Waterloo.  Balance  of  power  secured  by 
the  Holy  Alliance.  New  German  Confederacy  takes  place  of  the  Empire  and  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine.  Addition  of  territories  to  Austria  and  Prussia;  aggrandizement 
of  Russia  and  Great  Britain ;  restoration  of  France.  Absolutism  of  three  of  the  live  "Great 
Powers."  Reenthronement  of  the  Bourbons  in  Spain  and  Italy.  Independence  of  all 
Spanish  colonies  on  the  American  continent  accomplished,  A.  D.  1810-1821.  Insurrections 
in  Spain ;  absolutism  restored  by  intervention  of  France.  Separation  of  Portugal  from 
Brazil.  Usurpation  by  Don  Miguel ;  accession  of  Marip,  da  Gloria.  Rule  of  the  Carbonari 
at  Naples  ended  by  Austrian  interference.  Discontent  with  Austrian  supremacy  in  Italy, 
Hungary,  and  Bohemia.  Liberalism  in  German  universities.  Assassination  of  Kotzebue. 
Severity  of  the  Commission  of  Inquiry. 

Accession  of  Charles  XIV.  in  Sweden ;  George  IV.  in  England ;  Pope  Leo  XII. ;  and 
Charles  X.  in  France.  Despotic  acts  of  the  latter  lead  to  his  dethronement  in  the  Three 
Days'  Revolution,  18:^0 ;  Louis  Philippe  becomes  King  of  the  French  ;  Leopold  I.  of  Bel- 
gium ;  Poland  a  province  of  Russia.  Revolutions  of  1830  usually  folloAved  by  triumph  of 
absolutism.  Vain  attempts  of  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  at  Strasbourg  and  Boulogne ; 
his  captivity  at  Ham. 

The  Greek  Eevolution. 

129.  We  have  reserved  for  a  more  connected  narrative  the  twelve 
years'  conflict  wliich  resulted  in  the  independence  of  the  Greeks.  For 
nearly  four  hundred  years  that  brave  people  had  borne  the  yoke  of  serv- 
itude to  a  race  alien  in  religion  and  inferior  in  civilization  to  themselves. 
Turkish  officials,  hardly  less  violent  and  rapacious  than  the  highwaymen 
whose  robberies  they  permitted  and  whose  spoils  they  shared,  ruled  the 
land.  But  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  apparently  tottering  to  its  fall.  The 
Turks  in  Europe  numbered  scarcely  two  millions,  while  their  Christian 
subjects  of  various  nationalities  exceeded  eleven  millions.  If  these  had 
been  able  to  combine  they  might  have  thrown  off  the  foreign  dominion ; 
but  differences  of  race  and  language  prevented  a  concentration  of  their 
forces.  Of  the  four  distinct  races  inhabiting  Turkey  in  Europe,  the 
Sclavonians  of  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Bosnia,  the  Herzegovina,  and  Montenegro 
were  by  far  the  most  numerous.  The  Roumanians  of  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia  numbered  four  millions;  the  Albanians,  inhabiting  ancient  Epirus, 
only  a  million  and  a  half.  It  was  reserved  for  the  Greeks,  the  least 
numerous  of  all,  first  to  achieve  their  independence. 

130.  Zeal  for  their  Church  had  done  much  to  preserve  the  separate 
nationality  of  the  Greeks.  The  Mainotes  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the 
mountaineers  of  the  Thessalian  border  had  never  submitted  to  the  Turks, 
but  continued  to  bear  arms  in  their  own  defense.  Beside  these,  multi- 
tudes of  the  more  adventurous  had  betaken  themselves  to  a  wild  sort  of 
outlawry,  and  under  the  name  of  Klephts  or  Robbers,  waged  a  predatory 


408  MODERN  HISTORY. 

warfare  upon  the  Turkish  villages,  easily  escaping  to  their  eyries  among 
the  mountains  whenever  they  were  pursued.  The  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century  was  marked  by  a  great  revival  of  Hellenic  genius.  The  fires  of 
patriotism  were  rekindled  in  every  Greek  heart  by  increased  acquaintance 
with  the  history  of  the  ancient  heroes;  and  a  secret  society,  called  the 
Hetseria,  united  all  Hellenes,  however  separated  by  distance,  in  a  resolu- 
tion to  strike  off  the  hated  yoke  of  the  oppressor.  Catherine  II.  had 
availed  herself  of  the  dawn  of  this  enthusiasm  in  order  to  further  her 
own  plans  against  the  Porte ;  but  when  at  her  call  the  whole  Hellenic 
race  had  sprung  to  arms  for  the  recovery  of  their  liberty,  the  crafty  em- 
press abandoned  them  to  the  vengeance  of  the  Turks,  and  the  sedition 
was  quenched  in  blood.  Alexander  I.,  in  his  zeal  for  the  restoration  of 
absolutism,  had  no  sympathy  to  spare  to  oppressed  members  of  his  own 
Church.  The  Holy  Alliance  in  its  successive  congresses  at  Laybach  and 
Verona  condemned  all  revolutionary  movements,  alike  in  Greece,  Italy, 
and  Spain,  and  uttered  the  cruel  command,  "Let  the  Greek  rebels  obey 
their  lawful  sovereign."  *  The  beginning  of  the  struggle  was  therefore 
left  to  the  unaided  valor  of  the  oppressed  people. 

131.  The  first  blow  was  struck  by  Prince  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  leader 
of  the  Hetaeria,  who  in  March,  1821,  proclaimed  that  all  the  Greeks  re- 
nounced their  allegiance  to  the  Turks.  The  people  of  the  peninsula  and 
the  islands  sprang  to  arms  at  his  call.  But  the  first  movements  were 
disastrous.  The  news  of  the  revolt  was  followed  in  Constantinople  by  a 
general  massacre  of  the  Greek  inhabitants  of  the  capital.  The  venerable 
patriarch  Gregorios,  with  three  bishops  and  eight  priests,  was  hanged  in 
his  robes  before  the  gate  of  the  church  in  which  he  had  just  been  offici- 
ating. The  Sacred  Band  —  a  regiment  of  students  who  bore  upon  their 
shields  the  Spartan  motto,  "Either  this  or  on  this"  —  lost  four  hundred 
of  its  members  at  the  fatal  battle  of  Dragaschan,  June  19,  1821.  About 
the  same  time  a  small  number  of  Klephts  withstood  an  overwhelming 
Turkish  force  near  Thermopylae.  All  but  eighteen  at  length  perceived 
the  hopelessness  of  the  contest  and  retired  to  their  mountains;  but  this 
handful  stood  their  ground,  killing  many  times  their  own  number,  until 
all  were  either  killed  or  taken.  Several  towns  in  southern  Greece  were 
besieged  and  taken  by  the  insurgents,  the  most  important  being  Tripo- 
litza,  the  Turkish  capital  of  Morea. 

132.  In  January,  1822,  the  first  national  congress  of  new  Hellas  pro- 
claimed at  Epidaurus  the  national  independence,  and  adopted  a  provis- 


*"  As  if,"  says  Prof.  Fclton.  ''at  any  moment  of  the  four  centuries  of  their  enslavement 
there  was  a  single  element  of  legal  sovereignty  in  the  oppressive  rule  of  the  Turks;  a 
single  moment  when  the  Christian  victims  had  not  a  right  to  use  every  means  within 
their  reach  to  reclaim  the  freedom  theirs  by  inheritance  and  ravished  from  them  by 
overpowering  wrong." 


WAR  OF  GREEK  I^' DEPENDENCE.  409 

ional  constitution.  Alexander  Mavrocordatos  was  the  first  president.  In 
the  following  spring  Scio  became  the  chief  object  of  the  vengeance  of 
the  Turks.  To  avenge  an  insurrection,  men,  women,  and  children  were 
subjected  to  indiscriminate  massacre.  More  than  40,000  perished;  thou- 
sands of  the  most  accomplished  were  carried  away  to  the  slave-markets  of 
Smyrna  and  Constantinople.  The  grief  and  indignation  of  the  Greeks  soon 
found  vent  in  action ;  in  an  encounter  with  their  fire-ships  the  author  of 
the   massacre  and  2,000  of  his  followers  were  slain. 

The  next  year  was  signalized  by  the  gallant  attack  of  Marco  Bozzaris 
and  his  Suliote  band  upon  a  Turkish  camp.  Bozzaris  fell,  but  the  fame 
of  his  valor  contributed  greatly  to  awaken  sympathy  in  Europe  and 
America.  Though  governments  were  still  indifferent,  and  those  embraced 
in  the  Holy  Alliance  even  expelled  the  wretched  Greek  fugitives  from 
their  borders,  the  people  sent  supplies  of  money,  arms,  and  men  to  aid 
in  the  combat  for  freedom.  Classical  enthusiasm  quickened  the  zeal  of 
the  educated  classes ;  and  so,  at  last,  the  ancient  orators  achieved  against 
the  Moslem  what  they  had  in  vain  attempted  against  the  Macedonian 
tyrant.  Foremost  of  the  Philhcllenes  was  Lord  Byron,  who  resolved  to 
devote  his  fortune  and  talents  to  a  great  cause.  His  death  at  Misso- 
longhi,  April,  1824,  filled  all  Greece  with  sorrow. 

133.  The  Sultan,  unable  to  reduce  the  Greeks  with  his  own  forces, 
called  in  Mehemet  Ali,  the  almost  independent  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  whom 
he  won  to  his  service  by  an  offer  of  making  Mehemet's  step-son,  Ibrahim, 
Pacha  of  the  Morea.  That  peninsula  became  the  scene  of  a  frightful  series 
of  ravages;  men  were  slaughtered,  women  and  children  sent  as  slaves  to 
Egypt.  Missolonghi  was  besieged  five  months  and  taken  in  spite  of  its 
heroic  defense.  The  next  year  Athens  fell,  and  hope  seemed  to  expire. 
But  changes  had  meanwhile  occurred  in  several  European  courts.  The 
Holy  Alliance  had  been  shaken  by  the  death  of  Alexander  I. ;  his  brother 
Nicholas  was  more  zealous  in  protecting  his  co-religionists,  and  perhaps 
more  ambitious  of  conquest  from  the  Turks.  France  and  England, 
alarmed  by  the  aggrandizement  of  the  able  and  ambitious 
Mehemet,  joined  with  Russia  in  a  plan  for  intervention. 
The  Sultan  refused  even  to  receive  their  communication,  and  the  three 
powers  immediately  increased  and  combined  their  naval  forces  in  the 
Mediterranean.  On  the  20th  of  October  the  allied  fleet  encountered 
that  of  the  Turks  and  Egyptians  in  the  Bay  of  Navarino,  and  after  a 
severe  engagement  of  four  hours,  won  a  decisive  victory. 

This  timely  and  unexpected  aid  revived  the  spirit  of  the  Greeks.  Their 
newly  elected  president.  Capo  d'Istrias,  was  now  on  a  visit  to  the  capitals 
of  the  three  allies,  where  he  was  able  to  negotiate  a  loan  which  relieved 
the  most  urgent  necessities  of  his  government.  The  next  year  the  Czar 
declared  war  against  the  Sultan,  and  his  invasion  of   the  provinces  on 


410  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  Danube  forced  that  sovereign  to  accept  terms  of  accommodation,  and 
by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the 
Greeks. 

134.  To  secure  the  permanency  of  a  deliverance  so  hardly  won,  it  was 
resolved  to  give  Greece  a  ruler  from  one  of  the  reigning  families  of 
Europe.  Among  many  candidates,  the  choice  fell  at  last  upon  Otho, 
second  son  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  who  was  welcomed  at  Nauplia,  Feb., 
1833,  by  the  joyful  acclamations  of  the  people.  Two  years  later  the  seat 
of  government  was  fixed  at  Athens.  The  purpose  of  the  allies  had  doubt- 
less been  to  invest  Otho  with  an  arbitrary  sovereignty  ;  but  in  1843  a 
peaceful  revolution  resulted  in  the  convoking  of  a  representative  assem- 
bly to  which  the  king  conceded  its  just  share  in  the  government.  In 
1863,  the  Bavarian  dynasty  was  expelled  and  Prince  George  of  Denmark 
became  King  of  Hellas.  The  next  year  Great  Britain  abandoned  her 
fifty  years'  protectorate  —  which  had  really  amounted  to  a  sovereignty  — 
of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  they  were  added  to  the  dominion  of  Greece. 

135.  Mehemet  Ali  had  been  rewarded  for  his  services  in  the  Greek 
revolution  by  the  sovereignty  of  Crete.  His  ambition  still  unsatisfied,  he 
sent  his  son  Ibrahim,  in  1831,  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Syria.  The 
rapid  progress  of  the  invader  alarmed  the  Sultan  Mahmoud,  who  has- 
tened to  ally  himself  with  Russia,  and  subsequently  with  England  and 
France.  His  forces  were  defeated,  1839,  at  Nisibis  on  the  Euphrates,  and 
a  few  days  later  the  Sultan  died.  His  son  and  successor,  Abdul  Medjid, 
was  but  seventeen  years  of  age;  and  the  French  government  desired  to 
place  upon  the  throne  the  more  able  and  experienced  Mehemet,  or  at 
least  to  make  him  the  independent  sovereign  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Eng- 
land united  with  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  to  oppose  this  arrangement. 
The  allied  forces  defeated  Ibrahim  at  Kaleb  Medina,  and  captured  Acre 
for  the  Turks.  By  the  Treaty  of  London,  1840,  Crete  and  Syria  were 
restored  to  the  Porte;  and  English  influence,  ably  represented  by  Sir 
Stratford  Canning  —  afterward  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe  —  for  many 
years  controlled  the  counsels  of  the  Sultan. 

136.  Meanwhile  important  revolutions  were  preparing  in  western 
Europe.  Louis  Philippe  had  a  difficult  if  not  an  impossible  part  to 
play.  Legitimists  denounced  him  as  a  usurper,  Republicans  as  a  tyrant, 
Bonapartists  as  ruling  in  defiance  of  the  will  of  the  people.  But  his 
prudent  management,  strengthened  by  close  alliances  with  England, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  secured  several  years  of  peace  and  prosperity.  The 
responsibility  of  ministers  for  all  the  acts  of  the  government,  and  the 
ultimate  supremacy  of  the  people  as  represented  in  parliament,  were  as 
firmly  established  in  France  as  in  England.  The  attempt  of  the  Duchess 
of  Berri  to  excite  rebellions  in  the  western  provinces  in  favor  of  her  son 
rather  increased  than  diminished  the  popularity  of  the  king.     M.  Theirs, 


CARLISTS  AND  CHBISTINOS  M  SPAIN.  411 

at  the  head  of  the  ministry,  managed  to  absorb  the  attention  of  the 
dangerous  classes  in  the  pursuit  of  glory  abroad,  by  making  war  against 
the  wandering  Kabyles  who  still  claimed  the  interior  of  Algeria.  The 
severest  shock  that  the  new  dynasty  had  yet  sustained  was  the  death  of 
the  king's  eldest  son,  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  The  next  heir  was  less  than 
four  years  old;  and  the  prospect  of  a  long  minority  in  the  present  un- 
settled state  of  affairs  was  disastrous.  The  intervention  of  the  king  in 
Spanish  affairs  added  the  displeasure  of  foreign  courts  to  the  discontent 
of  his  own  people. 

137.  Ferdinand  VII.  had  died  in  1833,  leaving  two  little  daughters, 
the  eldest  of  whom  was  scarcely  three  years  of  age.  By  a  Pragmatic 
Sanction  in  1830,  he  had  annulled  the  law  which  excluded  women  from 
the  throne  of  Spain;  but  during  the  mental  feebleness  which  attended 
his  last  days,  his  brother  Don  Carlos  had  either  forged  or  extorted  from 
him  a  revocation  of  that  Sanction,  and  proceeded,  upon  Ferdinand's 
death,  to  assert  his  own  claim  to  the  crown.  Spain  was  thus  divided 
between  two  parties,  the  Carlists  or  "serviles,"  and  the  Christines  or  lib- 
erals, who  supported  the  regency  of  the  queen-mother,  Christina  of  Naples. 
England  and  France  favored  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  while  the  northern 
powers  with  the  Pope  refused  to  recognize  it.  The  Christines  ultimately 
prevailed,  and  the  young  queen,  Isabella  II.,  was  duly  acknowledged. 
Don  Carlos,  however,  maintained  for  six  years  a  formidable  force  of  ad- 
herents, and  in  1837  even  attempted  the  capture  of  Madrid.  He  was  de- 
feated by  the  queen's  general,  Espartero ;  and  in  1840  the  Carlists  in  the 
Biscayan  provinces  were  wholly  suppressed. 

138.  The  destiny  of  Spain  seemed  to  hang  upon  the  marriage  of  the 
queen.  Her  union  with  the  Count  of  Montemolin,  the  son  and  heir  of 
Don  Carlos,  would  have  united  all  claims  to  the  crown  and  restored 
peace  to  the  country;  but  France  and  England  opposed  the  alliance. 
Louis  Philippe  desired  to  strengthen  his  dynasty  by  a  connection  with 
that  of  Spain.  He  selected  for  the  husband  of  Isabella,  her  cousin,  the 
half-idiotic  Francisco  of  Assis,  while  he  married  his  son,  the  Duke  of 
Montpensier,  to  her  sister  Maria  Louisa,  who  from  her  more  robust  health 
had  every  prospect  of  outliving  the  queen.  This  deeply  laid  scheme  did 
not  however  confirm  the  power  of  the  French  king,  but  rather  under- 
mined it,  by  alienating  the  confidence  of  his  allies. 

139.  The  scarcity  of  the  years  1846  and  1847  aggravated  the  uneasi- 
ness in  France.  The  Liberal  party  began  to  make  its  power  felt  in  re- 
form banquets,  at  one  of  which  near  Paris  in  1847,  the  king's  health  was 
omitted,  but  the  "sovereignty  of  the  people"  was  received  with  shouts 
of  applause.  Guizot,  who  had  long  before  succeeded  Thiers  at  the  head 
of  the  ministry,  represented  high  monarchical  principles;  and  Thiers,  by 
way  of  political  opposition,  encouraged  the  popular  discontent.     A  grand 


412  MODERN  HISTORY. 

reform  banquet  had  been  announced  for  Feb.  22,  1848;  and  it  was  ex- 
pected that  100,000  people  would  be  present  in  the  Champs  Elysees. 
The  government  prepared  to  prevent  the  meeting  by  force ;  the  guns  of 
the  forts  were  pointed  inward  upon  the  city;  and  an  army  of  nearly 
60,000  men  was  massed  in  the  neighborhood.  A  mob  now  appeared  in 
the  streets,  composed  of  those  squalid,  hideous,  half-human  inhabitants 
of  the  Parisian  cellars,  who  are  never  seen  except  in  times  of  revolution, 
and  then  constitute  its  worst  elements.  They  erected  barricades,  and 
uttered  the  cry,  terrible  in  the  ears  of  despots,  and  unheard  for  forty- 
four  years  in  France,  "Long  live  the  Republic !^^ 

140.  The  king  and  his  sons  escaped  from  Paris  and  found  a  refuge  in 
England.  The  widowed  Duchess  of  Orleans,  leading  her  little  son,  the 
heir  to  the  crown,  presented  herself  calm  and  undaunted  before  the 
tumultuous  assembly  of  the  two  Chambers.  She  reminded  the  deputies 
of  her  husband,  whom  all  men  had  trusted,  and  promised  that  her  son 
should  fulfill  the  promises  which  his  grandfather  had  broken.  A  voice 
from  the  tribune  declared  as  in  the  case  of  Charles  X.,  "  It  is  too  late," 

and  a  Republic  was  proclaimed.  A  provisional  government 
was  formed,  consisting  of  Lamartine,  Dupont  de  I'Eure, 
Arago,  Ledru-Rollin,  Marie,  Garnier-Pages,  and  Cremieux.  The  elo- 
quence of  Lamartine  was  exerted  with  marked  effect  in  the  preservation 
of  order.  The  mob,  however,  took  possession  of  the  Tuileries,  made  a  bon- 
fire of  the  throne,  planted  "trees  of  Liberty"  in  all  public  places,  and 
clamored  for  a  Red  Republic  under  Ledru-Rollin.  But  the  better  class 
of  the  people,  instructed  by  experience,  firmly  opposed  these  irregulari- 
ties;  100,000  National  Guards  declared  for  the  provisional  government, 
and  shouted,  "  Down  with  Communism ! "  Some  of  the  most  violent 
Socialists  were  sentenced  to  exile  or  imprisonment. 

141,  Among  the  first  and  least  considerate  acts  of  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment had  been  the  establishment  of  national  workshops,  where  all 
who  applied  found  employment  and  wages.  Private  manufactures  were 
ruined ;  for  the  state,  supported  by  taxation,  could  easily  outbid  the 
wages  which  they  were  able  to  pay;  and  the  public  workmen,  soon  num- 
bering 100,000,  became  a  dangerous  political  institution.  The  attempt  to 
abate  this  peril  by  dismissing  a  great  number  of  men,  led  to  a  terrible 
four  days'  battle  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  General  Cavaignac  was  ap- 
pointed Dictator  with  unlimited  powers;  but  as  soon  as  order  was  re- 
stored by  a  victory  of  the  National  Guards,  he  resigned  that  office  and 
was  named  President  of  the  Council.  For  the  new  Assembly,  Louis 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  —  who  had  escaped  in  1846  from  his  imprisonment 
at  Ham  —  was  elected  as  a  member  from  Paris  as  well  as  from  four 
provincial  departments.  The  new  constitution  requiring  a  President 
chosen  for  a  term  of  four  years,  he  received  an  overwhelming  majority 


BE  VOL  UTIONS  OF  1 848.  413 

of  votes.     He  took  the  prescribed  oaths,  Dec.  20,  1848,  and  the  Provis- 
ional Government  was  superseded  by  the  Second  French  Republic. 

142.  Before  describing  the  revolutions  of  1848  in  other  countries  of 
Europe,  we  briefly  state  the  changes  of  sovereigns  during  the  preceding 
twelve  years.  William  IV.  died  at  London,  1837,  and  the  crown  of  the 
United  Kingdom  devolved  upon  Victoria,  daughter  of  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Kent.  That  of  Hanover  being  limited  to  the  male  line,  de- 
scended to  a  younger  brother,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.*  Frederic 
William  III.  of  Prussia  closed  his  long  and  humiliating  reign  in  1840. 
His  son,  Frederic  William  IV.,  summoned  a  Diet,  and  made  some  other 
concessions  to  the  demands  of  his  people.  In  Sweden  the  beneficent  rule 
of  Charles  XIV.  (Bernadotte)  was  followed  by  the  accession  of  his  son 
Oscar  in  1844.  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  died,  1846,  and  Cardinal  Mastai  Fer- 
retti,  having  received  the  votes  of  the  conclave,  assumed  the  tiara  with 
the  name  of  Pius  IX. 

143.  The  " Schleswig-Holstein  question"  already  began  to  agitate  the 
northern  countries.  If  the  only  son  of  Christian  VIII.  of  Denmark 
should  die  without  heirs,  the  crown  of  that  kingdom  would  devolve  upon 
the  dowager-landgravine  of  Hesse.  The  two  duchies,  however,  by  their 
ancient  constitutions,  could  not  be  inherited  by  a  woman ;  and  a  strong 
German  party  claimed  them  for  Duke  Christian  of  Augustenburg,  head 
of  a  collateral  branch  of  the  Danish  house.  Holstein  was  a  member  of 
the  German  Confederation,  and  its  affairs  were  therefore  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Diet  at  Frankfort.  Schleswig,  on  the  contrary,  had  be- 
longed, more  than  eight  hundred  years,  to  Denmark,  but  the  desire  of 
a  great  proportion  of  its  people  for  union  with  Holstein  and  admission 
into  the  Confederacy,  awakened  a  strong  interest  in  Germany.  King 
Christian  opposed  the  German  party  by  issuing  letters-patent  extending 
the  Danish  law  of  female  succession  to  his  ducal  dominions.  His  death, 
Jan.,  1848,  was  shortly  followed  by  a  revolt  of  the  two  duchies,  aided  by 
Prussia  and  Hanover  with  the  approval  of  the  Frankfort  Diet. 

144.  The  news  of  the  events  at  Paris  set  all  Europe  in  a  blaze.  The 
long  smoldering  conflict  between  absolute  and  popular  principles  of  gov- 
ernment became  open  and  violent.  All  the  races  subject  to  Austria  — 
Magyar,  Slavonian,  and  Italian  —  rose  in  revolt,  and  the  emperor  was 
forced  to  yield  the  general  demand  by  dismissing  Prince  Metternich  and 
granting  a  free  press,  a  national  guard,  and  liberal  constitutions  to  the 
several  members  of  the  empire.  Similar  insurrections  in  Prussia,  Hanover, 
Saxony,  Wirtemberg  and  several  smaller  states  were  met  by  similar  con- 


*This  Idng,  Ernest  Augustus,  was  one  of  the  most  extreme  of  absolutists.  On  his  ar- 
rival in  Hanover  he  refused  to  receive  the  congratulations  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
annulled  the  representative  constitution,  and  ejected  some  of  the  best  professors  in  the 
University  of  Gottingcn  for  their  liberal  opinions. 


414  MODERN  HISTORY, 

cessions.  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  who  in  many  ways  had  forfeited  the 
confidence  of  his  subjects,  resigned  the  crown  to  his  son  Maximilian  II. 
A  party  in  Baden  and  other  states,  aided  by  "free  bands"  in  Switzer- 
land, desired  a  Republic.  Switzerland  herself  had  lately  passed  through 
a  crisis  of  opposition  between  the  Jesuit  or  reactionary  party  and  the 
Liberals.  Seven  Catholic  cantons  formed  a  separate  League 
and  appealed  to  arms,  but  they  were  defeated  by  a  Federal 
force  under  General  Dufour ;  and  ultimately  the  Jesuits  were  expelled, 
the  convents  broken  up  and  the  *'  Sonderbund "  dissolved.  Warned  by 
this  peril,  the  Swiss  increased  the  strength  of  their  federal  government 
by  adopting  a  new  constitution,  modeled,  with  slight  variations,  upon 
that  of  the  United  States. 

145.  In  Germany  the  Eepublican  project  made  little  impression.  A 
National  Parliament  at  Frankfort,  after  declaring  the  "fundamental 
rights  of  the  German  people,"  resolved  to  reunite  the  several  states  under 
an  imperial  head,  and  ultimately  offered  the  sovereignty  to  the  king  of 
Prussia.  Events  had  long  been  pointing  toward  Prussian  leadership  in 
German  affairs,  since  in  1819  a  Zollverein  or  Customs-union,  founded  by 
Frederic  William  III.,  had  begun  to  combine  the  commercial  relations  of 
the  different  states  in  a  uniform  system.     In  spite  of  the  urgent  request 

of  the  Prussian  Estates,  Frederic  William  IV.  refused  the 
imperial  crown,  and  the  consummation,  then  doubtless  de- 
sired by  a  majority  of  the  German  people,  was  delayed  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  century.  Willing,  however,  to  make  his  power  felt,  the  king  not 
only  renewed  his  war  against  Denmark,  interrupted  a  few  months  by  the 
truce  of  Malmo,  but  sent  armies  to  put  down  democratic  risings  in  Sax- 
ony, Baden,  and  Wirtemberg.  He  proposed  also  to  satisfy  the  demand  for 
German  unity  by  a  new  imperial  constitution  similar  to  that  of  Frank- 
fort, but  placing  the  three  kings  of  Prussia,  Hanover,  and  Saxony  at  its 
head.  The  last  two  sovereigns,  however,  soon  departed  from  the  agree- 
ment, and  the  bond  of  union  among  the  German  states  remained  for 
some  years  slighter  than  ever.  The  Schleswig-Holstein  question  —  after 
several  battles  and  sieges  which  we  have  not  room  to  recount  —  was  at 
least  temporarily  disposed  of  by  a  marriage  of  Prince  Christian  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein-Glucksburg  with  a  Princess  of  Hesse,  and  a  treaty  signed 
at  London,  in  1852,  by  most  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  providing  for 
the  union  of  the  whole  Danish  dominion  in  their  family. 

146.  The  power  of  the  Hapsburgs  had  meanwhile  been  shaken  to  its 
foundations.  In  March,  1848,  a  Hungarian  deputation  with  Kossuth  at 
their  head  arrived  at  Vienna,  bearing  a  demand  for  the  complete  separa- 
tion of  their  country  from  Austria  in  all  matters  9f  war,  finances,  and 
foreign  relations,  not  less  than  in  the  ministry  and  Diet  which  were 
already  distinct.     This  was  a  movement  of  the  Magyars  —  the  dominant 


HUNGARIAN  REPUBLIC  PROCLAIMED.  416 

%■ 
race  in  Hungary  —  and  it  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  Croats  and  Sla- 
vonians, who  were  already  offended  by  the  use  of  the  Magyar  language  in 
the  Diet  and  courts  of  law.  Jellachich,  Ban  of  Croatia,  raised  an  army 
in  support  of  the  imperial  government.  The  democrats  of  Vienna,  on 
the  contrary,  took  part  with  the  Magyars,  and  prevented  the  march  of 
an  imperial  army  into  Hungary.  Latour,  the  war-minister,  was  beaten 
to  death  by  the  mob,  and  the  emperor   tied   into  Moravia, 

....  Oct.,  1848. 

leaving  his  capital  in  their  hands.  It  was  besieged  three 
weeks  and  at  length  taken  by  storm,  by  the  imperial  army,  reinforced 
by  Jellachich  and  his  Croats.  Meanwhile  the  archduke  Stephen  had  re- 
signed his  office  as  Palatine  of  Hungary,  and  Count  Lemberg,  who  was 
sent  by  the  emperor  to  dissolve  the  Diet  was  assassinated  on  the  bridge 
of  Pesth.  Kossuth,  as  President  of  the  Committee  of  National  Defense, 
became  leader  of  the  Revolution. 

147.  The  timid  and  vacillating  Ferdinand  I.  resigned  the  imperial 
crown,  Dec.  2.,  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph.  The  first  care 
of  the  new  emperor  was  the  reduction  of  Hungary,  which  he  committed 
to  Prince  Windischgratz,  the  captor  of  Vienna.  At  his  approach,  Kos- 
suth abandoned  Pesth,  carrying  with  him  the  crown  of  St.  Stephen,  and 
tried,  by  retreating,  to  draw  the  Austrians  after  him  into  the  interior  of 
the  country.  Many  Poles  threw  themselves  with  zeal  into  the  Hungarian 
cause,  and  the  Czar  Nicholas  offered  his  aid  to  Francis  Joseph,  fearing 
lest  the  success  of  the  rebels  should  lead  to  a  similar  effort  in  his  own 
lately  subjugated  province.  The  Austrians  were  nevertheless  defeated  at 
Waitzen  and  Gran,  and  encountered  every-where  a  spirited  and  able  re- 
sistance. The  court  at  Vienna  decreed  the  extinction  of  Hungarian 
nationality;  the  Diet  at  Debreczin  retorted  by  deposing  the  House  of 
Hapsburg-Lorraine,  and  proclaiming  a  Eepublic  with  Kossuth  at  its  head. 
An  overwhelming  force  was  now  concentrated  from  the  north,  west,  and 
south  upon  Hungary.  Windischgratz  was  superseded  by  the  brutal  field- 
marshal  Haynau,  who  had  lately  ended  the  insurrection  in  Lombardy. 
His  victory  at  Temesvar  crushed  the  hopes  of  the  patriots;  Kossuth  re- 
signed his  office,  and  Gorgei  was  made  Dictator.  The  military  genius  of  • 
Gorgei  had  been  proved  on  many  a  battle-field ;   but  he  was  probably  a 

traitor  at  heart  —  within  two  davs  of  his  appointment  he  .        ,„,„ 

,  Aug.,  18-19. 

delivered  up  his  army  and  artillery  to  the  Russians.     All 

was  lost.     Kossuth  with  a  few  followers  found   refuge  with  the  Turks; 

and  the  Sultan  refused  all  the  demands  of  Russia  and  Austria  for  their 

surrender. 

148.  Italy,  meanwhile,  had  her  full  share  of  revolutions.  A  secret 
league,  called  Young  Italy,  organized  by  Mazzini,  had  for  its  object  the 
expulsion  of  all  foreign  rulers  from  the  peninsula.  The  liberal  measures 
adopted  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  at  his  accession,  led  to  the  hope  that  like 


416  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Julius  II.,  though  in  a  happier  spirit,  he  would  become  the  champion 
of  the  unity  and  independence  of  Italy;  and  a  step  in  this  direction 
seemed  actually  to  have  been  taken  by  the  formation  of  a  Customs- 
union  between  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  and  the  States  of  the  Church.  In 
almost  all  the  Italian  states,  as  in  Germany,  representative  constitutions 
were  granted,  after  more  or  less  resistance,  to  the  demands  of  the  people. 
The  Sicilians  elected  the  Duke  of  Genoa  to  be  their  king,  and  for  more 
than  a  year  maintained  a  war  for  independence  against  the  odious  gov- 
ernment of  Ferdinand  V.  of  Naples. 

149.  In  Austrian  Italy,  the  archduke  Eainer  was  viceroy,  and  Marshal 
Radetzki,  a  veteran  of  eighty-two  years,  commanded  the  armies.  In 
March,  1848,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Milan ;  barricades  were  erected, 
and  a  four  days'  fight  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians.  Charles 
Albert  of  Sardinia  marched  with  his  whole  army  to  the  aid  of  the  in- 
surgents, occupied  Milan,  and  pursued  Radetzki  to  a  strong  position  be- 
tween the  Mincio  and  the  Adige,  where  he  waited,  hoping  that  the  sov- 
ereignty of  upper  Italy  might  fall  into  his  hands  without  a  blow.  The 
Austrian  garrisons  of  Brescia  and  several  important  places  surrendered 

to  the  insurgents;  Venice  expelled  her  foreign  rulers  and 
proclaimed  a  restoration  of  the  Republic.  In  June  and 
July,  both  Lombardy  and  Venice  declared  themselves  annexed  to  Sar- 
dinia. Meanwhile  Radetzki,  being  reinforced,  was  able  to  resume  the 
offensive.  After  a  victory  at  Custozza  he  recovered  Milan;  and  in  spite 
of  the  brave  resistance  of  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers,  all  Lombardy 
submitted  before  the  middle  of  August  to  the  Austrian  rule.  Venice 
was  only  reduced  by  a  severe  and  disastrous  siege  of  more  than  a  year, 
during  which  the  Austrians  lost  20,000  men  chiefly  by  the  fevers  occa- 
sioned by  the  malaria  of  the  marshes.     Aug.  22.,  1849. 

150.  In  the  spring  of  1849,  Radetzki  invaded  Sardinia,  and  gained  so 
signal  a  victory  at  Novara,  that  Charles  Albert  in  despair  resigned  his 
crown  to  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  who  immediately  made  a  truce 
with  the  Austrians.  The  liberal  dispositions  of  the  Pope,  meanwhile, 
were  far  outrun  by  the  demands  of  the  people.  The  latter  clamored  for 
a  declaration  of  war  against  Austria,  in  the  interest  of  the  Lombard  in- 
surgents. Attempting  to  conciliate  all  sides,  Pius  was  suspected  of  favor- 
ing the  foreign  tyrants.  His  minister,  Count  Rossi,  was  murdered;  and 
he  himself  was  attacked  in  his  palace  on  the  Quirinal,  which  was  taken 
by  storm,  but  not  until  the  Pope  had  escaped  in  a  servant's  livery  and 
found  refuge  at  Gauta.     Garibaldi  entered  Rome  with  an  army  of  Italian 

volunteers;    a  general  Constituent   Assembly  was   opened, 

whose  first  act  was   to   depose   the   Pope  and  proclaim  a 

Roman   Republic.     The  chief  mover  was  Mazzini,  who  with   Armellini 

and  Safi&  constituted  the  executive  power  of  the  new  Republic.     Prince 


ROME  TAKEN  BY  THE  FRENCH.  417 

Charles  of  Canino,  a  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  was  another  of  the  leaders, 
but  his  cousin,  the  French  president,  disavowed  his  proceedings,  and  sent 
an  army  to  the  aid  of  the  Pope.  Marshal  Oudinot  was  defeated  by  Gari- 
baldi before  the  walls  of  Rome,  but  he  gained  time  by  negotiations  until 
reinforcements  could  arrive,  and  the  city  was  taken,  July  3,  1849.  Maz- 
zini  and  Garibaldi  escaped,  and  a  government  was  reestablished  in  the 
name  of  the  Pope,  who,  however,  chose  to  remain  at  Gaeta  until  April, 
1850,  rather  than  occupy  his  capital  under  foreign  protection. 

During  380  years  of  Turkish  rule,  bands  of  Greek  mountaineers  and  Klephts  maintained 
a  partial  Independence.  Society  of  Hetseria  (founded  before  1798,  revived,  181G)  concerts 
plans  of  revolt.  Hostility  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  Proclamation  by  Ypsilanti ;  massacre  of 
Greelis  at  Constantinople ;  destruction  of  Sacred  Eand  at  Dragaschan ;  bravery  of  Klephts 
at  Thermopylyc.  Congress  at  Epidaurus  adopts  provisional  government.  Massacre  at  Scio. 
Death  of  ]\Iarco  Bozzaris.  Arrival  of  Byron  and  other  Phllhellenes.  Invasion  of  INIorea  by 
Mehemet  Ali ;  capture  of  Missolonghi  and  Athens.  Victory  of  English,  French,  and  Rus- 
sian fleets  at  Navarino.  Invasion  of  Turkey  by  the  Czar.  Treaty  of  Adrianople  recognizes 
the  independence  of  the  Greeks.  Otho  of  Bavaria  reigns  thirty  years  as  King  of  Hellas, 
and  is  superseded  by  George  of  Denmark.  Conquest  of  Syria  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  calls  for 
interference  of  the  western  powers.  Treaty  of  London  restores  Crete  and  Syria  to  Turkey. 
English  influence  predominant  at  Constantinople. 

Embarrassments  of  Louis  Philipj^e.  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Intervention  in 
domestic  affairs  of  Spain,  where  Carlists  and  Christinos  dispute  the  crown  after  the  death 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  Reform  banquets  threaten  the  French  government.  Guizot  at  head 
of  the  ultra-royalist,  Thiers  of  the  moderate  or  constitutional  party.  Military  interference 
occasions  the  outbreak  of  revolution.  The  royal  family  escape.  Provisional  government 
declared.  National  workshops  opened.  Attempt  to  control  them  leads  to  riot,  during 
which  Cavaignac  is  Dictator.    Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  becomes  President. 

Accessions  of  Victoria  in  England,  Ernest  Augustus  in  Hanover,  Frederic  William  IV. 
in  Prussia,  Oscar  in  Sweden,  Frederic  VII.  in  Denmark.  Revolt  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
with  the  aid  of  the  Germans.  Revolutions  of  1848  extend  to  Prussia,  Austria,  Hungary, 
Switzerland,  and  all  the  German  and  Italian  states.  King  of  Prussia  refuses  the  imperial 
crown.  Croats  and  Slavonians  of  Hungary  fight  against  the  Magyars,  while  revolutionists 
in  Austria  take  their  part.  Flight  of  the  emperor,  assassination  of  Latour  at  Vienna  and 
of  Lcmberg  at  Pesth.  Siege  and  storm  of  Vienna  by  imperial  army.  Abdication  of  Ferdi- 
nand I.,  accession  of  Francis  Joseph.  Hungarian  Republic  proclaimed ;  Kossuth  governor. 
Russians  invade  Hungary ;  Haynau  in  command  of  the  Austrians  gains  a  victory  at 
Tcmesvar;  Gorgei,  Dictator,  betrays  his  trust.  Kossuth  is  a  fugitive  and  the  revolution 
is  ended. 

"Young  Italy"  seeks  deliverance  from  foreign  rule.  C*ustom.s-union  between  Rome, 
Sardinia,  and  Tuscany.  King  of  Sardinia  aids  Lombardy  and  Venice  in  their  revolt 
against  Austria.  Victory  of  Radetzki  at  Custozza;  submission  of  Lombardy;  siege  and 
surrender  of  Venice.  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  defeated  at  Novara,  abdicates  in  favor 
of  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  Murder  of  Count  Rossi,  capture  of  the  Quirinal  palace  and  flight 
of  the  Pope.  Roman  Republic  proclaimed  by  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi.  Rome  retaken  by 
the  French  army  and  the  Pope  reinstated. 

The  Second  French  Empire. 
151.    France,  warned   by  her  bitter  experience  of  revolutions,  looked 
with  dread  to  the  new  election  which  the  constitution  had  appointed  for 
M.  H.-27. 


418  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  spring  of  1852,  and  the  more  because  the  law  as  it  stood  forbade  the 
reelection  of  the  present  ruler.  Few  men  ever  less  resembled  the  first 
Napoleon  than  his  nephew  and  representative.  Yet  the  accident  of  his 
birth  —  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  death  of  his  cousin,  the  king  of  Rome  — 
made  him  a  political  adventurer,  and  engaged  him  in  the  enterprise  of 
reviving  the  empire  of  the  Bonapartes.  Bolder  in  scheming  than  in 
action,  his  habits  were  those  of  a  studious  recluse,  rather  than  of  a  leader 
of  men;  and  the  attempts  at  Strasbourg  and  Boulogne  had  proved  him 
more  capable  of  conceiving  perilous  enterprises  than  of  carrying  them 
into  execution.  Long  years  of  study  during  his  imprisonment  and  exile 
had  made  him  proficient  in  theories  of  state-craft  and  of  national  defense ; 
his  state  papers  during  his  presidency  had  been  marked  by  profound  abil- 
ity. He  would  perhaps  have  been  considered  rather  the  secretary  than 
the  author  of  the  coup  d'etat,  had  it  not  ended  by  placing  a  crown  upon 
his  head. 

152.  Though  many  men  of  high  character  and  illustrious  rank  would 
willingly  have  consented  to  a  renewal  or  prolongation  of  the  president's 
term  of  office,  none  would  connive  at  any  illegal  act  to  secure  that  end. 
Therefore  during  the  autumn  of  1851,  several  offices  in  the  government, 
the  army,  and  the  National  Guard  were  filled  by  persons  of  doubtful  or 
discreditable  history,  but  who  were  wholly  subservient  to  the  will  of 
Bonaparte.  Chief  of  these  were  the  Count  de  Morny,  General  St.  Ar- 
naud,  who  was  made  minister  of  war,  Maupas,  prefect  of  police,  and  Mag- 
nan,  commandant  of  the  army  about  Paris.  Two  adventurers,  named 
Fleury  and  Persigiiy  —  men  who  had  all  to  gain  and  nothing  to  lose  — 
had  important  though  less  conspicuous  parts.  On  Monday  evening,  Dec. 
1,  the  president  held  his  usual  reception  at  the  palace  of  the  Elysee. 
When  the  guests  had  retired,  Morny,  Maupas,  and  St.  Arnaud  remained 
for  a  final  consultation.  Other  members  of  the  plot  were  already  in 
action.  In  the  darkness  and  silence  of  the  night,  seventy-eight  persons 
including  the  principal  generals  and  statesmen  of  France,  were  seized  at 
their  own  houses  and  carried  away  to  prison.  A  great  military  force 
was  massed  between  the  Elysee  and  the  Tuileries.  Offices  of  newspapers 
were  occupied  by  soldiers.  At  the  government  printing-house,  the  print- 
ers, under  a  strong  guard  of  police,  set  up  the  proclamations  which  were 
to  be  distributed  before  daylight. 

153.  When  morning  dawned,  the  walls  were  found  covered  with  the 
announcements:  "The  National  Assembly  is  dissolved;  universal  suff'rage 
is  reestablished ;  the  elective  colleges  are  summoned  to  meet  Dec.  21. 
Paris  is  in  a  state  of  siege."  These  were  followed  by  an  address  to  the 
people,  proposing  a  responsible  chief  for  ten  years ;  and'  to  the  soldiers, 
reminding  them  of  the  neglect  they-  had  suffered  under  Louis  Philippe, 
and  promising  a  renewal  of  their  ancient  glory.     At  the  same  hour,  in 


THE  SECOND  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  419 

the  remotest  provinces,  the  telegraph  announced  a  revolution  accom- 
plished at  Paris,  and  described  the  joy  of  that  sleeping  city  in  a  change 
of  which  it  had  not  even  dreamed.  The  Deputies,  meeting  on  the  morn- 
ing of  Dec.  2,  resolved  that  the  President  had  forfeited 
his  office  by  illegal  acts  of  violence.  They  were  arrested 
to  the  number  of  235,  and  conveyed  in  felons'  carts  to  various  prisons. 
The  Supreme  Court,  having  likewise  ordered  the  impeachment  of  the 
President,  was  expelled  by  an  armed  force.  The  resistance,  however, 
was  feeble,  for  to  the  prosperous  classes  any  rule  was  better  than  anarchy. 
Victor  Hugo  and  a  few  other  deputies  who  had  escaped  arrest,  organized 
a  committee  and  erected  a  barricade.  On  Dec.  4,  an  army  of  48,000 
men  was  converged  upon  the  city.  A  multitude  of  peaceful  spectators 
regarded  the  parade  from  windows  and  sidewalks,  when  suddenly,  with- 
out provocation,  the  troops  began  firing  into  the  crowd.  Thousands  must 
have  fallen.  This  wanton  massacre  arose  probably  from  a  panic  among 
the  troops,  aggravated  by  their  enmity  to  the  citizens,  and  may  have 
formed  no  part  of  the  general  plan;  but  for  the  deliberate  murder  of 
many  hundreds  in  prison  —  the  transportation  of  26,600  to  the  noxious 
climates  of  Cayenne  and  the  African  coast,  the  President  and  his  advisers 
can  not  so  easily  be  excused. 

154.  By  the  subsequent  election.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was 
invested  with  the  entire  executive  power  for  ten  years.  The  generals  and 
deputies  were  now  released  from  imprisonment,  but  Changarnier,  Victor 
Hugo  and  several  others  were  permanently  banished.  In  a  tour  through 
France  in  the  year  1852,  the  President  was  every-where  greeted  with  cries 
of  "  Vive  rEmpereur!^'  Eeturning  to  Paris,  he  directed  the  Senate  to 
debate  the  question  of  a  change  of  government,  and  submit  their  decision 
to  the  sanction  of  the  people.  As  before,  the  masses  voted  under  dicta- 
tion ;  scarcely  a  show  of  opposition  appeared ;  and  the  President  became 
"  Napoleon  IH.,  by  the  grace  of  God,  and  by  the  will  of  the  people,  Em- 
peror of  the  French."     Dec.  2,  1852. 

155.  The  first  great  event  under  the  second  Empire  was  the  war  in 
the  Crimea  against  the  Czar.  Napoleon  felt  it  necessary  to  redeem  his 
promise  to  the  soldiers,  and  at  the  same  time  to  absorb  and  gratify  the 
nation  by  the  indulgence  of  its  passion  for  military  glory.  Nothing 
could  so  conduce  to  the  security  of  his  throne  as  a  close  alliance  with 
England,  and  this  he  gained  by  adopting  the  English  policy,  usually 
different  from  that  of  France,  concerning  the  Eastern  Question.  The 
Turks  had  a  prophecy  that  their  empire  in  Europe  would  be  overthrown 
just  four  hundred  years  from  its  establishment.  Early  in  1853  —  the 
year  of  prophecy  — the  Czar  made  secret  proposals  to  the  English  gov- 
ernment to  join  him  in  the  partition  of  the  spoils  of  the  "sick  man  of 
Europe."    These  overtures  were  firmly  rejected ;  and  England  drew  closer 


420  MODERN  HISTORY. 

her  relations  with  the  other  great  powers,  but  especially  with  France,  in 
order  to  resist  any  aggression  on  the  part  of  Russia. 

156.  Nicholas,  having  mustered  a  great  fleet  and  army  at  Sevastopol, 
sent  Prince .  MentschikofF  to  Constantinople  with  a  peremptory  message 
demanding  not  only  increased  control  of  the  holy  places  of  Syria  and 
Palestine,  but  a  protectorate,  which  would  really  have  involved  a  sov- 
ereignty, over  the  ten  or  twelve  millions  of  Eusso-Greek  Christians  in- 
habiting th5  Turkish  provinces.  The  insulting  manner  in  which  the 
demand  was  urged  made  it  seem  only  a  pretext  for  war,  and  a  few  weeks 
later  the  armies  of  the  Czar  occupied  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  by  way 
of  "material  guarantee."  A  moving  cause  of  hostilities  on  the  part  of 
Nicholas  was  his  personal  resentment  against  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliflfe, 
v/hom  he  called  the  "English  Sultan,"  and  whose  ascendency  in  the 
counsels  of  "the  Porte  was  continually  thwarting  the  movements  of  the 
Russian  embassadors.  The  firmness  of  Lord  Stratford  —  added  to  his 
power  to  summon  a  British  fleet  from  Malta  —  was  of  great  service  in 
allaying  a  panic  at  Constantinople,  and  encouraging  the  Turkish  minis- 
ters to  persist  in  their  opposition  to  the  unreasonable  demands  of  the 
Czar;  while  a  Congress  at  Vienna  of  Austrian,  Prussian,  French,  and 
English  embassadors  sought  to  settle  the  differences  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte  by  negotiation  and  thus  maintain  peace. 

157.  Their  efforts  were  in  vain.  In  October,  1853,  the  Sultan  declared 
war ;  his  general,  Omar  Pasha,  promptly  crossing  the  Danube,  gained  at 
Oltenitza  a  victory  over  the  invaders ;  and  in  January  a  four  days'  as- 
sault upon  the  Turkish  lines  at  Kalafat  was  followed  by  a  retreat  of  the 
Russians.  Before  this  (Nov.  30)  a  fleet  issuing  from  Sevastopol  had  de- 
stroyed a  Turkish  squadron  in  the  harbor  of  Sinope  and  bombarded  the 
town.  Four  thousand  Turks  were  slain.  The  Czar  refused  even  to 
answer  a  note  addressed  to  him  by  the  governments  at  London  and 
Paris,  requiring  his  withdrawal  from  the  Danubian  provinces,  and- stat- 
ing that  his  refusal  or  silence  would  be  considered  as  cause  of  war.     All 

,,     ,  hope  of  peace  being  thus  at  an  end,  France  and  England  con- 

March,  1854.  1  r  o  J  o 

eluded  a  close  alliance  with  each  other  and  with  Turkey, 
and  declared  war  against  Russia.  A  counter-declaration  was  made  by  the 
Czar,  April  11,  and  Prince  Paskiewitch  with  a  great  force  laid  siege  to 
Silistria.  Contrary  to  all  expectation,  the  Turks  resisted  with  such  spirit 
and  success  that  the  siege  was  raised  in  little  more  than  a  month.  An- 
other defeat  at  Giurgevo  caused  the  Russians  to  abandon  the  lower 
Danube  and  even  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 

158.  The  special  cause  of  war  being  thus  removed,  France  and  Eng- 
land might  have  ended  the  contest,  but  they  resolved,  on  the  contrary, 
to  deprive  the  Czar  of  the  means  for  future  aggressions  by  destroying 
the  forts  which  guarded  the  harbor  and  immense  military  magazines  cf 


I 


INVASION  OF  THE  CRIMEA.  421 

Sevastopol.  The  allied  armies  were  therefore  conveyed  by  sea  to  the 
Crimea.  The  Tartar  inhabitants  of  the  country,  though  professing  them- 
selves contented  with  the  Russian  rule,  betrayed  no  hostility  toward  their 
fellow-Mohammedans  or  their  allies,  but  readily  brought  supplies  of  food, 
and  sold  their  beasts  of  burden  for  the  use  of  the  armies.  On  the  20th 
of  September  the  strong  positions  of  Prince  Mentschikoff  on  the  heights 
above  the  Alma  were  stormed  and  taken.  Then  pressing  on,  the  land  forces, 
in  concert  with  the  fleet  which  had  followed  their  movements,  occupied 
the  port  of  Balaklava  and  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Sevastopol.  The 
defenses  of  the  town,  planned  and  vigorously  executed  by  Colonel  Tod- 
leben,  resisted  all  assaults  for  nearly  a  year. 

159.  The  battle  of  Balaklava  (Oct.  25)  is  chiefly  memorable  for  the 
gallant  but  desperate  charge  of  a  cavalry  brigade,  in  obedience  to  a  mis- 
taken order,  down  a  long  valley  swept  from  either  side  and  from  the  end 
by  the  enemies'  guns;  and  which  resulted  in  a  sacrifice  of  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  men.  The  victory  was  claimed  by  the  Russians;  it 
revived  the  courage  of  their  comrades  within  the  walls  of  Sevastopol,  and 
doubtless  prolonged  their  resistance.  At  Inkermann,  however,  a  very 
superior  Russian  force  attacking  the  British  lines  was  repulsed.  The 
armies  of  the  allies  suffered  far  more  from  disease  than  from  battle ;  and 
the  hardships  of  the  British  troops  were  aggravated  by  the  mismanage- 
ment of  their  commissariat  —  men  dying  from  hunger,  sickness,  and  cold 
within  a  few  miles  of  plentiful  supplies  of  clothing,  medicines,  and  stores. 
Indignation  at  this  state  of  things  led  in  England  to  the  fall  of  Lord 
Aberdeen's  ministry,  and  Lord  Palmerston  became  the  responsible  head 
of  the  government.  Meanwhile  the  misery  of  the  army  threw  into 
stronger  light  the  merciful  ministrations  of  Florence  Nightingale,  an 
English  lady,  who,  having  subjected  herself  to  thorough  training  in  the 
duties  of  a  nurse,  devoted  her  untiring  energies — together  with  a  band 
of  voluntary  subordinates — to  alleviating  the  sufferings  which  she  could 
not  prevent. 

100.  English  and  French  fleets  penetrated  the  Baltic  and  Polar  Seas, 
but  accomplished  little  beyond  the  burning  of  timber  and  naval  stores. 
During  the  winter  of  1854  and  '55  the  allies  were  joined  by  Austria 
and  Sardinia,  and  the  latter  sent  a  well  appointed  army  of  15,000 
men  to  the  Crimea.  The  sudden  death  of  the  Czar,  and  the  accession 
of  liis  son  Alexander  II.,  renewed  the  hope  of  peace.  The  allied  nations, 
however,  considered  their  honor  engaged  to  the  capture  of  Sevastopol, 
which  still  repulsed  the  most  resolute  assaults.  A  British  fleet  entered 
the  Sea  of  Azov,  captured  Kertch  and  Yenikale,  and  destroyed  great 
quantities  of  stores  and  provisions.  At  length  the  forts  at  Sevastopol 
were  reduced  almost  to  heaps  of  rubbish  by  a  bombardment  which  lasted 
from  August  lo  to  September  8.     The  French  succeeded  in  taking  the 


422  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Malakoff  by  assault;  the  English  were  less  fortunate  in  their  storm  of 
the  Kedan ;  but  the  city  being  no  longer  tenable,  Prince  GortchakofF 
retired  to  the  north  forts,  and  destroyed  all  the  shipping  in  the  harbor. 

161.  The  Russians  had  meanwhile  been  carrying  on  a  war  with  the 
Turks  in  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces,  and  had  made  some  conquests 
which  counterbalanced  the  loss  of  Sevastopol.  Under  the  mediation  of 
Austria,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  before  the 
end  of  1855,  and  were  confirmed  at  Pans,  March  30,  1856,  by  the  minis- 
ters of  Great  Britain,  Russia,  France,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey.  The  last 
named  power  was  admitted  into  the  European  system  of  states,  and  the 
integrity  of  her  dominions  was  guaranteed ;  conquests  were  mutually  re- 
stored; the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea  were  thrown  freely  open  to  the 
commerce  of  all  nations,  but  the  latter  was  closed  against  ships  of  war. 
Servia  and  her  native  prince,  though  owning  a  sort  of  dependence  upon 
Turkey,  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  five  great  powers.  A 
few  years  later  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were  erected  into  a  nearly  inde- 
pendent state  under  the  name  of  Roumania.  Their  sovereign  is  elected 
by  the  people,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Sultan. 

162.  In  its  general  discussion  of  European  affairs,  the  Congress  of  Paris 
complained  of  the  continued  occupation  of  the  Papal  States  by  French 
and  Austrian  troops.  Since  1849,  the  French  had  occupied  Rome,  while 
the  Austrian  armies  held  the  provinces  north  of  the  Apennines  known 
as  the  "  Legations."  -■:  Neither  nation  could  withdraw  without  leaving  the 
other  absolute  ruler  of  central  Italy.  Austria,  indeed,  exercised  already 
a  controlling  power  in  every  Italian  state  except  Sardinia.  The  liberal 
constitution  of  Naples  had  been  overthrown  by  Austrian  intervention. 
The  duchies  of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena  were  occupied  by  Austrian 
forces,  whose  generals  exerted  civil  as  well  as  military  control  in  con- 
tempt of  existing  laws.  Suspected  persons  were  carried  away  to  the 
fortresses  of  Mantua  or  Kufstein,  or  were  even  sentenced  to  death  in  the 
name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph.  To  defeat  the 
Carbonari  and  other  liberal  associations,  three  secret  societies,  composed 
of  the  most  unscrupulous  characters,  armed  in  support  of  the  govern- 
ment; assured  of  impunity,  they  robbed  and  murdered  not  only  men 
but  women  and  even  children  in  open  day,  and  neither  the  papal  nor 
the  ducal  authorities  chose  to  interfere. 

163.  The  hope  of  Italy  was  in  the  House  of  Savoy  and  in  the  ex- 
pected intervention  of  France.  Victor  Emmanuel,  after  the  battle  of 
Novara  (§  150),  might  have  established  an  absolute  despotism  with  the 
favor  and  support  of  Austria ;  he  chose  rather  to  reign  as  a  constitu- 
tional monarch,  and  to  become  the  champion  of  Italian  independence. 
Consequently,  when  in  1859  hostilities  began  to  threaten,  volunteers 
escaping  by  stealth  from   every  state  in  Italy  flocked  by  twenties  and 


WAR  OF  ITALIAN  NATIONALITY.  423 

hundreds  to  his  camp.  Of  his  five  superior  generals  three  were  Tuscans. 
On  the  other  hand,  Napoleon  III.,  who  derived  his  power  professedly 
from  the  will  of  the  people,  had  manifest  grounds  of  difference  with 
Francis  Joseph,  who  founded  his  pretensions  upon  an  ancient  name,  while 
claiming  a  control  in  Italy  which  his  ancestors,  even  during  the  existence 
of  the  Holy  Eoman  Empiie,  had  never  been  able  to  enforce.  In  opposi- 
tion to  the  hereditary  theory,  the  French  emperor  asserted  that  of  national 
unity  and  the  solidarity  of  races,  and  found  his  natural  allies  in  the  Latin 
nations  of  the  two  peninsulas.  In  his  efforts  for  the  unification  of  Italy 
he  was  ably  assisted  by  Count  Cavour,  the  Sardinian  prime  minister. 

164.  On  the  23d  of  April,  1859,  the  Austrian  embassador  at  Turin  de- 
manded the  reduction  of  the  Sardinian  army  to  a  peace  footing;  the 
demand  was  refused,  and  on  the  same  day  the  Austrian  forces  crossed 
the  Ticino.  A  French  army  was  already  landed  at  Genoa,  and  Napo- 
leon, leaving  the  empress  Eugenie  as  Regent  of  France  in  his  absence, 
assumed  the  command.  May  12.  The  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  the  Duke 
of  Modena,  and  the  Duchess  of  Parma  fled  from  their  capitals.  Victor 
Emmanuel  was  declared  Dictator  of  Tuscany  ;  declining  that  ofiice,  he 
accepted  the  command  of  its  armies,  which  were  joined  with  those  of 
France  and  Sardinia.  On  the  20th  of  May  the  Austrians  were  defeated 
in  a  five  hours'  battle  at  Montebello,  and  :again  on  the  80th  and  31st  at 
Palestro.  But  far  more  decisive  was  the  victory  of  the  French  and  Sar- 
dinians at  Magenta,  June  4.  General  MacMahon  coming  up  with  his 
French  reserves  at  the  crisis  of  the  battle,  contributed  greatly  to  the  re- 
sult, and  he  was  rewarded  by  a  marshal's  baton,  with  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Magenta.  The  battle  of  Marignano,  though  less  important,  was  also 
disastrous  to  the  Austrians,  and  the  next  day  (June  8)  Napoleon  and 
Victor  Emmanuel  entered  Milan  in  triumph. 

165.  The  Austrians  now  retreated  within  the  "Quadrilateral"  formed 
by  the  fortresses  of  Cremona,  Peschiera,  Verona,  and  Mantua.  The  final 
contest  of  the  war  took  place  at  Solferino.     The  Austrians 

^  June  24,  1859. 

were  again  defeated,  and  on  the  8th  of  July  the  two  em- 
perors met  at  Villafranca  to  arrange  the  preliminaries  of  a  peace. 
Austria  surrendered  to  France  all  Lombardy  (excepting  the  fortresses  of 
Mantua  and  Peschiera)  to  be  presented  by  Napoleon  to  Sardinia.  The 
Italian  states  were  recommended  to  unite  themselves  in  a  federal  league 
under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the  Pope.  Venetia,  though  remaining 
subject  to  Austria,  might  become  a  member  of  the  Confederation.  This 
plan  was  far  from  satisfying  the  demand  for  national  unity.  Tuscany, 
Modena,  Parma,  and  the  papal  province  of  Eomagna  petitioned  the  king 
of  Sardinia  to  take  them  under  his  dominion.  The  kingdom  of  Italy, 
thus  constituted,  was  increased  the  following  year  by  the  conquest  of 
Sicily  by  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers,  the  capture  of  Ancona  and  a  great 


424  MODERN  HISTORY. 

part  of  the  papal  territories,  and  the  flight  of  the  Bourbon  king,  Francis 
IL,  from  Naples.     A  unanimous  vote  of  the  people  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
declared  their  union  with   the   kingdom  of  Italy  under  the  scepter  of 
Victor  Emmanuel.     After  a  victory  at  the  Garigliano,  that 
''       '  sovereign  entered  Naples  and  was  acknowledged  as  king  of 

the  whole  country  from  the  Alps  to  the  southernmost  point  of  Sicily, 
the  city  of  Rome  and  its  immediate  territories  being  the  only  exceptions 
beside  Yenetia. 

166.  The  next  general  disturbance  of  the  peace  of  Europe  arose  from 
the  Danish  Question.  The  death  of  Frederic  VII.  in  18G3  ended  the 
Oldenburg  line  of  sovereigns,  which  had  reigned  more  than  four  hundred 
years.  The  Congress  of  London  in  1852  had  provided  for  the  accession, 
in  such  an  event,  of  Prince  Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Glucksburg, 
who  had  married  a  grand-niece  of  the  late  king.  The  claims  of  the  elder, 
or  Augustenburg  branch  of  his  family  to  the  duchies,  were  purchased  for 
three  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars,  and  it  w^as  expressly  arranged  that 
the  ducal  as  well  as  the  royal  dominions  should  descend  to  Prince  Chris- 
tian. A  party  in  Germany,  since  1848,  had  strongly  desired  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  duchies,  and  this  was  now  joined  by  Austria  and  Prussia, 
whose  influence  in  the  Diet  at  Frankfort  secured  a  vote  for  the  occupa- 
tion of  Holstein  by  federal  troops.  The  Prussian  Legislative  Assembly 
voted  that  the  honor  and  interest  of  Germany  demanded  the  recognition 
and  support  of  the  Prince  of  Augustenburg  as  Duke  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein.  But  this  was  only  a  temporary  expedient.  Count  Bismarck,  the 
Prussian  minister,  had  planned,  not  only  a  Prussian  naval  arsenal  at  Kiel 
in  Holstein,  but  the  reunion  of  all  Germany  with  the  king  his  master  at 
its  head. 

167.  Austria  was  a  necessary  ally  at  this  stage  of  the  movement,  and 
by  subtle  diplomacy  the  court  of  Vienna  was  persuaded  to  join  Prussia 
in  an  invasion  of  the  disputed  duchies,  notwithstanding  the  protest  of  the 
Diet,  which  had  appointed  Hanover  and  Saxony  to  execute  the  military 
occupation  in  the  name  of  the  German  confederacy.  The  allied  forces 
under  General  Wrangel  entered  Holstein  in  January,  18G4.  The  Danes 
were  constantly  defeated  on  land,  though  their  fleet  kept  up  a  blockade 
of  the  Prussian  ports  and  defeated  that  of  the  invaders  ofl"  Heligoland. 
Not  only  the  duchies,  but  Jutland  itself  had  to  be  abandoned  by  the 
Danish  forces,  which  concentrated  themselves  in  the  islands;  but  after 
the  bombardment  and  surrender  of  Alsen,  resistance  ceased.  By  the 
Peace  of  Vienna,  King  Christian  resigned  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lau- 
enburg,  and  agreed  to  recognize  whatever  government  Austria  and  Prussia 
should  see  fit  to  establish.  It  now  appeared  that  the  claims  of  the  Duke 
of  Augustenburg  had  been  merely  a  pretext  on  the  part  of  the  two  great 
powers;    for   they   continued  to  occupy  the  duchies  with  military  force, 


THE  SEVEN  WEEK'S  WAR.  42b 

and  by  the  convention  of  Gastein  allotted  Schleswig  and  Lauenburg  to 
Prussia,  and  Holstein  to  Austria.     (Aug.,  18G5.) 

168.  Since  1859  the  Prussian  armies  had  undergone  a  complete  re- 
organization under  Count  von  Roon.  The  infantry  were  armed  with  the 
needle-gun,  and  the  whole  military  system  had  been  brought  to  the  high- 
est degree  of  efficiency.  Austria  clung  to  her  old  weapons  and  traditions, 
while  in  diplomacy  also  she  had  no  match  for  the  far-seeing  and  resolute 
intellect  of  Bismarck.  The  short  and  decisive  struggle  for  leadership  in 
Germany  was  now  approaching.  By  a  personal  conference  with  Napoleon 
III.  at  Biarritz,  Bismarck  ascertained  that  France  would  not  interfere. 
England  was  known  to  desire  peace  at  any  price.  Russia  was  under 
recent  obligations  to  Prussia  for  active  assistance  against  the  Poles. 
Italy  became  the  close  ally  of  Prussia,  moved  partly  by  the  refusal  of 
Francis  Joseph  to  sell  Venetia  to  Victor  Emmanuel.  General  La  Mar- 
mora said  in  a  dispatch  to  Berlin :  '*  Piedmont  began  in  1859  the  task 
of  freeing  Italy  with  the  noble  aid  of  France.  We  desire  that  within  no 
distant  period  that  task  may  be  accomplished  .  .  .  perhaps  by  a  war 
of  independence  fought  side  by  side  with  that  nation  which  represents 
the  future  of  the  German  people  in  the  name  and  on  the  principle  of 
an  identical  nationality."  It  was  agreed  not  to  end  the  war  until  Italy 
had  acquired  Venetia,  and  Prussia  a  corresponding  increase  of  territory 
in  Germany. 

1G9.  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse  refusing  to  take  part  in  the  war,  all 

three    countries   were    occupied    by    Prussian    troops.      The    blind    King 

George  of  Hanover  was  allowed  only  twelve  hours  to   choose  between 

alliance  against  Austria  and  war  with  Prussia.     In  the  battle  of  Langen- 

salza  the  Hanoverians  were  victorious,  but  they  were  soon 

•^      .  June,  18GG. 

surrounded  by  fresh   reinforcements  of  the   Prussians,  and 

the  king  was  compelled  to  surrender  not  only  his  army  but  his  crown. 
11/3  was  permitted  to  "fix  his  residence,  at  His  Majesty's  pleasure,  any- 
where except  in  the  realm  of  Hanover,"  and  the  conquered  territory  now 
formed  the  needed  link  between  the  severed  provinces  of  East  and  West 
Prussia.  In  western  Germany  the  army  of  General  ManteufFel  was  op- 
posed by  the  forces  of  the  Confederacy  under  princes  Charles  of  Bavaria 
and  Alexander  of  Hesse ;  while  in  the  east,  where  the  more  important 
action  took  place,  the  Crown  Prince  and  his  cousin.  Prince  Frederic 
Charles,  "wrestled  their  way"  through  the  mountains  of  the  Saxon  and 
Silesian  frontiers  into  Bohemia,  w^here  they  were  met  by  the  main  Austrian 
army  under  Marshal  Benedek.  At  AschafFenburg  the  Prussians  gained 
an  easy  victory,  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  Venetian  troops  in  the 
Austrian  contingent,  who,  rather  than  fight  their  friends  and  allies,  sought 
the  earliest  opportunity  to  surrender. 

170.  The  Prussians  then  occupied  Frankfort  without  resistance,  and 


426  MODERN  HISTORY. 

proceeded  to  exact  enormous  contributions  "  by  right  of  conquest."  In 
case  the  last  ten  millions  of  thalers  were  delayed,  General  Manteuffel 
threatened  bombardment  and  plunder,  though  the  rights  of  the  "  Free 
City"  were  under  the  especial  protection  of  international  law.  The 
states  of  southern  Germany  had  in  the  field  double  the  number  of  men 
that  Prussia  could  oppose  to  them ;  and  their  failure  even  to  check  the 
progress  of  Manteuffel,  proved  what  Bismarck  had  charged — the  ineffi- 
ciency of  the  Confederation.  Meanwhile  in  Bohemia  the  two  princes,  by 
a  series  of  hard-won  but  decisive  victories,  had  gained  command  of  the 
Iser  and  upper  Elbe.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Konigsgratz,  Marshal  Ben- 
edek,  with  his  whole  Austrian  force  of  200,000  men,  lay  awaiting  their 
arrival.  The  furious  combat  which  followed  takes  its  name 
"  ^'  '  ■  from  the  village  of  Sadowa — one  of  many  which  were  in- 
eluded  in  the  battle-field.  Here,  as  every-where,  the  terrible  swiftness 
and  precision  of  the  Prussian  fire  prevailed  even  over  the  valor  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  Austrians ;  while  the  Austrian  cavalry,  hitherto  the  most 
celebrated  in  Europe,  was  driven  to  flight  by  the  Uhlans.  A  storm  of 
wind  and  rain  prevailed  through  the  day.  Late  in  the  afternoon  the 
Prussian  guards  seized  Chlum,  the  center  of  Benedek's  position,  and 
kept  it  against  three  resolute  attacks  by  superior  numbers.  This  decided 
the  battle.  A  large  portion  of  the  Austrian  cannon,  with  20,000  pris- 
oners, were  taken.     An  equal  number  of  men  lay  dead  upon  the  field. 

171.  As  a  consequence  of  the  victory  of  Sadowa,  Venetia  was  ceded  to 
the  emperor  of  the  French,  to  be  given  by  him  to  Victor  Emmanuel. 
The  king  of  Italy  had  been  far  less  fortunate  than  his  ally.  He  had 
been  defeated  with  great  loss  (June  24)  at  Custozza ;  and  on  the  day  of 
the  battle  in  Bohemia,  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers  were  worsted  at 
Monte  Suello.  But  the  unity  of  Italy  was  accomplished  in  the  same 
stroke  with  that  of  Germany.  The  Venetians,  by  an  almost  unanimous 
vote  and  by  a  personal  welcome,  accepted  Victor  Emmanuel  as  their 
sovereign,  and  a  thanksgiving  for  the  great  event  was  celebrated  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Mark. 

172.  In  Germany  the  victories  of  Prussia  in  the  "Seven  AVeeks'  War" 
were  confirmed  by  the  Treaty  of  Prague.  The  German  Confederation  was 
dissolved.  Austria  acquiesced  in  the  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  and  en- 
gaged to  take  no  part  in  the  reconstruction  of  Germany,  while  she  paid 
twenty  millions  of  thalers  toward  Prussian  expenses  in  the  war.  The 
ascendency  among  the  German  states,  enjoyed  for  nearly  six  hundred 
years  by  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  was  transferred  to  the  more  ancient  ^^ 
but  hitherto  less  celebrated  House  of  Hohenzollern. 


*The  sovereigns  of  Prussia  trace  their  lineage  to  Count  Tassilo  of  Ilolienzollcrn,  who 
died  A.  D.  800.  Subsequent  members  of  the  family  became  burgravcs  of  Nuremberg,  mar- 
graves of  Brandenburg,  and  dukes  of  Prussia.    The  Ilapsbiirgs  date  from  A.  D.  lO'JG. 


END  OF  AUSTRIAN  ABSOLUTISM.  ATI 

173.  Confining  himself  to  the  government  of  his  hereditary  dominions, 
Francis  Joseph  sought  by  a  series  of  wise  and  needed  reforms  to  raise 
them  from  the  state  of  prostration  and  despair  to  which  they  had  been 
brought  by  the  terrible  reverses  of  war.  His  finances  were  ruined,  his 
armies  nearly  annihilated,  and  the  several  nationalities  which  had  been 
forcibly  united  under  his  scepter  were  ready  to  revolt  against  an  abso- 
lute policy  which  deprived  them  of  civil  and  religious  rights.  The  hopes 
of  the  Liberals  were  revived  by  the  appointment  of  the  Saxon  Baron 
von  Beust  as  President  of  the  Imperial  Council.  Eepresentative  assem- 
blies, now  reestablished,  gave  to  the  people  their  just  share  in  the  bur- 
dens and  privileges  of  government.  Hungary  had  her  own  Diet  and  a 
separate  ministry  with  Count  Andrassy  at  its  head,  though  united  with 
Austria  under  the  same  sovereign,  and  having  her  part  in  the  common 
interests  of  the  Empire  by  means  of  a  joint  assembly  known  as  "  The 
Delegations,"  composed  of  sixty  members  from  each  parliament,  and 
meeting  alternately  at  the  two  capitals.  In  1867,  Francis  Joseph  re- 
ceived the  crown  of  St.  Stephen  at  Pesth,  and  the  next  year  an  imperial 
decree  changed  the  title  of  his  dominion  to  the  "  Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy,"  recognizing  the  separate  nationality  of  his  subjects  east  of 
the  Leitha. 

174.  The  constitution  of  Austria  thus  approaches  nearly  to  that  of 
England,  where  a  ministry  chosen  from  the  party  having  a  majority  in 
Parliament,  is  responsible  for  all  the  acts  of  the  government.  The  mag- 
nates and  clergy  naturally  resist,  but  the  emperor  has  been  firm  and 
constant  in  his  adherence  to  the  new  policy.  In  a  single  session  of  the 
Eeichsrath,  or  Austrian  Parliament,  despotisms  of  a  thou- 
sand years  were  swept  away.  Marriage  and  education  were  '  *  '  " 
made  independent  of  priestly  control;  and  all  classes,  religions,  and  na- 
tionalities were  declared  equal  before  the  law.  Probably  such  complete 
reforms  were  never  before  accomplished  in  so  short  a  time,  unless  we 
except  the  acts  of  the  French  National  Assembly  in  August,  1789.  But 
in  France  all  existing  institutions  were  then  plunging  down  a  steep 
descent  into  chaos,  while  in  Austria  a  new  and  better  order  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  old,  and  conflicting  opinions  have  produced  no  outward 
disturbance  of  the  public  peace.  In  1870  the  Concordat  with  the  Pope, 
already  disregarded  in  the  acts  above  mentioned,  was  formerly  annulled, 
and  perfect  toleration  was  established. 

I2,E  C.A.I' I TTJ  Xj-A-T  I  OIsT  . 

Coup  cUlitat  of  1851  makes  Louis  Napoleon  President  for  ten  years  of  the  French  Ee- 
pnblic.  In  18ry2  he  becomes  Emperor  ;  in  1854  joins  England  in  war  against  Russia  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Ottoman  dominions.  The  Czar  Nicholas  seizes  the  Danubian  provinces, 
rejects  the  intercessions  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  orders  an  attack  upon  the  Turkish 
fleet  and  fort  at  Sinope.  His  armies  are  defeated  in  Wallachia,  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Silistria,  and  withdraw  from  the  Danube.     French,  English,  and  Turkish  forces 


428  MODERN  HISTORY. 

invade  the  Crimea,  gain  a  victory  at  the  Alma,  and  lay  siege  to  Sevastopol.  Charge  of  the 
Light  Brigade  at  Balaklava— a  sanguinary  and  indecisive  battle.  Repulse  of  the  Russians 
at  Inkermann.  Sufferings  of  British  soldiers  alleviated  by  Florence  Nightingale  and  her 
assistants.  Austria  and  Sardinia  become  allies  in  the  war.  Death  of  Nicholas,  accession 
of  Alexander  II.  in  Russia.  Conquests  of  the  British  in  the  Sea  of  Azov— of  the  Russians 
between  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas.  Bombardment  and  surrender  of  Sevastopol.  Peace 
of  Paris. 

Supremacy  of  Austria  in  Italy.  King  of  Sardinia  is  champion  of  liberal  institutions 
and  of  Italian  nationality.  Napoleon  III.  joins  the  French  army  in  Italy ;  allied  forces 
defeat  the  Austrians  at  Montebello,  Palestro,  Magenta,  and  Solferino.  Peace  of  Villafranca 
adds  Lombardy  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  By  annexation  of  the  central 
duchies  and  conquest  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  that  kingdom  covers  the  whole  peninsula  ex- 
cept Venetia  and  the  States  of  the  Church,  A.  D.  1861. 

Diet  at  Frankfort  interferes  in  the  settlement  of  Holstein,  upon  the  death  of  Frederic 
VII.  of  Denmark.  Austria  and  Prussia  conquer  SchlesAvig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg, 
which  are  ceded  by  King  Christian  at  Peace  of  Vienna.  Prussia  then  obtains  the  alliance 
of  Victor  Emmanuel  in  a  war  against  Austria  with  the  purpose  of  expelhng  the  Hapsburgs 
at  once  from  Germany  and  Italy.  Kingdom  of  Hanover  is  overthrown,  and  its  territories 
serve  to  consolidate  the  Prussian  dominions.  Progress  of  Manteuffel  in  Avestern  Germany 
unchecked  by  forces  of  the  Diet.  Frankfort  occupied  and  despoiled.  Two  royal  princes 
carry  on  the  war  in  Bohemia,  opposed  by  Benedek.  Decisive  victory  at  Sadowa.  Mis- 
fortunes of  Victor  Emmanuel  at  Custozza  and  Monte  Suello  counterbalanced  by  the  success 
of  his  ally ;  Venetia  added  to  his  kingdom.  Dissolution  of  the  German  Confederacy. 
Austria  becomes  a  constitutional  monarchy ;  recognizes  the  distinct  nationality  of  Hun- 
gary.   Liberal  reforms  under  Chancellor  von  Beust. 

The  British  Empire  in  the  East. 

175.  A  complete  account  of  European  trading  settlements  in  Asia 
would  be  foreign  to  the  purposes  of  this  history ;  but  the  rise  of  British 
dominion  in  India,  Australia,  Borneo,  and  New  Zealand  —  among  the 
most  remarkable  series?  of  events  in  the  last  two  centuries — must  be 
briefly  narrated.  For  a  hundred  years  from  its  foundation  the  English 
East  India  Company  confined  itself  to  commerce,  content  to  obtain  sites 
for  its  forts  and  warehouses  by  the  grant  of  the  Mogul  emperors,  and  to 
defend  them  by  a  small  guard  of  soldiers  from  the  attacks  of  the  fierce 
Mahrattas.  The  successive  decline  of  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  French 
interests  left  the  trade  with  the  great  peninsula  almost  exclusively  in  its 
hands.  Of  the  three  English  Presidencies  (Book  IV.,  §  132),  the  chief 
was  at  Calcutta,  which,  from  a  petty  village  on  the  Hooghly,  presented 
to  the  company  by  Aurungzebe,  grew  to  a  magnificent  city  of  palaces, 
and  ultimately  became  the  capital  of  Hindustan.  The  French  had  two 
Presidencies — one  at  Pondicherry  and  one  on  the  Isle  of  France. 

176.  The  Mogul  Empire  in  Asia  during  the  eighteenth  century  was  in  a 
condition  nearly  corresponding  to  that  of  the  "  Roman  Empire"  in  Europe. 
Its  pretensions  were  unabated,  but  the  power  that  had  enforced  them 
had  declined ;  and  the  twenty-one  nations  of  the  Hindu  peninsula  owned 
little  more  allegiance  to  the  court  of  Delhi  than  did  Frederic  II.  of 
Prussia  to  that  of  Vienna.    The  ruling  race,  it  will  be  remembered,  was 


THE    BRITISH  IN  HINDUSTAN.  429 

Mohammedan,  and  thus  alien  in  religion  from  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  which  held  fast  the  ancient  Hindu  superstitions.  The  contending 
chiefs  continually  sought  foreign  alliances  in  their  wars  with  each  other, 
and  thus  the  English  and  French  became  engaged,  usually  on  different 
sides,  in  Indian  hostilities. 

177.  The  idea  of  replacing  the  Mogul  by  a  European  dominion  origi- 
nated with  the  French,  who  also  were  the  first  to  train  Sipahis  (Sepoys) 
or 'native  soldiers  to  serve  under  European  officers.  This  was  a  necessary 
step  to  the  subjugation  of  India,  for  beside  the  impossibility  of  transport- 
ing troops  enough  from  Europe  to  conquer  so  vast  and  distant  a  territory, 
the  climate  of  Hindustan  would  be  fatal  to  the  long  continued  existence 
of  a  foreign  army.  The  Seven  Years'  War  between  England  and  France 
gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  long  rivalry  between  their  colonies  in  India. 
Madras  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  governor  of  the  Isle 

of  France,  and  Dupleix,  governor  of  Pondicherry,  captured 
Arcot  from  the  native  prince  of  the  Deccan,  who  was  an  ally  of  the 
English.  Arcot,  a  city  of  100,000  inhabitants,  was  retaken  by  Eobert 
Clive,  a  young  Englishman  who  had  begun  his  career  as  clerk  in  the 
counting-house  of  the  company,-  but  whose  daring  genius  found  more 
congenial  exercise  in  the  field,  and  ultimately  made  him  ruler  of  all 
British  India.  Having  captured  Arcot  with  only  five  hundred  men,  he 
successfully  defended  it  against  a  force  of  10,000  natives,  and  was  re- 
warded with  a  commission  as  lieutenant-colonel. 

178.  A  few  years  later  Surajah  Dowlah,  native  viceroy  of  Bengal,  took 
Calcutta  and  crowded  most  of  the  British  residents,  numbering  146,  into 
a  noisome  dungeon  known  as  the  "  Black  Hole,"  where  most  of  them 
died  of  suffocation  in  a  single  night.  Clive,  with  only  3,000  men,  recov- 
ered the  English  capital,  took  Hooghly  by  storm,  and  gained  so  decisive 
a  victory  over  Surajah  Dowlah's  army  of  50,000  at  Plassy,  that  he  is 
commonFy  considered  the  founder  of  the  British-Indian  Empire.  From 
this  point  the  French  dominion  built  up  by  Dupleix  rapidly  fell;  and 
Avithin  another  hundred  years  the  English  had  subdued  the  great  penin- 
sula and  become  the  rulers  of  180  millions  of  people.  This  was  effected 
partly  by  interfering  in  the  quarrels,  of  the  native  princes,  partly  by 
direct  purchase  of  the  sovereignties  of  the  several  Nizams  and  Kajahs, 
who  were  secured  in  larger  revenues  than  they  themselves  had  been  able 
to  extort  from  their  ill-governed  estates. 

170.  The  policy  of  Clive  was  pursued  and  extended  by  Warren  Hast- 
ings, who,  upon  the  reconstruction  of  the  Company's  dominions  in  1773, 
became  Governor-General  of  India.  During  his  administration  Hyder 
Ali,  the  native  Sultan  of  Mysore,  who  had  been  the  fiercest  opponent  of 
the  English, was  reduced  to  submission.  Both  Clive  and  Hastings  amassed 
enormous  wealth  in  India ;  and  though  their  government  was  more  just 


430  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  merciful  than  that  of  the  native  despots,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it 
was  stained  by  acts  of  oppression  which  were  wholly  indefensible  under 
any  Christian  code  of  morality.  The  conduct  of  each  was  made  the  sub- 
ject of  investigation  by  the  British  parliament ;  and  though  both  were 
acquitted,  in  view  of  their  great  and  brilliant  services  —  perhaps,  too,  of 
the  insufficiency  of  evidence  —  Clive  was  driven  to  despair  and  to  suicide, 
and  Hastings  spent  his  later  years  in  retirement. 

180,  Hitherto  the  British  dominions  in  India  had  been  governed  ex- 
clusively by  the  trading  company  chartered  by  Queen  Elizabeth.  Upon 
the  motion  of  Mr.  Pitt,  a  Board  of  Control  was  established  in  1784  by 
Act  of  Parliament,  rendering  the  officers  in  India  responsible  in  some 
measure  to  the  home  government;  and  by  degrees  a  far  more  humane 
and  liberal  policy  began  to  prevail.  War  continued  many  years  with 
Tippoo  Saib,  who  had  succeeded  not  only  to  his  father's  sovereignty  of 
Mysore,  but  to  his  implacable  hatred  of  the  English.  The  French,  who 
had  never  ceased  to  resent  their  expulsion  from  India,  and  hoped  that 
the  British  might  as  easily  be  deprived  of  their  Asiatic,  as  they  had 
lately  been  of  their  American  possessions  (Book  IV.,  §§  198-208),  entered 
warmly,  though  secretly,  into  the  plans  of  Tippoo.  In  1792,  the  sultan 
was  so  far  humbled  that  he  begged  for  peace,  and  gave  up  his  two  sons 
as  hostages;  in  1799  the  war  was  renewed,  and  he  fell,  bravely  fighting 
on  the  walls  of  his  capital,  Seringapatam. 

181.  Successive  wars  with  the  Mahrattas,  the  wild  Goorkas  of  the  Ne- 
paulese  mountains,  and  the  Pindarries  of  the  interior,  ended  in  enormous 
additions  to  the  Company's  territories;  and  in  1819,  its  commerce  was 
greatly  extended  by  the  foundation  of  an  English  colony  at  Singapore, 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  as  a  market  for  the 
rich  productions  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  In  1833,  the  Company's 
charter  expired,  and  though  the  government  of  Hindustan  was  again 
conferred  upon  it  for  twenty  years,  the  trade  which  it  had  monopolized 
was  thrown  freely  open  to  all  British  subjects.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant consequences  of  this  change  was  the  extension  of  the  opium  traffic 
with  China.  The  government  of  that  empire,  which  had  barely  endured 
the  slow  and  moderate  operations  of  the  company,  was  alarmed  by  a 
sudden  increase  of  the  supply  of  opium  in  the  markets  and  by  its  effect 
upon  the  habits  of  the  people,  who  were  already  fatally  addicted  to  its 
use.  Its  importation  was  prohibited  by  imperial  edict ;  but  the  Chinese 
merchants,  who  were  sharers  in  the  profits,  encouraged  a  smuggling  trade, 
and  the  connivance  of  officials  was  easily  bought.  The  government,  in- 
censed at  these  proceedings,  ordered  the  British  merchants  to  be  block- 
aded in  their  warehouses  at  Canton  until  they  consented  to  give  up  all 
the  opium  in  their  possession,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  a  value  of  ten 
millions  of  dollars. 


i 


WARS  WITH  CHINESE,  AFGHANS,  AND  SIKHS.  431 

182.  This  and  other  acts  of  hostility  led  to  a  war  of  two  years,  during 
which  Canton  was  taken  by  the  British,  but  ransomed  for  six  millions 
of  dollars ;  Amoy,  Ning-po,  and  several  other  towns  were  bombarded  and 
captured.  After  several  deceptive  negotiations  which  were  undertaken 
merely  to  gain  time,  the  Chinese  were  at  length  humbled  into  submission; 
and  a  treaty  was  signed  before  Nankin,  ceding  the  island  of 
Hongkong  to  the  British,  throwing  open  the  ports  of  Can-  ''' 
ton,  Amoy,  Foochoo,  Ning-po,  and  Shanghai  to  foreign  trade  and  the 
residence  of  European  consuls,  and  engaging  the  emperor  of  China  to 
pay  twenty-one  millions  of  dollars  as  war-indemnity.  This  treaty,  how- 
ever questionable  the  acts  which  led  to  it,  is  remarkable  as  the  first  of 
a  series  of  events  which  have  opened  the  oldest  of  empires  to  the  inter- 
course of  other  nations  long  excluded. 

183.  During  the  same  year,  the  British  ended  a  war  with  the  Afghans. 
It  had  been  undertaken,  A.  D.  1838,  in  the  interest  of  Shah  Sujah,  a 
deposed  chief,  who,  when  reinstated  upon  his  throne  at  Cabul  proved 
such  an  intolerable  tyrant  that  he  was  murdered  by  his  subjects.  In  the 
terrible  hardships  of  their  march  through  the  deserts  of  Scinde  and  the 
Bolan  mountain  pass,  the  British  soldiery  showed  a  heroism  worthy  of  a 
better  cause.  They  gained  many  victories,  and  were  established  as  victors 
in  Cabul,  but  a  revolt  of  the  Afghans,  in  which  several  of  the  English 
leaders  were  murdered,  compelled  a  retreat.  Married  officers  and  their 
families,  numbering  about  one  hundred  Europeans,  were  left  as  hostages 
with  Akbar  Khan.  The  retreating  army  was  nearly  annihilated  by  the 
treachery  of  the  natives  and  the  severity  of  the  climate  in  midwinter. 
The  hostages  were  only  rescued  by  a  fresh  invading  force  under  General 
Pollock.  Afghanistan  was  left  without  settled  government.  The  impor- 
tant province  of  Scinde  on  the  lower  Indus  —  formerly  a  dependency  on 
the  sovereigns  of  Cabul  —  was  conquered  in  1843  by  Sir  Charles  Napier, 
who  became  its  governor; 

184.  Of  much  greater  importance  was  the  conquest  of  the  Sikhs,  the 
military  rulers  of  the  Punjab.  This  battle-ground  of  Afghan  and  Hindu, 
the  highway  of  Persian  and  Tartar  invaders,  had  been  probably  ever 
since  its  invasion  by  Alexander  of  Macedon  a  scene  of  perpetual  rapine 
and  strife.  The  Sikhs  had  a  religion  distinct  from  that  of  either  Hindus 
or  Mohammedans;  by  theory  it  was  almost  as  mild  and  non-combative 
as  that  of  the  Friends  or  Quakers;  but  nature  and  circumstances  were 
more  powerful  than  tenets,  and  they  formed  a  fierce,  turbulent,  and 
formidable  body,  of  which  every  member  seemed  born  to  the  use  of 
lance  and  spear.  The  Afghan  war  stirred  up  old  enmities  between  the 
Sikhs  and  the  English ;  and  late  in  1845  a  large  army  of  the  former 
crossed  the  River  Sutlej  and  invaded  the  British  province.  They  were 
four  times  defeated  with  heavy  loss,  and  beside  paying  seven  and  a  half 


^32  3I0DERN  HISTORY. 

millions  of  dollars  as  war-indemnity,  were  compelled  to  leave  their  boy- 
king  under  the  guardianship  of  the  English,  who  were  to  rule  the  coun- 
try during  his  minority  by  a  special  Council  at  Lahore. 

185.  Within  a  few  months  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty,  the  whole  do- 
minion of  the  Sikhs  was  annexed  to  the  British  Empire,  the  young  king 
being  pensioned  from  his  hereditary  revenues.  The  Sikhs,  naturally  in- 
censed, renewed  the  war,  and  were  still  more  decisively  overthrown.  A 
celebrated  diamond,  known  as  the  Koh-i-noor,  or  Mountain  of  Light, 
which  for  centuries  had  been  supposed  to  exert  a  mysterious  power  in 
preserving  the  dominion  of  its  possessor,  was  taken  from  them  and  added 
to  the  crown-jewels  of  the  English  queen.  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  as 
Superintendent  of  the  Punjab,  undertook  the  difficult  task  of  reconciling 
the  conquered  people  to  the  government  so  illegally  set  up.  Such  was 
the  kindliness  and  justice  of  his  policy  that  in  five  years  peace,  order, 
and  prosperity  had  succeeded  to  long  ages  of  strife.  Even  the  warlike 
chiefs  were  won  to  acquiescence,  and  their  sons  flocked  eagerly  to  Eng- 
lish colleges,  in  order  to  prepare  themselves  for  honorable  positions  in  the 
civil  or  military  service.  The  great  mass  of  Hindus  and  Mohammedans 
who  had  been  subject  to  the  Sikhs,  easily  submitted  to  a  rule  which  gave 
them  greater  security  of  life  and  property  than  they  had  ever  before 
enjoyed.  So  effectually  was  the  great  work  of  pacification  accomplished, 
that  during  the  terrible  scenes  of  1857,  soon  to  be  described,  the  Punjab 
was  the  rallying  point  of  British  authority ;  and  the  Sikhs  were  the  most 
loyal  subjects  of  the  queen.  But  for  their  fidelity  her  empire  in  India 
would  probably  have  been  overthrown. 

186.  In  1856  the  great  kingdom  of  Oude  was  annexed  to  the  British 
dominions.  Its  Eajah,  or  king,  was  one  of  the  most  odious  of  the  native 
tyrants,  and  had  been  repeatedly  threatened  with  dethronement  both  for 
his  oppression  of  his  own  people  and  for  his  violation  of  treaties  with  the 
English.  The  event  perhaps  hastened  a  crisis  which  had  been  long  ap- 
prehended —  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys.  It  was,  indeed,  almost  incredible 
that  a  mere  handful  of  Europeans  could  have  maintained  and  increased 
their  ascendency,  during  so  many  years,  over  hundreds  of  millions  of 
people  of  acute  and  active  minds,  in  a  climate  exhausting  and  often  fatal 
to  the  ruling  class.  It  was  still  more  wonderful  that  their  power,  when 
shaken  by  a  wide-spread  rebellion,  should  have  been  promptly  and 
thoroughly  reestablished.  The  native  troops  employed  by  the  East 
India  Company  numbered  232,224.  Better  paid,  fed,  and  equipped  than 
they  had  ever  been  by  their  Hindu  rulers,  they  were  usually  contented, 
and  their  relation  to  their  English  officers  was  that  of  childlike  obe- 
dience and  confidence.-  But  they  were  intensely  superstitious,  and  a 
fancied  affront  to  their  religion  wounded  them  at  a  vital  point.  For 
their  new  Enfield  rifles,  received  from  England  in  1856,  they  were  pro- 


REBELLION  OF  THE  SEPOYS.  433 

vided  with  cartridges  supposed  to  contain  beef-tallow.  The  use  of  this 
article  was  impossible  to  any  devout  Hindu ;  several  regiments  objected, 
and  the  government  immediately  complied  with  their  wishes  by  suppress- 
ing the  cartridges. 

187.  The  discontent  aroused  by  this  and  other  causes,  continued,  how- 
ever, to  spread,  especially  among  the  regiments  in  Bengal,  Oude,  and  the 
province  of  Delhi.  The  middle  and  lower  classes  of  the  people  joined 
the  Sepoys  in  rebellion ;  but  the  chiefs  and  great  landholders,  who  better 
understood  the  English  power,  and  had  more  to  lose  by  public  disturb- 
ances, generally  remained  loyal  to  the  government.  At  Delhi  and  Meerut 
nearly  all  the  European  residents,  including  women  and  children,  were 
massacred.  Delhi  became  the  capital  of  the  insurgents;  it  was  besieged 
three  months  by  a  small  British  army  and  finally  taken  by 

storm.  Its  king,  or  ''  emperor,"  was  transported  to  Burmah 
and  his  two  sons  were  put  to  death.  In  June,  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler  had 
been  attacked  in  Cawnpore  by  the  Sepoys  lately  under  his  own  com- 
mand, now  led  by  Nana  Sahib,  rajah  of  Bithoor.  Two  hundred  English 
soldiers  withstood  a  siege  of  seventeen  days;  but  at  length,  half  their 
number  being  slain,  the  rest  surrendered  the  place  upon  condition  of 
being  permitted  to  retire  down  the  Ganges  with  the  600  British  resi- 
dents. The  treacherous  permission  was  quickly  violated.  No  sooner  had 
the  embarkation  begun,  than  the  retreating  column  was  attacked  by  the 
Sepoys  and  every  man  was  slain.  The  women  were  crowded  together 
for  three  weeks  in  one  narrow  room,  but  upon  the  approach  of  General 
Havelock  for  their  relief,  they  too  were  murdered,  and  the  mangled  re- 
mains were  thrown  into  a  well. 

188.  Though  armed  with  the  most  improved  weapons  and  long  drilled 
by  British  officers,  the  Sepoys  proved  no  match  for  their  opponents. 
Outnumbering  the  little  army  of  Plavelock  five,  eight,  and  even  ten 
times,  they  were  constantly  defeated,  and  the  monster  who  led  them  saw 
his  own  palace  occupied  by  the  English.  Having  buried  the  dead  at 
Cawnpore,  Havelock  pressed  on  to  Lucknow,  the  capital  of  Oude,  where 
a  Scotch  regiment  was  besieged  by  a  large  native  army.  The  arrange- 
ments for  its  defense  had  been  most  skillfully  made  by  Sir  Henry  Law- 
rence, already  mentioned  as  peacemaker  in  the  Punjab,  and  lately  the 
governor  of  Oude.  His  noble  and  useful  life  was  ended  by  a  shot  at  the 
beginning  of  the  siege.  Colonel  Inglis,  succeeding  to  the  command,  con- 
tinued the  resistance  with  no  less  constancy.  Havelock,  in  advancing 
from  Cawnpore,  gained  four  victories  over  the  insurgents,  but  his  few 
hundreds  of  men  were  so  exhausted  that  they  were  compelled  to  fall 
back,  and  the  garrison  of  Lucknow  were  reduced  almost  to  despair.  At 
length  Havelock,  being  reinforced,  was  able  to  recross  the  Ganges  and 
his  presence  renewed  the  courage  of  the  besieged.     Still  it  was  impossible 

M.  H.— 28. 


434  MODERN  HISTORY. 

to  withraw  from  the  place ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  arrival  of  Sir  Colin 

Campbell,  nearly  five  months  from  its  first  investment,  that 

Nov.,  1857.  r         J  J  j 

the  survivors  were  rescued.  General  Havelock,  worn  out 
by  his  exertions  and  anxieties,  died  a  few  days  before  the  abandonment 
of  Luck  now.  The  baronetcy  and  pension  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  grat- 
itude of  his  queen,  came  too  late. 

189.  The  capture  of  Lucknow  the  following  spring  by  Sir  Colin  Camp- 
bell virtually  ended  the  rebellion,  though  occasional  fighting  took  place 
during  the  summer.  An  important  Act  of  Parliament  transferred  the 
government  of  India  from  the  Company  to  the  Crown.  The  queen  now 
appoints  the  Governor-General,  or  Viceroy,  who  represents  her  in  Cal- 
cutta ;  and  a  Council  of  fifteen  members,  presided  over  by  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  India,  has  superseded  the  Board  of  Control.  English  influ- 
ence is  probably  more  predominant  than  ever,  by  reason  of  the  social 
changes  which  have  in  a  great  degree  broken  up  the  superstitions  of  the 
higher  classes.  Young  men  of  rank  and  wealth  are  educated  at  English 
colleges  or  in  London,  while  English  governesses  are  admitted  even  to  the 
secluded  apartments  of  Hindu  women.  The  cruel  and  degrading  observ- 
ances of  the  old  religion  are  losing  their  prevalence  among  the  educated 
classes ;  and  even  the  division  of  castes  promises  to  give  way  before  the 
demands  of  modern  civilized  life.  Railways,  telegraphs,  newspapers,  and 
even  common  schools  have  begun  to  bring  the  great  mass  of  the  Hindu 
population  into  community  of  ideas  with  the  western  world. 

190.  Within  a  century  Great  Britain  has  established  another  dominion 
in  the  East  —  more  extensive  and  perhaps  yet  to  be  more  important  than 
that  of  India  itself     The  shores  of  the  vast  island,  or  rather  continent, 
of  Australia  were  explored  by  the  Dutch  early  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, but  its  interior  was  unknown  to  Europeans  until  after 
Captain  Cook's  visit   to   its  south   coast  had  suggested  the 

possibility  of  finding  room  and  sustenance  upon  its  broad  untilled  acres 
for  the  surplus,  and  especially  the  criminal,  population  of  Great  Britain. 
In  January,  1788,  a  fleet  of  eleven  ships  bearing  a  thousand  persons, 
mostly  convicts,  arrived  at  Sydney  Cove,  in  what  has  been  pronounced 
the  finest  harbor  in  the  world.  Having  survived  the  perils  resulting 
from  the  loss  of  a  store-ship,  and  the  consequent  scarcity  of  food,  the 
colony  began  to  flourish,  though  its  wretched  and  disorderly  elements 
seemed  to  afford  a  most  unpromising  foundation  for  a  new  state.  The 
labor  of  the  settlers  belonged  to  the  government ;  for  their  crimes  had 
forfeited  all  civil  privileges.  These  felons,  however,  were  useful  pioneers; 
for  they  cleared  the  wildernesses,  made  roads,  built  bridges,  and  con- 
structed many  other  public  works  which  lightened  the  tasks  of  the  free 
settlers.  Some  of  the  early  governors  lacked  the  wisdom  and  benevo- 
lence which  their  difllicult  task  required ;   but  under  the  humane  admin- 


I 


AUSTRALIA  AND  ^'EW  ZEALAND.  435 

istration  of  Governor  Macquarie  (A.  D.  1810-1821)  the  convicts  made 
rapid  advances  toward  reformation.  Many  who  had  been  driven  into 
crime  by  the  cruel  pressure  of  want,  in  the  overcrowded  cities  of  Eng- 
land, gladly  embraced  the  opportunity  to  lead  a  better  life,  and  some 
of  these  were  even  chosen  to  magistracies  in  the  colony. 

191.  The  thirty  years  following  Governor  Macquarie's  resignation  were 
marked  by  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  free  colonists.  Australian 
wool  had  been  found  equal  to  the  finest  fleeces  of  Germany  or  Spain, 
and  the  flocks  of  sheep  could  already  be  numbered  by  millions.  The 
transportation  of  convicts  both  to  Australia  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  w^as 
discontinued;  but  thousands  of  the  honest  poor  were  aided  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  emigrate,  and  so  many  persons  of  character  and  wealth  were 
induced  to  colonize  by  the  increased  facilities  of  travel  and  the  hope  of 
gain,  that  the  population  increased  more  than  tenfold.  The  original 
colony  of  New  South  Wales  was  divided,  Victoria  being  set  off*  on  the 
south  and  Queensland  on  the  north,  wiiile  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  South 
and  West  Australia  have  also  been  organized  at  different  times  under 
distinct  governments. 

192.  The  third  period  of  Australian  history  was  marked  by  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  the  south-eastern  provinces.  May,  1851.  At  first  the 
wuld  excitement  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  colonies;  for  flocks,  herds, 
and  farms  were  abandoned,  and  food  became  scarcely  procurable  at  fam- 
ine prices.  Ships  in  port  were  deserted  by  oflEicers  and  seamen ;  all  regu- 
lar industries  ceased  for  a  time,  but  the  consequent  peril  and  distress  at 
length  brought  people  to  their  senses.  Society  was  reorganized ;  security 
returned,  and  the  throngs  of  settlers  drawn  from  foreign  parts  added  to 
the  commercial  prosperity  of  the  country.  Melbourne,  the  capital  of 
Victoria,  though  founded  so  lately  as  1837,  now  numbers  nearly  200,000 
inhabitants  and  has  become  the  seat  of  a  university.  Sydney,  the  older 
capital  of  New  South  Wales,  though  outstripped  in  population  by  the 
rapid  growth  of  its  rival,  has  also  a  university,  and  is  the  seat  of  the 
metropolitan  bishopric.  Railroads  and  telegraphs  are  multiplying  year 
by  year;  and  a  submarine  cable  unites  Australia  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land  — now  officially  called  Tasmania  —  to  London. 

193.  The  British  possessions  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  have  been 
increased  of  late  years  by  the  formation  of  eight  colonies  in  New  Zea- 
land. The  three  islands  composing  the  group  so  called,  cover  more  space 
than  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales;  while  in  richness  of  soil, 
healthfulness  of  climate,  and  grandeur  and  variety  of  scenery  they  are 
unsurpassed  by  any  country  in  the  world.  The  first  European  settle- 
ments in  New  Zealand  w^ere  made  by  deserters  from  whale-ships  visiting 
the  South  Pacific.  The  fine  timber  of  its  forests  attracted  more  perma- 
nent settlers ;  and  English  missionaries  from  1814  introduced  Christianity 


436  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  the  elements  of  civilization  among  the  Maoris,  or  native  New  Zea- 
landers.  Cannibalism  and  all  the  worst  features  of  heathenism  speedily 
disappeared,  and  at  present  nearly  all  the  Maoris  are  nominally  Christian. 
Most  of  them  can  read  and  write,  some  are  even  highly  educated,  and 
newspapers  are  published  in  their  native  language. 

194.  In  1840  the  chiefs  of  the  two  principal  islands  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  queen  of  England.  But  disputes  concerning  the  title 
to  lands  occasioned  a  four  years'  war,  A.  D.  1843-1847;  and  hostilities 
have  been  renewed  at  intervals  within  the  last  ten  years.  The  intelli- 
gence of  the  Maoris,  their  skillful  use  of  fire-arms  and  their  knowledge 
of  inaccessible  mountain-fastnesses  make  them  dangerous  enemies;  but 
their  numbers  are  rapidly  diminishing,  and  at  no  distant  day  the  popu- 
lation will  doubtless  be  wholly  European.  The  islands  are  rich  in  coal, 
copper,  iron,  and  gold. 

195.  Another  English  settlement  in  the  eastern  seas  is  wholly  owing 
to  private  enterprise.  Mr.  James  Brooke  with  his  own  yacht  explored 
the  coast  of  Borneo  in  1838,  and  formed  the  project  of  civilizing  its  sav- 
age tribes,  as  well  as  of  clearing  its  rivers  and  bays  of  the  pirates  who 
preyed  upon  the  commerce  of  the  Indian  archipelago.  Finding  the  Eajah 
of  Sarawak  engaged  in  a  war  with  his  subjects,  he  aided  in  putting  down 
the  rebellion,  and  so  gained  the  confidence  of  the  Sultan  of  Borneo  that 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  government  of  the  province.  The  natives  were 
surprised  and  conciliated  by  a  wiser  and  more  beneficent  rule  than  they 
had  ever  yet  experienced.  With  the  aid  of  a  British  frigate  and  her 
boats,  Mr.  Brooke  waged  a  war  of  extermination  upon  the  pirates;  and 
rendered  such  service  to  the  commerce  of  that  region  that  the  home- 
government  appointed  him  its  regent  in  Borneo.  In  1847  the  neighbor- 
ing small  island  of  Labuan  was  added  to  his  dominion,  forming  an  im- 
portant English  naval  station  in  those  distant  seas,  especially  since  the 
discovery  of  great  deposits  of  coal. 

English  East  India  Company,  chartered  for  purposes  of  trade,  becomes  engaged  in  na- 
tive wars  and  lays  the  foundation  of  a  great  British  dominion.  Decline  of  the  Mogul 
Empire;  independence  of  its  parts.  The  French  train  Sepoys  to  serve  in  their  armies; 
capture  Madras  and  Arcot.  Clivc  recovers  and  defends  Arcot;  recaptures  Calcutta,  and 
overthrows  Surajah  Dowlah  at  Plassy ;  becomes  Governor  of  Bengal.  Warren  Hastings, 
Governor-General,  conquers  Hyder  Ali;  is  impeached  for  extortion  and  oppression.  Wars 
with  Tippoo  Saib,  with  Mahrattas,  Goorkas,  and  Pindarries  end  in  favor  of  the  English. 
Singapore  founded.  Exclusive  rights  of  the  Company  expire.  War  with  China  occasioned 
by  the  opium  trade,  terminates  in  cession  of  Hong  Kong  and  opening  of  five  other  ports 
to  the  English.  Disastrous  war  with  the  Afghans.  Conquest  of  the  Sikhs.  Annexation 
of  Oude.  Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  and  rebellion  of  Hindu  people.  Massacres  at  Delhi  and 
Cawnpore.  Siege  and  relief  of  Lucknow.  Death  of  Havelock,  Government  of  India 
assumed  by  the  queen  of  Great  Britain. 

Convict  settlements  in  Australia  and  Van  Diemcn's  Land,  succeeded  by  free  colonies. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  UmTED  STATES.  437 

Discovery  of  gold ;  rapid  growth  of  Sydney  and  Melbourne.  Colonization  of  New  Zealand. 
Maoris  Christianized.  Their  wars  with  the  whites.  Mineral  wealth  of  the  country.  Set- 
tlement and  improvement  of  Borneo.    English  coaling  station  at  Labuan. 


American  Affairs. 

196.  The  forty  years  following  the  Peace  of  1814  with  Great  Britain 
Avere  to  the  United  States  a  period  of  material  growth  and  prosperity, 
such  as  no  other  country  probably  has  ever  known.  Famines  in  Ger- 
many in  181G  and  1817  gave  an  impulse  to  emigration ;  and  from  that 
time  onward  an  ever  increasing  current  has  set  toward  the  American 
ports  from  the  European  continent  and  the  British  islands.  Those  who, 
by  reason  of  the  frequent  wars,  the  oppressive  military  systems,  or  the 
overcrowded  population  of  the  old  world,  were  placed  at  a  disadvantage 
in  the  struggle  for  life,  found  here  an  ample  field  for  enterprise ;  and 
their  labor  was  of  inestimable  .value  in  developing  the  resources  of  the 
new  continent.  The  Erie  Canal,  wdiich  in  1826  connected  the  Hudson 
with  the  Great  Lakes,  brought  the  inexhaustible  grain-fields  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi basin  nearer  to  the  hungry  multitudes  of  Europe.  The  use  of 
steam  for  transportation  on  land,  rivers,  and  even  oceans,  is  drawing  the 
whole  world  into  a  community  of  interests ;  but  nowhere  have  its  effects 
been  more  important  than  in  the  vast  extent  of  the  American  Eepublic. 
The  magnetic  telegraph  —  largely  an  American  invention  —  has  annihi- 
lated the  barriers  opposed  by  space  to  the  communication  of  thought; 
and  its  greatest  triumph  was  reached  when  in  1858  a  cable,  laid  under 
the  w^aters  of  the  North  Atlantic,  united  the  two  hemispheres.  The  first 
cable  failed  to  transmit  messages  after  a  few  months;  but  a  second,  laid 
in  1866,  has  been  a  perfect  success.  Since  then  submarine  telegraphs  in 
successful  working  have  established  instant  communication  between  the 
remotest  regions  of  the  globe. 

197.  'The  general  peace  of  the  United  States  was  hardly  interrupted 
by  the  wars  with  the  Sacs  of  the  north-western  frontier  or  the  Seminoles 
of  Florida;  though  the  latter,  protected  by  their  dense  and  noxious 
everglades,  were  subdued  only  by  a  seven  years'  contest.  Florida  had 
been  ceded  by  Spain  in  1819,  upon  the  United  States  undertaking  to  pay 
the  debts  of  the  Spanish  government  to  American  citizens,  and  to  re- 
linquish their  claims  to  Texas,  w-hich  on  account  of  the  colony  of  La 
Salle  (Book  TV.,  §  130)  had  been  regarded  by  the  French  as  part  of 
Louisiana.  In  1822,  Mexico  became  finally  independent  of  Spain,  and 
after  a  series  of  revolutions,  adopted  a  federal  constitution  modeled  upon 
that  of  the  more  northern  republic.  This  constitution  was  abolished  in 
1833  by  the  President  Santa  Anna;  and  the  people  of  Texas,  many  of 
whom  were  immigrants  from  the  United  States,  thereupon  declared  their 
separation  from  Mexico.     War  followed,  in  which  Santa  Anna  was  taken 


438  MODERN  HISTORY. 

prisoner  and  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  Texas,  A.  D. 
1836.  This  republic  then  sought  admission  into  the  United  States,  but 
for  eight  years  it  was  refused.  In  1844,  by  electing  President  Polk,  the 
Americans  were  understood  as  giving  their  vote  for  the  annexation 
of  Texas,  which  accordingly  took  place  by  act  of  Congress,  the  following 
year. 

198.  Upon  receiving  news  of  this  transaction,  the  Mexican  government 
withdrew  its  minister  from  Washington,  and  prepared  for  war.  General 
Taylor,  on  the  other  hand,  occupied  Texas  with  an  "American"  army, 
gained  several  victories  over  superior  numbers  of  Mexicans,  and,  crossing 

the  Rio  Grande,  took  by  siege  and  storm  the  strong  city 

Aug.,  1846.  >  J  to  to         J 

of  Monterey.  General  Kearney,  meanwhile,  with  only 
1,800  men,  captured  Santa  Fe  and  took  possession  of  the  whole  province 
of  New  Mexico ;  then  pushing  across  the  continent  with  a  squad  of  cav- 
alry, aided  Commodore  Stockton  in  the  capture  of  San  Gabriel,  which 
completed  the  conquest  of  California.  This  had  been  partly  effected  by 
Captain  Fremont,  who,  with  a  corps  of  engineers,  had  been  engaged  in 
exploring  a  new  route  to  Oregon  when  the  war  broke  out.  The  brilliant 
victory  of  General  Taylor  at  Buena  Vista,  with  the  conquest  by  Colonel 
Doniphan  of  the  province  of  Chihuahua,  established  the  power  of  the 
United  States  over  northern  Mexico.  Two  weeks  later.  General  Scott, 
landing  at  Vera  Cruz,  took  by  storm  the  strong  castle  of  San  Juan  de 
UUoa  and  soon  afterward  began  the  toilsome  ascent  from  the  coast  to 
the  capital.  Santa  Anna  awaited  him  with  12,000  men  in  the  pass  of 
Cerro  Gordo,  but  was  defeated  and  put  to  flight,  leaving  several  impor- 
tant cities  and  fortresses  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Pro- 
ceeding with  his  march,  Scott  encountered,  at  the  entrance  to  the  plateau 
of  the  City  of  Mexico,  another  and  larger  army  which  Santa  Anna  had 
with  great  energy  gathered  to  oppose  his  progress.  This  also  was  de- 
feated in  the  battles  of  Contreras  and  Cherubusco ;  and  the  storming  of 
Molino  del  Eey  and  the  castle  of  Chapultepec  compelled  the  surrender 
of  the  caj^ital. 

199.  Santa  Anna  fled  the  country.     A  treaty  of  peace  at  Guadalupe 

Plidalgo  fixed  the  boundaries  between  the  two  Republics  at 
the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Rio  Gila;  but  as  a  partial  com- 
pensation for  the  vast  territory  ceded  by  Mexico,  the  United  States 
agreed  to  pay  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  and  assume  the  debts  of  the 
Mexican  government  to  American  citizens.  Toward  the  end  of  the  war, 
gold  w^as  discovered  in  a  river  bed  of  California.  The  deposit  was  soon 
found  to  be  extremely  rich,  and  a  tide  of  immigration  set  in  from  every 
part  of  the  civilized  world.  The  lawless  character  of  many  of  the  ad- 
venturers had  an  unfavorable  effect  in  the  formation  of  the  new  society; 
but  "vigilance  committees"  of  the  best  citizens  undertook  the  preserva- 


CA  USES  OF  DISUNION.  439 

tion  of  Older.     San  Francisco,  from  an  obscure  Spanish  "  mission,"  became 
a  prosperous  city  and  the  metropolis  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

200.  The  enormous  extension  of  territory  gained  by  the  United  States 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  forces  within  their  limits  which  already  tended 
to  disunion.  The  people  of  the  south  and  west  were  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, those  of  the  north-east  mainly  in  commerce  and  manufactures. 
The  former  favored  free  trade,  which  secured  the  best  market  for  their 
products;  the  latter  desired  to  impose  heavy  duties  on  foreign  merchan- 
dise, in  order  to  "protect"  their  own  fabrics.  These  conflicting  interests 
had  already  embittered  the  theoretical  discussion  of  state  and  national 
rights ;  the  south  insisting  on  the  independence  of  the  several  states,  the 
north,  on  the  centralization  of  power  in  the  federal  government,  as  a 
guarantee  of  peace  and  the  maintenance  of  a  dignified  attitude  toward 
foreign  nations.  As  early  as  1832,  South  Carolina,  asserting  her  sovereign 
rights,  had  attempted  to  "nullify"  an  act  of  Congress  concerning  the 
tarifi".  The  firmness  of  President  Jackson,  and  a  compromise,  accepted 
by  Congress  on  the  motion  of  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky,  averted  the 
danger  for  a  time. 

201.  The  chief  fire-brand  of  discord  was  negro  slavery,  which  prevailed 
in  the  states  south  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  Elvers,  while  it  had  been 
abolished,  so  far  as  it  ever  existed,  in  the  north.  With  regard  to  their 
own  institutions,  the  rights  of  the  several  states  were  fully  recognized, 
but  upon  the  question  of  introducing  slavery  into  newly  acquired  terri- 
tories, violent  differences  arose.  On  the  admission  of  Missouri  in  1821,  a 
law  was  passed  limiting  the  future  extension  of  that  institution  to  regions 
south  of  36°  30^  north  latitude.  California  now  asked  admission  to  the 
Union  with  a  constitution  prohibiting  slavery.  Again  a  compromise  was 
proposed  by  Mr.  Clay  and  accepted  by  Congress,  but  without  allaying 
the  general  discontent.  California  was  admitted  as  a  free  state.  The 
question  of  slavery  in  the  remainder  of  the  territories  acquired  from 
Mexico  was  left  to  their  inhabitants  whenever  a  state  constitution  should 
be  adopted.  In  1854,  the  same  policy  was  extended  to  the  two  territories 
of  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  which  had  been  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase ; 
the  "Missouri  Compromise"  being  thus  repealed.  Hence  arose  a  violent 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  Kansas  by  actual  settlement  —  ended  after 
six  years  by  the  adoption  of  a  free  constitution. 

202.  The  line  between  North  and  South  became  deeper  than  ever 
in  1860,  when  among  four  candidates  for  the  Presidency,  Abraham  Lin- 
coln received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  but  one  of  the  free  states.  A 
plan  cherished  for  thirty  years  by  a  few  southern  leaders  was  now  put 
in  execution.  In  December,  1860,  a  convention  in  South  Carolina  de- 
clared the  secession  of  that  state  from  the  American  Union.  Its  example 
was  followed  within    a    few    months   by   Mississippi,   Florida,   Alabama, 


440  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Georgia,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Virginia,  Arkansas,  Nortli  Carolina,  and  Ten- 
nessee. Before  the  last  four  states  had  formally  joined  the  movement, 
the  ''Secessionists"  in  convention  at  Montgomery,  Alabama, 
had  elected  Mr.  Jefferson  Davis  to  be  their  President,  and 
had  organized  a  government  for  the  "  Confederate  States  of  North  Amer- 
ica." Several  heads  of  the  new  departments  had  held  high  positions  in 
the  Federal  Union,  and  had  used  their  official  authority  to  scatter  its 
army  to  remote  frontiers  and  its  navy  to  the  most  distant  seas,  while 
they  transferred  great  stores  of  arms  to  southern  arsenals.  Added  to  this, 
from  the  different  constitution  of  society  north  and  south,  a  greater  num- 
ber in  the  latter  had  sought  commands  in  the  army  and  navy;  so  that 
the  South  had  at  first  an  immense  advantage  in  her  highly  trained 
officers,  many  of  whom  took  the  part  of  their  native  states  against  the 
federal  government.  Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  when  Abraham 
Lincoln,  reaching  the  capital  by  a  secret  journey  to  elude  a  plot  for  his 
detention  or  assassination  at  Baltimore,  pledged  himself  by  his  inaugural 
oath  to  the  most  difficult  task  ever  assumed  by  man  —  to  "preserve, 
protect,  and  defend  the  constitution  of  the  United  States." 

203.  Within  six  weeks  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  harbor  was  taken 
by  the  Confederates.  War  thus  begun,  the  President  called  for  75,000 
men  and  an  extra  session  of  Congress.  The  confederate  government 
issued  letters  of  marque  to  all  privateers  who  would  prey  upon  federal 
commerce ;  the  President,  in  return,  declared  the  southern  ports  in  a  state 
of  blockade.  The  summer  of  1861  was  disastrous  to  the  Federals,  but 
with  unabated  energy  Congress  voted  half  a  million  of  men  and  five 
hundred  millions  of  dollars  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  The  Con- 
federates were  sustained  by  the  hope  of  active  alliance  with  England 
and  France,  encouraged  by  their  recognition  as  belligerents  by  those 
powers,  and  by  the  shelter  afforded  to  their  privateers.  In  November, 
1861,  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell,  their  envoys  to  England  and  France, 
were  seized  on  board  the  British  mail-steamer  Trent  and  conveyed  as 
prisoners  to  the  United  States;  but  the  government  at  Washington  dis- 
avowed the  act  and  surrendered  them  upon  the  demand  of  the  English 
embassador. 

204.  Late  in  1861  the  capture  of  Confederate  works  at  Hatteras  Inlet, 
Port  Royal  Entrance,  and  Tybee  Island  gave  to  the  Federals  a  long  line 
of  sea-coast.  In  1862  an  important  series  of  victories  opened  to  them  the 
towns  and  forts  on  the  Mississippi  as  far  south  as  Vicksburg ;  and  in 
April  New  Orleans  was  taken  by  the  fleet  of  Commodore  Farragut,  ac- 
companied by  an  army  under  General  Butler,  who  took  military  possession 
of  the  city.  The  fiercest  fighting  of  this  year  was  in  Virginia,  where  two 
movements  toward  Richmond  were  repulsed  in  a  long  and  terrible  series 
of  battles  which  have  never  been  surpassed  in  the  numbers  engaged  or 


CIVIL  WAR  IN  AMERICA.  441 

ill  the  sacrifice  of  life.  Washington,  too,  was  threatened,  and  Maryland 
Avas  invaded  by  Lee;  but  he  was  defeated  at  South  Mountain  and  at 
Antietam,  and  compelled  to  evacuate  Harper's  Ferry.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  war.  President  Lincoln  had  declared  that  he  had  neither  the  right 
nor  the  disposition  to  alter  the  domestic  institutions  of  the  southern 
states.  But  in  withdrawing  from  the  Union,  the  seceding  states  had  re- 
linquished their  rights  to  the  protection  of  the  federal  constitution.  On 
the  first  day  of  1863,  all  persons  held  to  servitude  in  those  states  were 
declared  free  and  invited  to  enter  the  federal  armies  or  fleets. 

205,  The  first  four  days  of  July,  1863,  were  the  turning  point  in  the 
war.  A  great  invading  army  under  General  Lee  was  defeated  in  a  three 
days'  battle  at  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  pursued  into  Virginia.  On 
July  4,  Vicksburg  surrendered  to  General  Grant;  four  days  later.  Port 
Hudson,  the  last  remaining  post  on  the  Mississippi,  likewise  yielded,  and 
the  great  river  was  open  from  its  source  to  the  Gulf.  In  September  the 
federal  army  under  Eosecrans  was  defeated  and  shut  up  for  two  months 
in  Chattanooga  in  south-eastern  Tennessee.  It  was  relieved  by  Grant, 
who  in  three  days'  hard  fighting  drove  General  Bragg  from  his  strong 
positions  on  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge.  The  exhaustion 
of  war  was  now  most  severely  felt  by  the  southern  people,  whose  ports 
were  closed,  and  whose  available  resources  had  never  been  as  many  and 
various  as  those  of  the  north.  The  United  States,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  burdened  with  a  debt  nearly  half  as  great  as  that  of  Great  Britain 
which  had  been  accumulating  two  hundred  years  —  differing,  however, 
from  the  English  debt  in  having  for  its  security  the  unmeasured  and 
inexhaustible  resources  of  a  comparatively  new  continent. 

206.  Appreciating  the  situation,  the  people  of  the  north  made  vigor- 
ous preparation  for  the  final  conflict.  Grant  received  the  title  of  Lieu- 
tenant-General  with  the  command  of  all  the  arlhies  of  the  Union.  A 
simultaneous  forward  movement  was  made  in  May,  1864,  by  the  army  of 
the  Potomac  toward  the  James,  and  by  Sherman  from  Chattanooga  to  the 
Atlantic.  The  former,  by  the  tremendous  Battles  of  the  Wilderness  and 
a  series  of  flanking  movements,  crowded  the  army  of  Lee  backward 
upon  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  which  were  both  besieged  by  the  federal 
forces.  The  Confederates  were  able  to  repulse  all  direct  attacks  upon 
the  towns;  but  their  railway  connections  were  cut  off  and  they  were 
enclosed  in  an  ever  narrowing  circle.  General  Early,  marching  down 
the  Shenandoah  Valley,  attempted  a  counter  movement  upon  Washing- 
ton, but  he  was  driven  back,  and  the  valley  laid  waste  to  prevent  its 
affording  supplies.  Sherman,  meanwhile,  by  several  hard-fought  battles 
had  advanced  to  Atlanta,  which  he  took  by  two  months'  siege,  and  then 
swept  through  Georgia  to  the  sea.  Savannah  surrendered,  December  21. 
The  Alabama,  the  Georgia,  and  the  Florida,  all  English-built  Confederate 


442  MODERN  HISTORY. 

cruisers,   were   captured   this   year,   to    the   great   advantage   of   federal 
commerce. 

207.  The  reelection  of  President  Lincoln  in  November,  1864,  expressed 
the  unchanging  resolution  of  the  north,  and  the  campaign  of  1885  opened 
with  still  greater  disparity  of  forces.  Sherman  moved  into  South  Caro- 
lina, and  by  dividing  the  confederate  armies,  compelled  Charleston  and 
Columbia  to  surrender  on  the  same  day.  The  United  States  forces  were 
now  concentrated  about  the  army  of  Lee.  After  a  defeat  at  Five 
Forks,  the  Confederate  Government  took  flight  from  Richmond,  which 
was  soon  occupied  by  the  Union  troops.  Lee's  army,  marching  south- 
ward, was  compelled  to  surrender  near  Appomattox  Court  House. 

208.  The  war  was  ended,  and  April  14,  the  fourth  anniversary  of  it3 
beginning,  was  appointed  as  a  day  of  general  thanksgiving.  Late  at  night 
its  joy  was  turned  'into  mourning  by  news  of  the  assassination  of  the  Pres- 
ident. But  this  crime  did  not  avail  to  destroy  the  peace  so  long  desired 
and  happily  restored.  The  vice-president,  Andrew  Johnson,  took  the  oath 
of  the  highest  office  within  a  few  hours  of  Mr.  Lincoln's  death,  and  all 
the  operations  of  government  went  on  without  interruption. 

209.  The  remaining  forces  of  the  Confederacy  were  surrendered  within 
a  few  weeks ;  its  president  became  a  prisoner.  Four  of  its  eleven  states, 
having  been  occupied  in  part  by  federal  forces,  had  already  formed  gov- 
ernments approved  by  the  Congress  at  Washington.  The  rest  repealed 
their  ordinances  of  secession,  and  accepted  an  amendment  in  the  Federal 
Constitution  prohibiting  "slavery  or  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a 
punishment  for  crime."  Two  subsequent  amendments  extended  all  the 
rights  of  citizenship  —  even  to  the  holding  of  civil  offices — to  the  persons 
lately  released  from  slavery. 

210.  Thus  ended  the  great  civil  war  —  one  of  the  most  destructive  of 
life  and  property  that  history  is  compelled  to  record.  No  fewer  than 
600,000  persons  are  supposed  to  have  perished  in  the  two  great  armies; 
and  if  all  those  disabled  and  maimed  for  life  wer«  added,  the  victims 
would  probably  number  a  million.  The  federal  government  emerged 
from'  the  contest  with  a  debt  of  nearly  three  thousand  millions  of  dollars, 
which  probably  did  not  represent  one-half  of  the  expenses  of  the  war, 
shared  as  these  were  by  states,  counties,  towns,  and  individual  persons, 
and  aggravated  by  the  immense  destruction  of  property  by  armies  and 
navies,  and  the  withdrawal  of  three  millions  of  persons,  north  and  south, 
from  the  productive  industries. 

211.  The  claims  of  the  United  States  against  Great  Britain  for  shelter 
and  encouragement  afforded  to  confederate  cruisers,  threatened  the  peace 
of  the  two  countries,  but  in  1871  the  treaty  of  Washington  referred  these 
claims  to  a  Board  of  Arbitration  composed  of  five  commissioners  from 
neutral   nations,   who  met   accordingly  at  Geneva   in  June,  1872.     The 


INTERCOURSE  WITH  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.  443 

damages  awarded  by  the  Board  were  promptly  acknowledged  and  pro- 
vision made  for  their  payment  by  the  British  government. 

212.  The  only  attractive  feature  of  the  war  is  found  in  the  efficient 
efforts  of  private  liberality  to  relieve  suffering.  First  among  organiza- 
tions was  the  Sanitary  Commission,  whose  expenditures  amounted  to 
millions,  and  whose  faithful  agents  were  found  in  every  camp  and  on 
every  battle-field,  carrying  to  the  wounded  or  sick  of  both  armies  com- 
forts which  it  was  impossible  for  the  government  to  afford.  Medical 
science  surpassed  itself  in  the  construction  of  ambulances  and  the  inven- 
tion of  the  most  skillful  methods  of  alleviating  distress ;  and  so  well  was 
this  appreciated  in  Europe,  that  a  noble  emulation  led  to  an  Interna- 
tional Convention  at  Geneva  for  abating  the  barbarities  of 

*  A.  D.  1864. 

war.     Most  of  the  great  powers  agreed  to  concede  neutral 
rights  to  every  house  in  which  the  wounded  were  sheltered  and  to  all 
persons    employed    in    attending   them.     The  sufferers  themselves  while 
disabled  are  regarded  as  neutrals.     This  humane  agreement,  so  far  as  it 
has  been  observed,  has  greatly  alleviated  the  miseries  of  a  state  of  war. 

213.  The  American  Union  now  embraces  thirty-seven  states  and  ten 
territories,  bound  together  by  more  than  60,000  miles  of  railways,  while 
its  lines  of  telegraphs  if  extended  would  reach  more  than  three  times 
around  the  globe.  The  completion  of  a  railroad  across  the  continent  and 
the  establishment  of  a  line  of  steamers  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama 
and  Hong  Kong  has  brought  the  old  empires  of  China  and  Japan  into 
intimate  connection  with  the  great  Republic  of  the  West.  At  the  same 
time  this  increase  of  commerce  and  travel  has  led  to  a  serious  crisis  in 
the  relations  of  the  government  with  the  Indians  of  the  interior.  These 
savages  decline  to  accept  "reservations"  of  unprofitable  land  in  lieu  of 
their  unlimited  hunting-grounds;  and  they  have  undoubted  cause  of 
complaint  in  the  conduct  of  many  commissioners  and  traders.  Yet  it  is 
certain  that  the  continent  is  destined  to  be  the  abode  of  civilized  man, 
and  to  sustain  millions  of  industrious  beings  instead  of  idle  and  scattered 
savages.  About  one-fourth  of  the  Indian  tribes  have  become  civilized, 
and  have  settled  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  One-tenth  of  the  whole 
Indian  population  are  citizens  of  the  United  States.  If  the  dealings  of 
the  white  men  with  these  prior  occupants  of  the  continent  had  been 
always  characterized  by  justice  and  humanity,  the  Modoc  War  would 
never  have  occurred  and  the  Indian  Question  would  be  nearer  to  a  peace- 
ful solution. 

The  United  States  largely  populated  by  immigration  from  Europe ;  their  prosperity  in- 
creased by  railways  and  telegraphs.  Wars  with  native  tribes.  Texas  secedes  from  the 
Mexican  Republic  and  seeks  admission  to  the  United  States.  Its  annexation  causes  a 
war  with  Mexico.    Victories  of  Generals  Taylor,  Kearney,  and  Scott.    City  of  ^Mexico  capt- 


444  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ured.  Territories  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Colorado  added 
to  the  United  States.    Gold  discovered  in  California. 

Conflicting  interests  in  the  United  States.  Disruption  averted  for  a  time  by  compromise. 
Disputes  concerning  the  extension  of  slavery.  California  admitted  into  the  Union  and 
the  Missouri  Compromise  repealed.  Contest  for  Kansas.  Election  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 
Secession  of  South  Carolina  and  ten  other  states.  Confederate  States  organized  with  Jef- 
ferson Davis  as  their  president.  Surrender  of  Fort  Sumter.  Blockade  of  the  southern 
ports.  Recognition  of  the  Confederates  by  England  and  France.  Capture  and  surrender 
of  their  envoys  to  Europe.  Victories  of  Union  forces  on  the  Atlantic  and  Mississippi. 
Capture  and  military  occupation  of  New  Orleans.  Richmond  and  Washington  alternately 
threatened.  Proclamation  of  freedom  to  slaves  in  the  seceded  states.  Union  victories  at 
Gettysburg,  Vicksburg,  and  Port  Hudson ;  opening  of  the  Mississippi.  Defeat  of  Federals 
at  Chickamauga ;  siege  of  Chattanooga — raised  by  Grant  who  becomes  Lieutenant-General. 
His  march  to  Richmond ;  defeat  of  Early  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  Sherman's  capture 
of  Atlanta  and  Savannah,  Charleston  and  Columbia.  Reelection  of  President  Lincoln; 
siirrender  of  Richmond  and  of  Lee's  army.  Assassination  of  the  President;  inauguration 
of  Johnson.  Reconstruction  of  the  Union.  Settlement  of  "Alabama  Claims"  against 
Great  Britain  by  arbitration  at  Geneva.  American  organizations  for  relief  of  the  wounded, 
imitated  in  Europe  by  International  League. 

Intercourse  of  United  States  with  China  and  Japan  by  Pacific  Railway  and  steamers. 
War  with  the  Modocs  and  doubtful  relations  with  other  Indian  tribes. 


Decline  and  Fall  of  the  French  Empire. 

214.  The  first  two  years  of  the  American  War  witnessed  an  invasion 
of  the  neighboring  Kepublic  of  Mexico  by  the  combined  forces  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Spain.  Its  main  purpose  was  to  exact  payment  for 
debts  and  reparation  for  injuries  inflicted  upon  subjects  of  those  nations 
during  a  civil  war  of  three  years'  standing;  but  the  emperor  of  the 
French  had  a  further  aim  —  to  set  up  a  sort  of  protectorate  of  the  "Latin 
Race"  in  America  —  which  was  encouraged  by  the  apparently  hopeless 
disruption  of  the  United  States.  Hence  the  French  commissioner  refused 
to  meet  those  of  England,  Spain,  and  Mexico,  when  the  latter  had  pro- 
posed to  settle  the  questions  in  dispute  by  peaceful  conference,  and  in- 
sisted on  marching  to  the  capital.  The  alliance  was  therefore  broken  off, 
and  the  English  and  Spanish  troops  were  recalled;  while  the  French, 
joined  by  some  of  the  revolutionary  Mexican  forces,  declared  war  against 
the  government  of  President  Juarez.  They  were  reinforced  by  several 
regiments  under  General  Forey  who  assumed  the  command ;  and  having 
taken  Puebla  by  siege,  occupied  the  capital  in  June,  1863.  Here  a 
Council  of  Notables,  under  a  controlling  French  influence,  declared  in 
favor  of  a  hereditary  empire  as  the  future  government  of  Mexico ;  and 
subsequently  chose  Maximilian,  a  brother  of  the  Austrian  emperor,  to  be 
their  sovereign. 

215.  Monterey  became  the  capital  of  the  republican  government  under 
Juarez.  The  emperor  Maximilian  and  the  empress  Carlotta  entered  the 
City  of  Mexico  in  June,  1864.  War  went  on  with  varying  success  be- 
tween the  conflicting  governments;  several  important  towns  being  taken 


END  OF  THE  MEXICAN  EMPIRE.  445 

by  the  Republicans.  In  1866,  the  interests  of  Napoleon  III.  and  the 
urgency  of  the  United  States,  required  the  withdrawal  of  his  forces  from 
Mexico,  and  he  advised  Maximilian  to  seek  his  own  safety  by  abdication. 
The  Austrian  prince  refused,  however,  to  abandon  those  Mexican  leaders 
who  had  risked  their  lives  in  his  cause ;  though,  as  the  event  proved,  one 
at  least  was  animated  by  less  honorable  motives.  The  last  of  the  French 
troops  departed  in  March,  1867.  Two  months  later,  the  town  of  Qucrc- 
taro,  where  the  emperor  was  then  residing,  was  betrayed  to  the  Juarista 
by  General  Lopez,  the  commandant  appointed  by  Maximilian.  The  un- 
fortunate emperor  was  shot  by  order  of  Juarez,  June  19.  Mexico,  though 
constantly  disturbed,  has  ever  since  maintained  its  republican  constitution. 

216.  The  rapid  and  brilliant  movement  of  the  Seven  Weeks'  War  had 
disappointed  Napoleon,  while  it  awakened  uneasiness  in  France.  The 
emperor  had  long  foreseen  the  contest ;  but  he  had  expected  that  Prussia 
would  require  his  assistance  and  would  buy  it  with  the  provinces  on  the 
left  of  the  Ehine,  which  he  chose  to  designate  as  the  "  natural  boundary  " 
of  France.  His  minister  at  Berlin  indeed  put  in  a  claim  to  the  Ehine 
provinces  as  compensation  to  France  for  the  increased  power  of  Prussia ; 
but  on  Bismarck's  reply  that  the  claim  was  ''inadmissible"  it  was  im- 
mediately withdrawn.  Count  Benedetti  then  presented  a  scheme  for  the 
annexation  of  Belgium  to  France  —  the  latter  in  return  to  oj^pose  no 
obstacle  to  the  subjection  of  all  southern  Germany  to  Prussia.  This 
paper,  in  the  handwriting  of  the  French  embassador,  was  laid  aside  for 
future  use  by  the  far-seeing  Chancellor.  Napoleon  then  attempted  a 
quiet  purchase  of  Luxembourg  from  the  king  of  Holland,  who  was  always 
in  want  of  money,  and  to  whom  the  province  was  of  little  value.  Un- 
fortunately for  the  scheme,  Luxembourg  belonged  to  the  North  German 
Confederation  and  w^as  garrisoned  by  Prussian  troops.  Germany  pro- 
tested, and  the  bargain  was  abandoned;  for  though  a  party  in  France 
clamored  for  war,  the  emperor  knew  that  a  complete  rearming  of  his  troops 
was  necessary  before  he  could  meet  the  Prussians  in  the  field.  The  Avar 
of  1866  had  clearly  shown  the  superiority  of  the  breech-loading  fire-arms, 
which  the  French  military  ofiicers  had  not  then  decided  to  adopt. 

217.  A  revolution  in  Spain  hastened  the  crisis  which  was  to  change 
the  whole  states-system  of  Europe.  Isabella  II.  had  reigned  as  a  consti- 
tutional sovereign  since  1843.  Her  government,  if  so  it  could  be  called, 
had  been  carried  on  by  an  ever-shifting  succession  of  generals  and  fa- 
vorites; and  civil  war  had  come  to  be  almost  the  normal  condition  of  the 
country.  In  1868,  Gonzales  Bravo  came  to  the  head  of  affairs.  He  sum- 
marily arrested  and  banished  seven  of  the  most  distinguished  generals, 
as  well  as  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Montpensier,  the  latter  of  whom,  it 
will  be  remembered  (§  138),  was  sister  of  the  queen.  Rebellion  instantly 
broke  out  in  the  army,  where  each  of  the  banished  generals  had  adher- 


446  MODERN  HISTORY. 

entSj  and  the  queen's  troops  were  defeated  in  the  field.  She  herself  had 
repaired  to  St.  Sebastian  under  pretense  of  sea-bathing,  but  really  to  be 
near  the  French  frontier  in  order  to  consult  her  ally,  the  emperor,  who 
was  at  Bayonne.  Upon  news  of  her  disaster  she  crossed  the  border  and 
was  assigned  a  residence  at  Pau.  A  provisional  government  was  organ- 
ized at  Madrid,  and  the  Bourbon  dynasty  was  declared  at  an  end.  Ser- 
rano, one  of  the  banished  generals,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  new 
ministry. 

218.  A  few  of  the  best  men  in  Spain  desired  a  republic ;  but  a  major- 
ity preferred  a  liberal  monarchy,  and  then  followed  a  search  for  a  king. 
Candidates  were  easy  to  find.  The  Duke  of  Montpensier  pressed  his 
claims  with  money  and  influence.  A  grandson  of  Don  Carlos,  the  queen's 
uncle  (§  137),  revived  the  old  Salic  theory,  and  announced  himself  to 
Spain  and  the  courts  of  Europe  as  King  Charles  the  Seventh.  The 
French  imperial  party  urged  the  young  Prince  of  Asturias,  then  eleven 

years  of  age,  through  whom  it  expected  to  govern  Spain. 
June,  lo/U. 

His  mother  abdicated  in  his  favor,  but  the  Spanish  nation 
refused  to  receive  him.  The  king  of  Portugal  declined  the  offered  crown 
both  for  himself  and  his  brother.  The  choice  of  the  Spaniards  then  fell 
upon  Prince  Frederic  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  younger  brother  of 
the  Prince  of  Roumania,  and  a  very  distant  relative  of  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia. The  French  court  made  no  objection  to  this  choice;  but  when,  in 
the  summer  of  1870,  it  became  known  that  the  invitation  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  Frederic's  eldest  brother,  Leopold,  the  war-party  at  Paris  sud- 
denly denounced  his  candidacy  as  a  Prussian  aggression. 

219«  For  ten  years  the  French  emperor  had  been  balancing  two  oppo- 
site theories  of  government.  Ccesarism,  or  imperialism,  through  which  he 
had  personally  undertaken  to  "guarantee  order  to  France,"  could  only 
be  maintained  by  a  continual  succession  of  victories  in  war,  or  at  least 
by  a  commanding  attitude  in  the  diplomacy  of  Europe.  Opposed  to  the 
theory  of  "  personal  government "  was  the  English  system  by  which  the 
ministry  are  held  responsible  for  all  the  royal  acts,  and  are  removable  at 
any  time  by  a  "vote  of  want  of  confidence"  on  the  part  of  the  legislative 
body.  The  decline  of  the  emperor's  health  gave  strength  to  the  anti- 
imperialists;  to  conciliate  them  a  committee  of  the  Senate  was  charged 
with  the  preparation  of  a  new  representative  constitution,  which  was  to 

,_ be  promulo;ated  on  the  centennial  of  the  birth  of  Napoleon 

Aug.  15,  1869.  .  . 

I.  Brilliant  celebrations  had  been  appointed  for  this  occa- 
sion; but  the  emperor's  illness,  the  absence  of  the  empress  and  her  son 
in  Corsica,  and  above  all  the  death  of  Marshal  Niel,  Aug.  13,  cast  a 
gloom  over  the  day  which  accorded  well  with  the  prophecies  that  the 
year  1869  was  to  be  fatal  to  the  power  of  the  Bonapartes.  Under  the 
new  constitution  Emil  Ollivier  was  commanded  to  form  a  parliamentary 


OPENING  OF  FBANCO-PRVSSIAN  WAR.  447 

ministry ;  and  it  comprised  several  men  of  high  character  who  had  been 
opponents  of  the  coup  d'etat  and  of  the  imperial  government.  The  new 
system  was  submitted  to  a  plebiscite,  and  as  usual  a  great  majority  voted 
yes,  though  one-sixth  of  the  army  were  opposed.  It  had  been  industri- 
ously declared  by  the  official  journals  that  the  "Empire  is  pea;ce/'  and 
that  the  consequence  of  a  negative  vote  would  be  a  war  for  the  Khine 
frontier.     The  reverse  was  true. 

220.  In  vain  the  king  of  Prussia  assured  the  French  government  that 
he  knew  nothing  of  the  candidacy  of  Prince  Leopold ;  and  that  he  had 
no  power  to  command  or  forbid  the  prince's  acceptance  of  the  Spanish 
crown.  In  vain  Leopold  himself  withdrew  his  name,  as  soon  as  he  heard 
of  the  excitement  at  Paris.  The  French  embassador,  Benedetti,  de- 
manded from  the  king  an  apology  for  having  permitted  the  candidate- 
ship,  and  a  pledge  that  it  should  never  again  occur.  At  this  crisis  the 
secret  proposal  of  Benedetti  in  1867  was  published  by  Bismarck  (see  § 
216),  and  occasioned  great  excitement  throughout  Europe;  especially  in 
Great  Britain,  whose  government  had  guaranteed  the  independence  of 
Belgium.  The  English  Foreign  Office  demanded  from  Napoleon  III.  the 
most  ample  securities  for  his  observance  of  Belgian  neutrality  in  the 
struggle  which  w^as  too  evidently  impending.     On  the  very 

day  of  Leopold's  resignation,  French  troops  began  their 
march  toward  the  Ehine.  On  the  15th,  war  was  declared.  Nothing  could 
have  put  so  effective  a  finishing  touch  to  German  nationality.  Whatever 
jealousy  of  Prussia  had  existed  in  southern  Germany  was  silenced; 
Bavaria,  Wirtemberg,  and  Baden  put  their  armies  at  the  disposal  of 
King  William. 

221.  The  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  assumed  command  of  the  German 
army  at  Spires,  while  Napoleon  III.,  having  named  the  empress  Eugenie 
regent  during  his  absence,  repaired  with  his  son  to  the  army  at  Metz. 
Only  when  the  French  van-guard  stood  on  the  German  border,  did  the 
generals  take  a  just  estimate  of  their  resources.  There  was  a  great  de- 
ficiency of  horses;  and  of  those  actually  with  the  army  great  numbers 
had  been  let  out  for  months  to  farmers  and  were  unfit  for  service.  Pro- 
posals for  feeding  the  army  were  only  received  on  the  28th  of  July.  The 
number  of  men  by  actual  count  was  less  than  half  the  nominal  strength 
of  the  divisions.  In  short  the  French  nation  had  been  "plunged  into 
war  with  not  one  single  arm  of  the  naval  or  military  service  really  pre- 
pared;" and  a  French  officer  has  declared  from  personal  knowledge  that 
"  whole  divisions  went  into  action  in  a  literally  famishing  condition." 
On  the  other  hand  the  Prussian  army  was  drilled,  fed,  and  equipped  to 
the  highest  degree  of  efficiency,  and  when  joined  by  the  South  German 
forces  had  more  than  twice  the  numbers  of  its  opponents.  Its  highly 
trained  officers  were  more  familiar  with  the  roads  and  deep-cleft,  narrow 


448  MODERN  HISTORY. 

valleys  of  north-eastern  France  than  were  the  French  themselves;  for  a 
minute  study  of  European  topography  was  a  most  important  part  of  the 
"war-play"  of  their  military  schools.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  war 
was  an  almost  uninterrupted  succession  of  German  victories. 

222.  The  first  action  was  an  attack  (Aug.  2)  upon  a  small  Prussian 
outpost  on  the  heights  above  Saarbriicken ;  only  remarkable  from  the 
presence  of  the  French  Prince  Imperial  to  receive  his  "  baptism  of  fire," 
and  for  the  first  serious  trial  of  the  mitrailleuse,  a  new  invention  in  field- 
artillery,  from  which  tremendous  results  were  expected.  The  Prussians 
retired  to  their  next  post  as  soon  as  the  "hail-storm"  of  shot  became 
inconvenient.  On  the  4th  the  French  were  repulsed  from  the  German 
lines  at  Weissemburg ;  on  the  6th,  MacMahon  was  disastrously  defeated  at 
Worth,  and  Frossard  between  Saarbriicken  and  Forbach. 

223.  On  this  fatal  6th  of  August,  bulletins  posted  on  the  Bourse  at 
Paris  announced  the  annihilation  of  the  Crown  Prince's  army  and  a 
glorious  victory  to  the  French.  Eumor,  swiftly  following,  not  only  de- 
clared this  a  falsehood,  but  whispered  that  the  ministers  had  invented  it 
for  their  own  private  account  in  order  to  speculate  in  the  public  funds. 
The  palace  of  Ollivier  was  mobbed  by  an  indignant  crowd  demanding 
true  information  from  the  seat  of  war.  As  yet  only  the  defeat  at  Weis- 
semburg was  known,  but  the  next  day  the  disasters  at  Worth  and  For- 
bach were  also  announced.  The  excitable  Parisians  were  plunged  into 
extreme  despondency  and  discontent  with  the  ministry.  The  empress 
convened  the  Senate  and  Corps-Legislatif  on  the  9th.  Ollivier's  speech 
was  interrupted  by  a  storm  of  opposition,  and  his  cabinet  immediately 
resigned.  A  new  "Ministry  of  Public  Defense"  was  formed  under  the 
presidency  of  Count  Palikao.  Marshal  Leboeuf,  commanding  under  the 
emperor,  resigned,  and  Bazaine  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  armies. 
He  was  terribly  defeated,  however,  before  Metz,  again  less  decisively  at 
Mars-la-Tour,  and  most  completely  at  Gravelotte  (Aug.  14,  16,  18),  and 
was  shut  up  in  Metz  by  a  superior  German  force. 

224:.  Strasbourg  had  meanwhile  been  invested  by  Badenese  troops 
aided  by  the  Prussian  landwehr  or  militia.  Napoleon,  no  longer  com- 
manding except  in  name,  joined  the  army  which  MacMahon  was  concen- 
trating at  Chalons,  either  to  cover  Paris,  now  threatened  by  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Prussia,  or  to  march  to  the  relief  of  Bazaine.  The  latter 
movement  was  chosen ;  and  the  effort  of  the  Germans  was  then  to  entrap 
the  French  between  the  Mouse  and  the  Belgian  frontier,,  which  they  could 
only  cross  by  surrendering  their  arms  (see  §  220).  The  great  decisive 
combat  took  place  at  Sedan.  The  French  were  completely 
surrounded  and  driven  into  the  town,  where  the  whole  army 
by  a  capitulation,  Sept.  2,  became  prisoners  of  war.  The  emperor,  by 
letter,  surrendered  himself  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  was  assigned  a  resi- 


-^      -A. 


'H.  r.  niiffulo. 


I 


SURRENDER  OF  NAPOLEON  III.  449 

dence  at  Wilhelmshohe  in  Hesse  Cassel,  where  his  uncle  Jerome  had  lived 
as  king  of  Westphalia.  The  foHress  of  Sedan,  with  70  mitrailleuses,  480 
cannon,  10,000  horses,  and  108,000  men  fell  into  German  hands. 

225.  In  the  terror  which  reigned  at  Paris,  General  Trochu,  an  honest 
and  able  soldier,  but  no  favorite  with  the  imperialists,  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  city,  and  zealously  prepared  for  its  defense.  The  outer 
moat  was  filled  with  water  and  a  fleet  of  gun-boats  was  collected  in  the 
Seine.  The  Guard  Mobile  was  drawn  in  from  the  provinces;  sailors  and 
9,000  custom-house  officials  were  armed,  and  with  the  National  Guard 
made  a  total  of  400,000  men.  Firemen  were  telegraphed  from  the  pro- 
vincial cities,  and  arrived  to  the  number  of  60,000,  imagining  that  some 
great  conflagration  had  broken  out.  The  work  of  provisioning  Paris  for 
a  siege  began;  80,000  Germans  resident  in  the  city  were  expelled,  and 
the  inconvenience  and  suffering,  thus  occasioned,  aroused  that  national 
enmity  which  is  the  most  melancholy  result  of  the  war. 

On  the  announcement  of  the  news  from  Sedan  in  the  Corps-Legislatif, 
Jules  Favre  arose  and  declared  that  the  "Empire  had  ceased  to  exist." 
Troops  of  the  National  Guard  and  crowds  of  people  thronged  the  square 
around  the  Palais  Bourbon,  demanding  the  fall  of  the  Bonapartes.  The 
empress  regent,  deserted  by  all  her  domestics  but  one,  fled  from  the  Tuil- 
eries  and  took  refuge  with  her  son  in  England.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment was  formed  with  Trochu  at  its  head,  and  with  Messrs.  Arago, 
Cremieux,  Favre,  Ferry,  Gambetta,  and  others  for  its  ministers. 

226.  The  new  government  would  gladly  have  arranged  a  peace,  to  be 
ratified  by  the  French  nation  as  soon  as  there  should  be  time  to  consult 
it.  But  a  difficulty  had  arisen.  The  king  of  Prussia  had  already  placed 
Alsace  and  part  of  Lorraine  under  German  administration,  and  demanded 
their  permanent  cession  as  the  price  of  peace.  The  French  government 
refused  to  give  up  "an  inch  of  its  land  or  a  stone  of  its  fortresses," 
though  intimating  that  the  fortunes  of  war  might  require  from  it  some 
concession  in  money.  M.  Thiers,  then  73  years  of  age,  made  a  pilgrim- 
age to  the  courts  of  London,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  and  Florence,  asking 
mediation  and  moral  support  for  France.  The  sovereigns  were  reminded 
that  the  king  of  Prussia  had  constantly  declared  his  hostility  to  be,  not 
with  the  French  nation,  but  with  its  emperor,  who  had  injured  and  in- 
sulted him.  Now  that  Napoleon  III.  had  been  deposed  by  the  will  of 
the  people,  it  was  claimed  that  the  cause  of  war  no  longer  existed.  The 
same  views  were  urged  by  Favre  in  his  interviews  with  Bismarck  at 
Ferrieres,  Sept.  18-20 ;  but  the  German  armies  were  already  surrounding 
Paris,  and  the  Crown  Prince  took  up  his  quarters  at  Versailles  on  the 
last  day  of  the  conference. 

227.  The  French  capital,  under  Louis  Philippe  and  Napoleon  III.,  had 
become  a  gigantic  fortress,  which  for  size  and  strength  has  probably  had 

M.  H.— 29. 


450  MODERN  HISTORY. 

no  equal  since  Babylon.  Its  walls  were  thirty-three  feet  high  and 
twenty  miles  in  length,  and  were  surrounded  by  a  moat  or  ditch  forty 
feet  in  width.  Sixteen  detached  forts  formed  a  girdle  of  defense  at  dis- 
tances of  several  miles  from  the  walls.  The  reduction  of  such  a  place 
taxed  all  the  resources  of  the  art  of  war,  while  its  defense,  embarrassed 
by  the  necessity  of  feeding  and  sheltering  two  millions  of  people,  ex- 
hausted even  French  ingenuity  and  the  multiplied  inventions  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  underground  telegraphs  having  been  cut,  intel- 
ligence was  only  conveyed  to  the  outer  world  by  balloons  and  carrier- 
pigeons —  the  latter  bearing  a  single  quill  containing  a  scrap  of  silken 
paper  on  which  had  been  photographed  many  thousands  of  words.  M. 
Gambetta,  ascending  from  Paris  in  a  balloon,  joined  several  of  his  col- 
leagues at  Tours,  and  as  Minister  of  War  and  the  Interior  became  in  fact 
the  dictator  of  four  months  of  the  war.  The  imperial  forces  had  been 
either  destroyed,  scattered,  or  shut  up  in  besieged  towns.  The  govern- 
ment at  Tours  ordered  under  arms  every  Frenchman  between  20  and  40 
years  of  age.  Garibaldi  and  his  two  sons  offered  themselves  to  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Eepublic,  and  the  former  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the 
irregular  troops  of  the  Vosges.  Cavalry  recruits  were  found  even  in  the 
free  Bedouin  bands  of  the  African  desert.  Eleven  camps  of  instruction 
were  formed  in  various  parts  of  France.  The  unflinching  zeal  of  the 
French  people  contradicted  the  too  prevalent  belief  that  the  corruption 
of  the  "Lower  Empire"  had  extended  to  the  heart  of  the  nation. 

228.  The  fall  of  Strasbourg,  after  a  bombardment  which  shattered  its 
beautiful  Cathedral-towers  and  destroyed  its  library,  sent  a  thrill  of  grief 
and  rage  throughout  France.  A  month  later,  Metz,  with  the  whole  army 
of  Bazaine,  including  three  marshals,  fifty  generals,  6,000  inferior  officers, 
and  173,000  men,  with  an  immense  train  of  artillery,  surrendered  to  the 
Prussians.  It  had  been  more  than  three  hundred  years  a  French  town 
(Book  III.,  §§  168,  172).  The  towns  and  fortresses  of  northern  France  fell 
rapidly  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans.  After  their  victory  at  Amiens, 
Kouen  and  the  excellent  harbor  of  Dieppe  were  opened  to  them.  Or- 
leans had  already  been  taken,  and  recovered  by  General  d'Aurelles  de 
Paladines  in  the  battle  of  Coulmiers.  The  movement  of  the  victorious 
general  for  the  relief  of  Paris  was  thwarted  by  the  advance  of  Prince 
Frederic  Charles,  and  Orleans  was  again  occupied  by  German  troops. 
The  government  emigrated  from  Tours  to  Bordeaux.  Three  tremendous 
efforts  were  made  by  the  army  in  Paris  to  break  through  the  investing 
lines,  but  all  were  repulsed. 

Both  besiegers  and  besieged  suffered  severely  from  the  intense  cold  of 
an  uncommonly  rigorous  winter ;  and  this  was  aggravated  in  Paris  by 
the  want  of  wood,  coal,  and  gas.  On  the  27th  of  December  the  Prussian 
batteries  opened  fire  from  the  heights  of  Sovres,  Meudon,  Clamart,  and 


1 


THE   GERMAN  EMPIRE.  451 

Chatillon.  Starvation  was  added  to  the  horrors  of  bombardment;  and 
nearly  five  thousand  people  died  every  week  within  the  walls. 

229.  Meanwhile  a  great  but  peaceful  change  was  efiected  in  th3  con- 
stitution of  Germany.  Delegates  from  Bavaria,  Wirtemberg,  Baden,  and 
Hesse  Darmstadt  were  instructed  to  propose  in  the  North  German  Diet 
a  union  of  all  the  states  and  free  cities  in  a  new  German  Confederation, 
But  the  events  of  1866  had  proved  this  plan  inadequate  to  the  wants  of 
Germany.  King  Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  cut  the  Gordian  knot  by  a  letter 
received  at  Versailles,  Dec.  3,  in  which,  after  consultation  with  his  fellow- 
sovereigns  and  the  burgomasters  of  the  free  cities,  he  invited  the  king 
of  Prussia  to  assume  the  title  of  German  Emperor.  The  North  German 
Parliament  sent  its  address  of  assent  and  congratulation  by  the  hands  of 
its  president,  Herr  Simson,  who  in  1849  had  been  charged  with  a  similar 
embassy  to  King  Frederick  William  IV.  (§  145.)  This  time  the  imperial 
crown  was  accepted,  and  in  a  hall  of  the  palace  of  Versailles,  still  re- 
splendent with  the  magnificence  of  Louis  XIV.,  King  Wil- 
liam I.  was  solemnly  invested  with  the  new  dignity.     The 

act  was  announced  to  the  German  people  in  a  proclamation  which  de- 
clared that  the  king  assumed  the  imperial  title  from  considerations  of 
duty  to  the  Fatherland,  hoping  to  deserve  the  title  "  Semper  Augustus," 
not  by  conquests  in  war,  but  by  the  blessings  and  benefits  of  peace. 

230.  Famine  had  now  reduced  the  fair,  proud  city  of  Paris  to  the 
humiliation  of  a  surrender,  and  on  the  night  of  the  26-27  of  January 
the  bombardment  ceased.  The  forts  of  the  outer  circle  were  surrendered 
with  all  their  stores  and  munitions ;  and  unless  the  war  should  close  within 
a  month,  the  entire  army  of  Paris  were  to  be  prisoners.  An  armistice 
of  three  weeks  gave  the  French  people  time  to  organize  a  government 
competent  to  conclude  a  permanent  peace ;  but  as  great  hopes  were  still 
entertained  of  the  relief  of  Belfort  by  the  army  of  the  East  under  Bour- 
baki,  that  department  was  especially  excepted.  Writs  were  issued  for  the 
election  of  a  Constituent  Assembly.  The  delegation  at  Bordeaux,  by  an 
independent  decree,  declared  all  persons  ineligible  who  had  held  any 
official  relation  to  the  Second  Empire.  This  was  the  act  of  Gambetta; 
and  when  the  government  at  Paris,  upon  the  protest  of  Bismarck,  an- 
nulled the  decree  the  Dictator  resigned.  The  choice  of  representatives 
indicated  an  overwhelming  popular  demand  for  peace.  The  Assembly 
met  at  Bordeaux,  Feb.  12;  a  provisional  Kepublic  was  proclaimed,  and 
M.  Thiers,  as  the  most  prominent  representative  of  the  peace  party,  was 
elected  its  chief  Executive  by  a  large  majority. 

231.  Meanwhile  the  army  of  the  East  had  been  overwhelmed  with 
disasters.  Bourbaki,  defeated  in  a  three  days'  battle  before  Belfort,  lost 
his  reason,  and  the  command  devolved  upon  General  Clinchy.  When 
news  of  the  armistice  arrived  by  the  telegraph,  the  exception  in  the  case 


452  MODERN  HISTOB  Y. 

of  the  Department  of  the  East  was  most  unfortunately  omitted ;  and  the 
French  general,  attempting  to  open  negotiations  with  ManteufFel,  was 
taken  at  a  great  disadvantage.  No  alternative  was  left  but  a  retreat  into 
Switzerland,  and  this  was  accomplished  during  the  first  four  days  of 
February,  1871.  The  wretched  train  of  85,000  men,  worn  with  fatigue, 
privation,  and  disease  were  received  with  warm  hospitality.  Deprived 
of  their  arms  and  war-materials,  they  were  distributed  throughout  the 
cantons ;  and  private  charity  did  more  than  the  governments  could  have 
done  for  their  relief 

232.  On  the  26th  of  February,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at 
Versailles.  France  ceded  Alsace  and  German  Lorraine  to  the  new  Em- 
pire and  agreed  to  pay  five  thousand  millions  of  francs  as  war  indemnity. 
All  the  French  troops  except  a  garrison  of  40,000  in  Paris  retired  south 
of  the  Loire.  A  detachment  of  the  German  army  entered  Paris,  March 
1;  but  left  it  on  the  third.  Their  departure  was  followed  by  a  still 
greater  calamity  than  their  presence.  In  the  confusion  attending  the 
close  of  the  siege,  some  troops  of  the  National  Guard,  acting  without 
orders,  seized  a  great  number  of  cannon  and  dragged  them  to  the  heights 
of  Montmartre,  where  they  intrenched  themselves  and  resisted  the  efforts 
of  General  Vinoy  to  dislodge  them.  They  were  joined  by  troops  of  the 
line ;  and  Vinoy  withdrew  his  forces  from  Paris  for  the  protection  of  the 
Assembly,  which  now  transferred  its  sittings  from  Bordeaux  to  Versailles. 
The  insurgents  organized  a  government  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  arc 
henceforth  to  be  known  as  the  Commune. 

233.  A  conflict  of  interests  had  already  arisen  between  the  large  towns 
and  the  country  districts ;  and  the  Assembly  had  undertaken  to  discrim- 
inate in  favor  of  the  latter  by  limiting  the  freedom  of  elections  in  the 
towns.  Moreover  there  Avas  a  strong  monarchical  element  in  the  Assem- 
bly, while  the  cities  universally  favored  a  republic.  The  Commune  at 
Paris  declared  itself  the  champion  of  municipal  freedom,  and  it  had  the 
sympathy  of  strong  parties  in  the  other  towns.  But  unhappily  the  best 
men  who  opposed  the  Versailles  government  were  overborne  by  that 
revolutionary  element  which  France  has  learned  by  bitter  experience  to 
dread  (§  140).  The  worst  people  seized  power  and  robbed  the  banks  in 
order  to  obtain  means  of  maintaining  themselves  by  force.  The  troops 
of  the  two  governments  fought  for  the  possession  of  the  forts  south  of 
Paris;  those  of  the  Commune  were  several  times  routed  with  great  loss. 
The  government  at  Versailles  was  compelled  to  ask  permission  of  the 
Germans  to  increase  its  army  north  of  the  Loire,  and  the  return  of 
French  prisoners  of  war  was  hastened.  The  unhappy  contest  wrought 
greater  injury  to  Paris  than  had  been  effected  by  the  German  shells. 
As  victory  inclined  to  the  Assembly,  the  Communists  avenged  themselves 
for  certain  defeat   by  setting  fire  to  the  Louvre,  the  Tuileries,  and   the 


ROMAN  STATES  ANNEXED  TO  ITALY.  453 

Palais  Eoyal,  and  by  pulling  down  the  great  column  of  the  Place  Ven« 
dome,  the  proudest  monument  of  the  First  Empire.  The  venerable 
Archbishop  of  Paris  and  other  hostages  were  shot;  a  number  of  Domin- 
ican monks  were  murdered.  At  length  all  the  forts  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  Versailles  government,  the  insurgents  were  driven 
from  their  last  position  in  the  Cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise ;  ^^^  ' 
and  the  Commune  was  ended.  A  terrible  vengeance  was  exacted  by  the 
Court  Martial  at  Versailles,  which  ordered  multitudes  of  men  and  even 
women,  convicted  of  having  part  in  the  violent  proceedings  in  Paris,  to 
be  put  to  death. 

234,  In  ten  months  one  empire  had  fallen,  and  another,  of  different 
materials  and  organized  on  wholly  different  principles,  had  arisen  in 
Europe.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  without  having  taken  any  part  in  the 
general  contest,  had  reaped,  perhaps,  its  most  important  advantage.  Kome 
had  been  abandoned  by  its  French  protectors  in  August,  1870,  and  the 
next  month  it  was  quietly  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Victor  Emmanuel. 
The  Pope  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  the  Leonine  City  (Book  I., 
§  64),  and  in  all  his  honors  and  dignities  as  head  of  the  Roman  Church ; 
but  the  territories  formerly  under  his  sovereignty  were  declared  to  be 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  after  a  vote  of  the  people  had  expressed, 
with  scarcely  a  dissentient  voice,  their  desire  for  annexation.  The  gov- 
ernment, of  the  kingdom  was  transferred  to  the  ancient  capital,  July  1, 
1871. 

235.  After  the  resignation  of  Prince  Leopold  (§  220)  the  Spanish  crown 
was  accepted  by  Amadeo,  Duke  of  Aosta  and  second  son  of  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  of  Italy.  He  was  crowned,  Dec.  30,  1870,  and  gave  his  assent 
to  a  liberal  constitution  which  established  civil  and  religious  freedom  in 
a  nation  so  long  under  the  curse  of  despotism.  The  new  reign  had  con- 
tinued, however,  little  more  than  two  years  when  Amadeo  found  the 
difficalties  of  his  position  between  the  party  which  desired  yet  greater 
changes  and  the  Carlists,  who  were  supported  by  perpetual  intrigues  of 
the  priests,  too  great  for  endurance;  and  suddenly  resigned  the  crown, 
Feb.  11,  1873.     A  republic  was  then  proclaimed. 

French  war  in  Mexico.  Maximilian  of  Austria  cliosen  Emperor.  Upon  the  withdrawal 
of  French  troops  he  is  defeated  and  shot  at  Queretaro.  Reestablishment  of  Republic 
under  Juarez.  Napoleon  III.  seeks  compensation  for  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  in  Seven 
Weeks'  War.  Fall  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons.  Flight  of  Isabella  II.  Rival  claimants  to 
the  crown  ;  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  accepts  it,  subject  to  the  will  of  the  Spanish  people. 
New  liberal  constitution  in  France  ;  Ollivier  chief  minister.  King  of  Prussia  refusing  to 
render  account  to  France  of  Prince  Leopold's  candidacy,  Napoleon  declares  war.  Unpre- 
pared condition  of  the  French  army.  Its  repeated  disasters.  Riot  in  Paris  upon  receipt 
of  false  intelligence.  Palikao  succeeds  Ollivier.  Battle  of  Sedan  results  in  captivity  of 
Napoleon  III.  and  his  army.    Trochu  governor  of  Paris;  preparations  for  its  defense. 


454  MODERN  HISTORY, 

Flight  of  the  empress;  provisional  government  under  Trochu.  Peace  prevented  by  an- 
nexation of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  to  Germany.  Four  months'  siege  of  Paris.  Delegation 
of  the  Government  of  National  Defense  at  Tours,  afterward  at  Bordeaux.  Creation  of  an 
army  south  of  the  Loire.  Fall  of  Strasbourg  and  Metz.  IneflFectual  efforts  of  the  besieged 
army  to  break  out  of  Paris. 

Establishment  of  a  new  German  Empire  under  William  I.  Paris  is  reduced  by  famine 
and  bombardment.  Its  surrender.  Three  weeks'  armistice.  Constituent  Assembly  meets 
at  Bordeaux.  A  republic  organized  with  Thiers  at  its  head.  Bourbaki's  army  interned  in 
Switzerland.  Treaty  of  Versailles  cedes  Alsace  and  Lorraine  and  burdens  France  with  a 
ruinous  war  indemnity.  Communist  insurrection  in  Paris.  Three  months'  war  between 
the  two  governments  ended  by  victory  to  the  Assembly.  Rome  occupied  by  Victor  Em- 
manuel. Temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Popes  overthrown.  Keign  and  resignation  of 
Amadeo  in  Spain.    Spanish  Republic  proclaimed. 


QTJESTIOlSrS    IFOR.    REA^-IEAV. 

Book  V. 

1.  "WTiat  was  the  condition  of  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution?        §  1. 

2.  Describe  the  events  of  A.  D.  1789 2g  2-6. 

3.  What  occasioned  the  interference  of  other  European  powers  ?   .       .       .  .8. 

4.  What  changes  in  the  government,  A.  D.  1792, 1795,  and  1799?      ...  9,  33,  51. 

5.  Describe  the  earliest  war-movements  and  their  effect  at  Paris.  .       .  10-12, 15. 

6.  The  reign  of  Terror  and  its  chief  actors 13, 14,  25,  26. 

7.  The  character  and  acts  of  the  Convention 16-22. 

8.  What  counter-revolutions  occurred? 23,24,27,32. 

9.  Wliat  revolutions  in  the  Netherlands? 15,29,58,84,127. 

10.  Describe  the  policy  of  the  Directory  at  home  and  abroad.         .       .         33-35,  38,  41. 

11.  Describe  the  first  Italian  campaign  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte 36-38. 

12.  His  Austrian  campaign  and  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio.       .       .    39, 40. 

13.  His  Egyptian  campaign 44,  45,  50. 

14.  The  wars  of  the  Second  Coalition  (A.  D.  1798) 46-50,  54. 

15.  Bonaparte's  second  Italian  campaign 52. 

16.  What  were  the  conditions  and  effects  of  the  Peace  of  Luneville?    .       .       .53,  58. 

17.  Of  the  Treaty  of  Amiens? 55. 

18.  The  relations  of  England  and  Denmark  ? 55,  73. 

19.  Describe  the  legislative  acts  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.    .       .       .       .       .       .56. 

20.  The  establishment  of  the  first  French  Empire 60,  61,  66. 

21.  The  wars  of  the  Third  Coiilition.    .       .       .       .     -.^       .       .       .    62-65. 

22.  What  changes  occurred  in  Germany  ? ^ .       .       .       .66. 

23.  Describe  the  war  with  Prussia 67,  68-72. 

24.  The  Peninsular  ^Var 74-78,  85-87,  99. 

25.  What  events  preceded  the  Peace  of  Schonbrunn? 79-82. 

26.  What  changes  in  the  Stales  of  the  Church  within  a  century?  .    38,  41,  82, 151, 166,  235. 

27.  What  republics  were  formed  or  remodeled  after  tliat  of  France?    .        29,  40,  42,  46. 

28.  Describe  Napoleon's  Russian  campaign  and  its  results 89-94. 

29.  The  "War  of  Liberation"  in  Germany 95-98. 

30.  The  invasion  of  France  by  the  allies 100-102. 

31.  The  two  restorations  of  Louis  XVIII 103, 104, 108. 

32.  The  second  reign  of  Napoleon 105-107. 

33.  His  character 109. 

34.  The  war  between  England  and  the  United  States 110-112. 

85.  The  reorganization  of  Europe  after  the  wars  of  Napoleon.      .       .  113-116. 


QUESTIONS  FOB  REVIEW.  455 

36.  What  changes  in  Spain  during  the  last  sixty  years?    .       .       117, 118, 138,  218,  219,236. 

37.  In  Portugal? 119. 

38.  In  Italy  ? 120,  121,  129, 149-151,  163-166, 172, 235. 

39.  Describe  the  Greek  Revolution 130-135. 

40.  Interventions  of  France  and  England  in  Turkish  affairs.       .     136, 156-158. 

41.  The  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  in  France 125, 137, 139-141. 

42.  Tell  the  story  of  the  second  French  Republic 141, 142. 

43.  Of  the  Revolutions  of  1848 145-151. 

44.  Of  the  Coup  d'etat  and  the  rise  of  the  Second  French  Empire.       .    152-155. 

45.  Describe  the  invasion  of  the  Crimea  by  France  and  England 158-162. 

46.  Explain  the  Schleswig-Holstein  difficulties 144, 167, 168. 

47.  Describe  the  Seven  Weeks'  War,  its  causes  and  incidents 169-173. 

48.  What  recent  changes  in  Austria  ? 174, 175. 

49.  Explain  the  rise  of  the  British  dominion  in  India 176-181. 

50.  Describe  the  war  of  Englaad  with  China 182, 183. 

51.  AVith  the  Afghans  and  the  Sikhs 184-186. 

52.  The  Sepoy  Rebellion 187-190. 

53.  Tell  the  history  of  British  colonies  in  Australia 191-193. 

54.  In  New  Zealand 194,195. 

55.  In  Borneo 196. 

56.  Of  the  United  States  from  1815  to  the  end  of  the  war  with  Mexico.       197-200. 

57.  What  causes  of  dispute  existed  between  northern  and  southern  states?    .       .  201-203, 

58.  Describe  the  "Secession"  and  the  Civil  War 203-208. 

59.  What  relations  at  home  and  abroad  since  the  return  of  peace?      .       .       .  209-214. 
00.  Tell  the  storj'  of  the  Franco-Mexican  War 215, 216. 

61.  What  led  to  war  between  France  and  Germany  ? 217-221. 

62.  Relate  its  events 221-229,  231, 232. 

63.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  Peace  of  Versailles? 233. 

04.  Tell  the  history  of  the  Commune 233,234. 

65.  What  great  constitutional  change  in  Germany  during  the  war?       .       .       .    230. 


BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Abl 


BOOKS  RECOMMENDED  FOR  MORE  EXTENSIVE  READING. 

Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.    Milman's  Edition. 
Finlay's  History  of  Greece  under  the  Romans. 

"         History  of  Greece  from  Its  Conquest  by  the  Crusaders  to  its  Conquest 

by  the  Turks. 
"         History  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  A.  D.  717-1057. 
*'         History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek  Empires. 
Stanley's  History  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
Milman's  Histoi'y  of  Christianity. 

"  History  of  Latin  Christianity. 

Sismondi's  History  of  the  Italian  Republics. 
Parke  Godwin's  History  of  France. 
Michelet's  History  of  France. 
Martin's  History  of  France.    (The  last  named  may  supersede  all  others  for  readers 

of  French.) 
Voltaire's  Age  of  Louis  XIV. 
Life  of  Charles  XIL 
"  "      "  Peter  the  Great. 

Guizot's  History  of  Civilization. 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
Raumer's  History  of  the  Hohenstaufen. 
Coxe's  House  of  Austria. 
Froissart's  Chronicles. 
JNIeraoirs  of  Philip  de  Comines. 
Kirke's  Life  of  Charles  the  Bold. 
iMajor's  Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 
Prescott's  Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
"  Conquest  of  Mexico. 

"  Conquest  of  Peru. 

"  Edition  of  Robertson's  Charles  the  Fifth. 

"  Life  of  Philip  the  Secoiad. 

Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 
"  United  Netherlands. 

"  Life  of  J.  van  Olden  Barneveldt. 

Ranke's  History  of  Germany  during  the  Reformation. 

"         History  of  the  Popes. 
Hiibner's  Life  and  Times  of  Sixtus  V. 
"Weiss'  History  of  French  Protestant  Refugees. 
Pressense's  History  of  Protestantism  in  France. 
Memoirs  of  the  Due  de  St.  Simon. 
D'Aubign6's  History  of  the  Reformation. 
Campbell's  Life  of  Petrax-ch. 
Villari's  Life  of  Savonai'ola. 
Grimm's  Life  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Trollope's  History  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Florence. 
Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  cl6  Medici. 

"         Life  of  Leo  X. 
Dyer's  History  of  Modern  Europe. 
Turner's  Anglo  Saxons. 
Palgrave's  Normandy  and  England. 
Thierry's  Norman  Conquest. 


458  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Freeman's  Norman  Conquest. 
Knight's  Popular  History  of  England. 
Miss  Strickland's  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England. 
■"  "  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland  and  of  English   Princesses 

connected  with  the  Succession.     (To  be  consulted  chiefly  for  illustrations  of 

manners  and  customs— with  great  caution  as  to  characters.) 
Hume's  History  of  England  to  A.  D.  1688. 
Macaulay's  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  II. 

"  Essays  on  Bacon,  Milton,  Hampden,  Hastings,  Sir  Wm.  Temple,  ei  al. 

Carlyle's  Life  and  Letters  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 

Fronde's  History  of  England  from  the  Death  of  Wolsey  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth. 
Mahon's  History  of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace  of  Versailles. 
Molesworth's  History  of  England  from  A.  D.  1830. 
Thackeray's  Lectures  on  the  Four  Georges. 
Mrs.  Oliphant's  Sketches  of  the  Reign  of  George  II. 
Jesse's  Life  and  Reign  of  George  III. 
Campbell's  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors. 

"  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  England. 

Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 
Parkman's  Pioneers  of  P'rance  in  the  New  World. 
"  Jesuits  in  North  America. 

♦'  Discovei-y  of  the  Great  West. 

"  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 

"  Oregon  Trail. 

Palfrey's  History  of  New  England. 
Irving's  Mahomet  and  His  Successors. 

"        Conquest  of  Granada. 

"        Life  of  Columbus. 

"        Life  of  Washington. 
Sparks'  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolution. 

"        Lives  of  Washington,  Franklin,  G.  Morris,  et  al. 
De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America. 
Carlyle's  Frederic  the  Great. 

"          French  Revolution. 
Lamartine's  Girondists. 
Thiers'  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

"       The  Consulate  and  the  Empire. 
Lanfrey's  Life  of  Napoleon.  t 

Kinglake's  War  in  the  Crimea. 
Malet's  Overthrow  of  the  Germanic  Confederation. 
Hozier's  Seven  Weeks'  War. 

The  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  and  the  Policy  of  Count  von  Beust.    By  an  Eng- 
lishman. 
Riistow's  War  for  the  Rhine  Frontier. 

Lectures  on  Modern  History,  by  Dr.  Arnold,  Prof.  Goldwin  Smith,  Prof.  Seelyc. 
Bulwer's  Historical  Characters. 
Mrs.  Jameson's  Historical  Portraits. 


Among  numberless  worJcs  of  imagination  illustrative  of  Ulstory,  the  following 
tnny  he  especially  recommended : 

Southey's  Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths. 

Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered.    Fairfax's  Translation. 


APPENDICES.  459 


Daute's  Divine  Comedy.    Longfello\v!s  Translation  and  Notes. 

Camoens'  Lusiad. 

Byrou's  Marino  Faliero. 

Scott's  Historical  Novels. 

Bulwev's  Rienzi,  the  Last  of  the  Tribunes. 

"  The  Last  of  the  Barons. 

Kingsley's  Amyas  Leigh,  or  Westward,  Ho! 

"  Two  Years  Ago. 

*'  Hereward,  the  Last  of  the  Saxons. 

George  Elliot's  Roinola. 
Dickens'  Barnaby  Rudge. 
Dickens'  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 
Goethe's  Goetz  of  Berlichingen. 

"  Egmont. 

Schiller's  Mai'y  Stuart. 

"  Maid  of  Orleans. 

"  William  Tell. 

"  Don  Carlos. 

"  Wallenstein,  Coleridge's  Translation. 

Henry  Taylor's  Philip  van  Artevelde. 


APPENDIX    A. 

DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  SWISS  CONFEDERATION. 

1.  Alliance  of  III.  primitive  Cantons:   Schwytz,  Uri,  Unterwald  (Pure 

democracy) A.  D.  1291 

2.  Alliance  of  IV.  Forest  Cantons  (Waldstiitteu):  Schwytz,  Uri,  Unter- 

wald, Lucerne 1332 

3.  Alliance  of  V.  Cantons:    Schwytz,  Uri,  Unterwald,  Lucerne,  Zurich 

(Domination  of  the  burghers) 1350 

4.  Alliance  of  VIII.  Cantons.     Accession  of  Glaris  and  Zug,  lo52;   of 

Berne 1353 

5.  Confederation  of  XIII.  Cantons.    Accession  of  Fribourg  and  Soleure, 

1481;  Basle  and  Schaffhausen,  1501;  Appenzell 1513 

Foreign  military  service 

Reformation. 

Aristocratic  rule.    Decline  and  Revolution. 

6.  Helvetic  Republic,  one  and  indivisible.     The  Cantons  suppressed, 

under  influence  of  the  French  Directory 1798 

7.  Act  of  Mediation.    XIX  Cantons.    Accession  of  St.  Gall,  Grisons,  Ar- 

govie,  Thurgovie,  Tessin,  and  Vaud,  uncler  influence  of  Napoleon  1803 

8.  Treaty  of  1815.     Confederation  of  Sovereign  States,  under  influence 

of  the  Holy  Alliance.    XXII  Cantons.    Accession  of  Valais,  Neu- 

chatel,  and  Geneva 1815 

9.  Federal  Constitution,  voted  by  the   Swiss   People  without   foreign 

influence,   XXII  Cantons   forming   XXV   States,   all   democratic 
republics,  September  12 1848 


460 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


B—Page  104. 
HOUSES  OF  VALOIS  AND   ORLE'ANS. 
King  John. 
Chakl.es  V.    Louis  I.,  Dukeof  Anjou.  i  John,  Duke  of  Berri.   Philip  the  'Bold. 

Louis,  Duke  of  Or-  John  the  Fearless. 

16ans.  I 

J P  I 


Charles  VI. 

I 

Charles  VII. 

I 

Louis  XI. 

I 

Charles  VIII. 


Charles,  Duke  of       Jolin,   C't    of    An-  Philip  the  Good. 

Orleans.                        goul^me.  | 

I                                Cli'arles,  C't  of  An-  Charles  the  Bold. 

Louis  XII.                     goul^me.  | 

Francis  I.  Mary. 


N.  B. — Kings  of  France  are  in  capital  letters,  Dukes  of  Burgundi/  in  italics. 


C.—Page  296. 

THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION. 

Philip  III. 


Anne  of  Austria,  m.  Louis  XIII.      Philip  IV.,  m.  Eliz.  of      Mary  Anne,  m.  FER- 
I  I       France.  I  DINAND  III. 

Louis XIV.,  m.  Maria  Theresa.  Charles  II.    Marg't  Theresa,  in.  LEOPOLD  I.,  who 
I  B  m.  {2d)  Mai-y  Anne  of  Neuberg. 

Louis  Daupliin. 

■    I  .1 


Maiy  Antoinette,  m.        JOSEPH  I.  CHARLES  VI. 
8  Elector  of  Bavaria. 
Joseph  Ferdinand,  Electoral  Prince  of  Bavaria. 


Louis.  Philip  V. 

N.  B. — Emperors  arc  in  large  capitals,  Kings  of  Spain  in  small  capitals,  Kings  of  France  in  italics 


T>—Page  304. 
HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION. 


James  I.  of  England. 


Charles  I. 

Henrietta  Maria,  m.  D.  of  Orleans. 


Anne  Marie,  m.  Victor  Amadeus, 
•  "     D.  of  Savoy. 


Elizabeth,  m.  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine. 
Sopliia,  m.  Duke  of  Brunswick  Luneburg,  aft. 

8       Elector  of  Hanover. 
George  Lewis,  Elector  of  Hanover,  became 
George  L,  King  of  Great  Britain. 


Charles  Emmanuel,  Duke  of  Savoy. 

It  will  he  seen  that  the  House  of  Savnt/  was  one  step  nearer  to  the  English  throne  than  that  of  Bnmsivick 
or  Ilanocer.     The  latter  succeeded  by  the  Act  of  Parliament  excluding  Romanists. 


IKDEX. 


N.  B. — Kings,  Queens  {in  their  own  right),  Emperors,  and  Popes  are  named  under  their 

respective  dominions.     Where  the  list  is  continuous,  only  one  date, 

that  0/ ACCESSION,  is  added  to  each  name. 


Abbas'sides,  32,  33,  39,  68, 124. 
Abbeville  (ab'vel),  155. 
Abdal'lah,  116. 
Abdalrah'man,  32. 
Abderrah'man,  32. 
Abelard  (ab'a  lar),  81,  82,  120. 
Aberorombie,  377. 
Aberdeen,  Lord,  -121 . 
Aboukir  (ab  00  keei'), 372,  375. 
Abu  Beker  (a  boo  bekr),  .30. 
Acapulco  (ak  a  pool'ko),  312. 
Acre  (a'ker),  69,  77,  375,  410. 
Adalbert  (ad'al  ber),  53, 
Adam,  L'lle  (leel  a  doN),  170. 
Ad'da,  248,  209. 
Adelaide,  53. 
Adige(a  de'je),  299,416. 
Adolph,  Count,  of  Nassau,  215. 
Ador'no,  Antoniot'to,  168, 175. 
Adrianople,  126,410. 
Adriatic,  17,  36,  51,  64,  113,  124, 

1.%,  389. 
.^gi'na,  288. 
./Ene'as  Syl'vius.  See  Pope  Pius 

II. 
Afghans,  Afghanistan,  123, 124, 

431. 
Africa,  15,  17,  22,  25,  27,  169,  182, 

186,  198,  221,  222,  237,  263,  311, 

313,  336,  450. 
Ag'ilulf,  24. 

Agincourt  (a  zhan  koor'),  102. 
Agnadello  (an  ya  del'lo),  150. 
Aix  la  Chapelle  (iiks  la  shapel'), 

.37,  38,  41,  53,  83,  85,  107,  161, 

180,    278,    328,    330,    334,    401, 

403. 
Akbar,  124. 
Alaba'nia,  439,  440. 
Steamer,  441. 
Aland  Isles,  385. 
Al'bany,277,  315. 
Alba'nia,    Albanians,    126,   127, 

407. 
Al'bcmarlo,  315. 
Al'beric,  52. 


Albert  of  Austria,  Archduke, 

233,  23.S,  239.  244. 
the  Great,  120. 
of  Anhalt,  "  the  Bear,"  80. 
Albigenses  (al'be  zhon  sez),  56, 

74,  89,  95. 
Alboin,  23,  24. 
Albret  (al  bra'),  159, 167. 
Albuera  (al  boo  a'ra),  390. 
Alcala',  160. 
Alcan'tara,  221. 
Alca'zarqui'ver,  221. 
Alcuin  (al'kwin),  37,  note. 
Al'dns  Minu'tius,  119. 
Aleman'ni,  17-19. 
Alep'po,  66,  71,  75. 
Alencon  (aloN'sox),  Francis  D., 

of,  219,220.   SeeAnjou. 
Duchess  of.     See  Jlarga- 

ret  of  Navarre. 
Alessandria,  82,  328,  368,  376. 
Alexander  of  Macedon,  27,  56, 

431. 
of  Iles'se,  425. 
Far  nose     (-nu'sa).        See 

Parma. 
Alexandria,  30, 51 ,  78, 132, 372,377. 
Alexis,  son  of  Peter  the  Great, 

323. 
Algiers,  Alge'ria,  182,  186,  271, 

290,404,  411. 
Algon'quins,  316. 
Alham'bra,  115. 
Ali  (a'lee),  33. 
Alicant',  301. 
Alkmaar',  216. 
Al'ma,  421 . 
Almii'gro,  137. 

Almamun  (al  ma  moon'),  40. 
Alman'sor,  40. 
Alman'za,  .302. 
Almeida  (iil  mfi'e  da),  390, 
Almeric,  69,  74. 
Alost',  217. 
Alp  Arslan',  61,  125. 
Alps,  16.  22-24.  38,  .52.  5.3,  55,  140, 

157,  172,  188,  277.  .366,  .369,  370, 

376. 

461 


Alpujarras  (al  poo  har'ras),  208. 
Al'sace,  17,  105,  177, 257,  263,  279, 

280,  297,  326,  358,  449,  452. 
Al'sen,424. 
AltaKal  tl),  27. 
Altranstadt,  308,  309. 
Alva,  Duke  of,  154,  186,  201,  214- 

216,221. 
Alva'ro  de  Luna,  114. 
Alvinzi  (al  vint'sl),  369. 
AmadtJ'us  of  Savoy,  110, 
Amal'afri'da,  (-fre'da),  25. 
Amal'aric,  21. 
Amalason'tha,  22. 
Amal'fi  (-fe),  52,  .56,  62, 120. 
Amals,  18,  22. 

Amboise  (oNb'waz),  201,  206. 
Cardinal  of,  144,  147-151. 
America,  42,  91,  116,  117,  131-139, 

198,  2fMl.  21),  229,  233.  263,  277, 

291,297,304,  311-318,  320,  .324, 

330,334,-336,  343-348,  .351,  380, 

399,402,437,  444. 
Amiens  (a  me  on'),  233,  378,  379, 

450. 
Amoy',  4,31. 
Amida  (ii  me'da),  26. 
Amrou,  31. 
Am'sterdam',  212,  216,  223,  238, 

279. 
Anacle'tus,  80,  81. 
An'afes'ta,51. 
Anagni  (a  nan'ye),  93,  94. 
Anco'na,  111,423. 
Andalu'sia,  387,  .391. 
Andrassy,  427. 
Andrewr  Palseol'ogns,  141. 
.\ngo'ra,  125. 
Angouleme     (ox     goo    Ifmie'), 

Duchess  of.    See  Louisa  of 

Savoy. 
Duke  of.  402. 
Angles,  Anglo-Saxons,    17.  20, 

42,49.81. 
Anjou  (oN'zhoo)  county,  44,  46, 

m,  104. 

Count   Charles  of,  76,  77, 

81,  85,  90,  99. 


Anj 


INDEX. 


Bav 


Aiijou,  Duke  Louis  1.,  98-101. 
"      III.,  112. 
"       Rene,  112,  192. 
House  of,  in  Italy,  93,  94, 
100,104,  105,157,  192,  261. 

Henry,  Duke  of,  207.    See 
France,  K.  Henry  III. 

Francis,  Duke  of,  220-222, 
224-226. 
Anna  Conime'na,  58. 
Annap'olis,  344. 
Anne  Boleyn  (bool'in),  181. 
of  Austria,  240,  260. 
of  Beaujeu  (bo  zhu')  106, 
170. 
of  Boliemia,  108. 
of  Brittany,  106, 144,  155. 
of  Cleves,  184. 
Anthe'mius,  25. 
Antioch  in  Syria,  64-68,  76,  77. 
Antie'tam,441. 

Ant'werp,  185,  212,  214,  218,  223, 
226,  227,  257,  328,  361,  391,  406. 
Ap'pomat'tox,  442. 
Aprax'in,  332. 
Apu'lia,  49,  50,  52,  56. 
Aquitaine',  19,  32,  34-37,  44,  67, 

81,86,89,97,98. 
Arabia,  Arabs,  19,  29-34,  39-42, 
52,  61,  S3,  115,  118-121,160,372. 
Ar'ago,  412,  449. 

Aragon,  36,  90,  93, 94, 114-116, 198, 
301,302. 

House  of,  in  Italy,  93,  112, 
145, 157. 
Kings  of— 
Pedro  III.  (A.  D.   1276-1285), 

84,  85. 
James  II.  (1291-1327),  93. 
Alfonso   V.  (1416),   112-115. 
John  II.  (1458),  114, 115. 
Ferdinand  (1479),  114-116,  135, 
140-150,158,181, 
Araucanians,  138. 
Arco'ie(-ia),  369. 
Arcot,  429. 

Arctic  Ocean,  16,  124. 
Arcblpel'ago,  73,  184. 
Arcis-sur-Aube      (ar'se      sur- 

obe'),  395. 
Ar'gentine  llepublic,  402. 
Argonne',  .361. 
Argyle,  Marquis  of,  273. 

Earl  of,  293. 
Arkan'sas,  138,  320,  440. 
Ai-'istotle,83,  122. 
Arians,  18,  21. 

Aries  (arl),  17,  46,  53,  70,  121. 
ArnicUini  (-le'ne),  416. 
Armenia,  Armenians,  28, 61,  64, 

125. 
Arnulf,  46. 

Arnheim  (-lilme),  228. 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  82. 
Arno,  51. 
Arques  (ark),  232. 
Arran,  193. 


Ar'ras,  259. 

Artois  (artwa'),  76,  105,  176,  259. 
Charles,    Count    of,    380. 

See  France,King  Charles  X. 
Artevelde,  Jacques  van  (zhak 

van  ar  ta  vel'de),  97. 
As'calon,  66,  69. 
Aschat^fenberg,  425. 
Asia,  15,  25,  32,  42,  58,  61,  77,  79, 

100,  117,  123,  124,  131,  132,  139, 

198,  262,  312,  313,  336,  385,  428. 
Minor,   49,   61,  66,  67,  82, 

125,  126,  375. 
As'pern,  389. 
As'ti  (-te),  328. 
Astu'rias,  31. 

John,  Prince  of,  143. 
Alfonso,  Prince  of,  446. 
Atahualpa  (-hwal-),  137. 
Athal'aric,  22. 
Athens,  26, 114,  287,  409,  410. 
Atlanta,  441. 
Atlantic,  16,  21,  30,  132-1.35,  138, 

306,  314,  347,  437,  441. 
Attali'a,  67. 
At'tila,  36. 
Aubigny  (o  been'ye).  Constable 

d',  142,  145. 
Auerstadt  (ow'er  stet),  383. 
Augsburg     (owgs'boorg),     163, 

164,  179,  193-195,  254,  255,  263. 
Augustenburg    (ow    goos'ten- 

boorg),  413,  424. 
Augustus,  title,  28,  36,  451. 
Aumale  (o  miil'),  Francis,  Duke 

of,  192,  193.    See  Guise. 

Claude,  Duke  of,  196. 

Aurelles  de  Paladines  (o  rel'  de 

pal'a  deen'),  450. 
Aurungzebe  (o'rung  zab'),  124, 

428. 
Australia,  428,  434,  435. 
Austerlitz    (ow'ster  letz),  381, 

382. 
Austria,  Duchy,  85,  93,  109, 185, 

189,  199,  233,  239,  242-244,  321, 

328-331,  336,  346,  349,  351,  358, 

366,  369,  370,  373-377,  .380. 
Leopold  V.  of,  69-71,80. 
Leopold  of  Hapsburg,  D. 

of,  107. 

Leopold  I,  (1315).  96. 
Empire  of,  37,  382,  385, 388- 

301,  393,  400-403,  410,  413-416, 

420-427. 
Emperors  of— 
Francis  I.  (A.  D.  1804),  3,S2, 

3S9-391 . 
Ferdinand  I.  (183.-)),  403,  415. 
Francis  Joseph  (1848), 415,422- 

427. 
House  of.  See  Hapsburgs. 
Austra'sia,  19,  20,  32. 
Auxerre  (5  ser'),  38. 
Avignon  (a  ven'yoN),  95, 100, 162, 

.369,  401. 
Avars,  27. 

462 


Azores',  132-134,  222, 233. 

Azo'tus,  76. 

Az'ov,  287,  288,  310,  324, 421. 

B 

Ba'ber,  124. 

Bacon,  Roger,  118, 120. 

Ba'den,  Dukes  and  Duchy,  196, 

287,  3(10,  382,  388,  414,  447,  451. 
Badajos  (ba  da  hos'),  390. 
Baha'mas,  133. 
Bahia  (ba'ea),  138. 
Bailly  (ba'le),  356. 
Bagdad',  33, 40,  42,  62,  68,  124,  125. 
Balakla'va,  421. 
Bal'dur,  18. 
Bal'ear'ic  Isles,  17,  302. 
Balbo'a,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  136, 

137. 
Bal'kan,  287. 
Baltic  Sea,  17,  35-37,  43,  82,  94, 

117,  251,  261,  282-284,307,310, 

334,394,401,421. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  315. 

City,  400,  440. 
Balti,  18. 
Banner,  258-260. 
Bar,  169. 
Barbaros'sa,Turk,  182-184,  187, 

188. 
See     Roman     Emperors, 

Frederic  I. 
Barbary  States,  32,  100. 
Bar'bacan,  75. 
Barba'does,  271. 
Barcelo'na,  36,  ^5,  121,  134,  179, 

259,  275,  301. 
Bar'mecides,  40. 
Barneveldt',  J.  van  Olden,  238, 

241,  242. 
Barlaimont',  212, 
Bari(ba're),  101. 
Baroncelli  (-chel'le),  100. 
Bas'sora,  235. 
Bas'ientel'lo,  53. 
Bassa'no,  369. 

Bassignano  (ba'sen  yii'no),  328. 
Basle  (bal),  109,  110,  164, 366,  379, 

394. 
Bastile'  (-teel),  203,  231,  274,  355, 

3;j8. 
Bata'via,  235. 

Batavian  Republic,  .374,  377-379. 
Bathori  (ba'to  re),  219. 
Bautzen  (bowt'sen),  393. 
Bavaria,  Bavarians,  19,  35,  .36, 

44,  81,  109,  180,   189,  233,  2.19, 

253,  254,  263,  301,  .325,  326,  33(). 
366,  377,  381,  382,  3^8,  .389,  394, 
410,414,447,  451. 

Electors  of,   239,  244,  252- 

254,  263,  295,  300,  302,  304.  327, 
381. 

Prince  Charles  of,  425. 
Joseph  Clement  of,  297, .300. 
Ernest    of,   Abp.    of    Co- 
logne, 2.34. 


Bav 


INDEX. 


Bru 


Bavaria,  Kings  of— 

Louis  I.  (A.  D.  1825),  4K. 
Maximilian  II.  (1848),  414. 
Louis  II.  (1864),  451. 
Bay'ard,  15S,  171. 
Baylen,  387. 
Bayonne',  387,  394,  446. 
Bazaine',  448,  450. 
Beam  (ba  ai'),  154. 
Beaton,  Cardinal,  193. 
Beauharnais,  Eugene  (bo  ar'- 

na),  .380,  388,  392,  391,  396. 
Beclcet,  Thos.  k,  86, 88. 
Beerwald  (bar  valt),  251. 
"Beggars,"  213-215,  238. 
Beirftt  (ba  root),  26,  77. 
Belfort  (bel  for'),  451. 
Belgian  Republic,  351,  361. 
Belgium,  299,  367,  396,  405,  445, 

447. 
King  Leopold  I.  of  (A.D. 

1830-1865),  405. 
Belgrade',  21,  110,  111,  170,  178, 

287,  320,  324. 
Belisa'rius,  22-26. 
Belle'ville,  395. 
Bena'res,  123. 
Ben'der,309,  391. 
Benedek,  425,  426. 
Benedet'ti  (-te),  445,  447. 
Benedictines,  90,  94, 
Beneven'to,  24,  50,  84,  382. 
Bengal',  123,  429,  433. 
Bentivoglios  (-vol'yo),  151. 
Berbice  (-beess),  368. 
Beresina,  392. 
Berg,  184,239,383,  401. 
Ber'gamo,  152. 
Berg'en,  117. 
Bergen  op  Zoom,  238. 
Bergerac  fber'zhe  rak'),  220,  221. 
Berkeley,  315. 
Berlin',  SO,  291,332,  334,  381,  383, 

384,393,445. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (-vo),  67, 

80,81,90. 
Bernadotte',  382,  383,   391,   393, 

404.    See  Sweden,  K.  Charles 

XIV. 
Berne,  371. 
Berri  (-re),  221). 

Dukes  of,  98,  99, 104. 
Duchess  of,  410. 
Berserkers,  43. 
Bertha,  48. 

Berthier  (ber'te  at,  370-372,  382. 
Bertrand  de  Goth  (-go),  95. 
Berwick,  Duke  of  (ber'rik),  301, 

302,  322,  323. 
Besan^on  (b'zoN  son'),  32. 
Bessara'bia,  391. 
Bethlehem,  75. 
Bethlem  Gabor,  243. 
Beust,  Baron  von  (boist),  427. 
Be'za,  205,  206. 
Biarritz  (be  ar'rits),  425. 
Biron  (be  roN),  236. 


I  Biscay,  31,  259. 
Bismarck   (bes'mark),   424-426, 

445,  447,  449,  451. 
Bithoor',  433. 
Bithyn'ia,  61. 
Black  Sea,  16,  26,  78, 113, 209,  288, 

341,  350,  422. 
Blake,  270-272. 
Bleneau  (-5),  274. 
Blenheim  (-hime),  300. 
Blois   (blwa),  64,   151,   194,  220, 

241. 
Blucher  (bloo'ker),  383, 394,  395, 

397. 
Boabdil,115. 

Bobadilla  (bob  a  deel'ya),  135. 
Boccaccio  (bok  kat'cho),  121. 
Bo'emond  of  Taran'to,  62,  64. 
Boe'thius,  21. 

Bohe'niia,  Bohemians,  18,  81,  95, 

96,  107-109,  178,   190,  191,  199, 

239,  242-244,  253,  256-261,  321, 

324, 325, 403, 425,  426. 

Sovereigns  of— 

Ottocar  II.  (A.  D.  1253-1278), 

Bb,  95. 
John  (A.  D.  1310-1346),  96,  97. 
Wenceslaus     VI.    (1378-1419), 

107-109. 
Sigisniund  (1419-1437),  109. 
Ferdinand   I.   (1526),  178-180, 

185,  190-195, 198. 
Maximilian  (1564),  207,  218. 
Rudolph  (1576),  219,239. 
Matthias  (1611),  242. 
Ferdinand  II.  (1617),  242-244. 
Frederic  (1619),  243,244. 
Ferdinand  III.  (1627),  256. 
Sameioith  Rom.  Emperors,  until 
Maria  Theresa  (1740),  324-327, 
330,331,336,340,350. 
Bokha'ra,  125. 

Bolivar  (bo  lee'var),  402,  note. 
Boliv'ia,  138,  402. 
Bologna  (bo  lon'ya),  120, 151 ,  152, 

158,  179,  192,369,  370. 
Bombay',  318. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome,  3^5, 392,  394, 
449. 

Joseph,  380,  382,  385,  387, 
395. 

Louis,  .380,  385,  390,  406. 
Louis  Napoleon,  406,  412, 
417-419,  423,426,444-449. 
Lucien,  417. 
Bonnivet  (-va),  171. 
Bordeaux  (-do),  97, 193,  395,  450- 
452, 
Duke  of,  405. 
Bor'neo,  428,  436. 
Borodino  (-dee'no),  392. 
Borromeo  (-ma'o),  Charles,  199, 

204. 
Bos'nia,    126,    179,  234,  287,  324, 

407. 
Boso,  46. 
Bos'porus,  27. 

463 


Bossuet'  (-swa),  306. 

Boston,  344. 

Bosworth,  103. 

Both'nia,  385. 

Bothwell,  210. 

Boufflers  (boo'fler),  292. 

Bouillon  (bool'you),  Duke  of, 

237,  240. 
Boulogne  (boo  Ion),  187,406,  418. 
Bourbaki  (boor  ba'ke),  451. 
Bourbon  (boor  boN),  House  of, 
170,  222,  231,  317,  380,  396,  404, 
405,  446. 

Spanish  in  Italy,  323,  402, 
403,  424. 

Constable  de,  156,  158,  159, 
170-174,  231. 
Bourdaloue  (boor  dS  loo'),  306. 
Bourmont  (boor  moN'),  404. 
Boy ne,  294. 

Bozzaris  (bot  za'ris),  409. 
Brabant',  105,  215,  216,  226,  229, 

239. 
Braganca,  dynasty,  259,  386. 
Brandenburg,  53,  80,  107,    109, 
332. 
Albert  of,  194, 196. 
Electors  of— 
Joachim  I.,  177. 
Joachim  II.,  185. 
John  Sigisniund,  239,240. 
George  William,  252. 
Frederic  William  the  Great, 

278,  279,  282,  284,  291,  299. 
Frederic  III.,  299.    See  Prus- 
sia, kings  of. 
Brandy  wine,  345. 
Brankirka  (-kcer'ka),  245. 
Brazil',  134,  136,  138,  222,  259,  313, 
314,  3^18, 386,  402,  403. 

Emperor  of— Pedro  I.,  402, 
403. 
Breda  (bra'da),  278,  .362. 
Brederode  (bra'de  ro'dS),  213. 
Breisach  (bri'zak),  300. 
Brem'en,  69,  190,  263,  283. 
Brescia  (bresh'e  a),  152,  369,  416. 
Brest,  306,  333. 
Bretigny  (bret  een'ye),  98. 
Briconnct  (bre  son  na'),  189. 
Briel  (breel),  215  228. 
Brienne  (bre  en'),  389,  395. 
Brihtric  (brit'rik),  42. 
Brihuega  (bre  hwa'ga),  ."503. 
Brindlsi    (brin'de  se),    78,   111, 

149. 
Bristol,  268. 

Britain,  Britons,  16,  17,  43. 
Brittany,  Bretagne,  44,  47,  81, 

98,  106,  1.38,  140,  144,  155. 
Brixen,388. 
Brcimsebro,  261. 
Brooke,  James,  4.36. 
Bru'ges,  117,302,327. 
Brunehaut(-ho\19,  20. 
Brunclleschi  (broo  nel  les'ke), 
122. 


Bru 


INDEX. 


Cha 


Brunswick,  Dukes  and  Duchy, 
190, 1%,  333,  359-361,  383,  385, 
394. 
House  of,  in  England,  335. 
Prince  Ferdinand  of,  333- 
335. 
Bru'sa,  126. 

Brussels',  159,  194,  202,  203,  214, 
215,  218,  223,  224,  271,  272,  302, 
328,  333,  405. 
Bucharest  (book  a  rest'),  391. 
Buckingham,  249,  250. 
Bucquoi  (book  kwii'),  242-244. 
Bu'da,  178,  179,  217,  285. 
Buenos  Ayres  (bwa'nos  i'rez), 

138. 
Bulgaria,  Bulgarians,  18,  25,  27, 
41,  57,  58,  63,  126,  179,  407. 
Bogoris,  king  of,  41. 
Biilow,  395. 
Bunker  Hill,  344. 
Buren,  Count  of,  214,  227. 
Burgoyne',  335,  345. 
Bur'gundy,   Burgundians,    17- 
20,22,34,46,53,80,121. 

Duchy,    105,  140,  157,    167, 
172,173,176,278. 
Dukes  of— 
Rudolph,  47. 
Hugh  the  Great,  47. 
Hugh  III.,  69. 

Dukes   of   the   House   of 
Valois— 
Philip  the  Bold,  99-101. 
John  the  Fearless,  101, 102. 
Philip  the  Good,  102-104. 
Charles  the  Bold,  104,  105. 
Mary,  Duchess  of,  105, 106, 
157. 

Margaret,  lieiress  of,  106, 
143,  14S,  154, 156,  169,  183. 
"Circle"  of,  193, 19S,  214. 
County  of.    See  Franche 
Conit6. 

Louis  of  France,  Duke  of, 
302-.'',04. 
Burkersdorf,  3:56. 
Burniah,  121,  433. 
Bute,  3.".5. 
Butler,  440. 

Byng,  Admiral.  302,  3.31. 
Byron,  Lord,  409. 
Byzantine.     See    Roman   Em- 
pire of  the  East. 

(; 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  136, 138. 

Cabral',  136. 

Cabrieres  (ka  bre  a  re),  189 

Cabrillo  (ka  breel'yo),  138. 

Cabul  (ka  boon,  431. 

Ca'diz,  131,  229,  232,  272,  346,  387, 

390,  .'591,  402. 
Caen',  3^3. 

Cfesar  Borgia,  144, 146, 147. 
Cassars,  Emperors,  36,  .39,  .W,  73, 

132,  140,  152,  380,  382. 


Caesare'a,  66. 
Cagliari  (kal  ya  re),  182. 
Cairo  (ki'ro;,  62, 65, 68, 76,372,374. 
Cajetan,  Cardinal,  164. 
Cala'bria,  24,  41,  46,  50, 142,  187. 

Dukes  of,  112. 
Calais  (ka  la'),  97,  15.5,  161,  167, 

171,202,206. 
Calcutta,  318,  428,  429,  434. 
California,  438, 439. 
Calmar,  Union  of,  245. 
Calonne',  353. 
Calvary,  65. 

Calvin,  John,  183,  208,  212, 
Calvinists,  240,  242. 
Canibaceres',  376,  380. 
Cambray,   133,  148-150,  159,  176, 

194,  226,  232. 
Camden,  346. 
Campagna  (-pan'ya),  201. 
Campania,  23. 
Campo  Formio,  370,  401. 
Canada,  318,  320,  334, 343-345,  399. 
Canary  Isles,  117, 132,  133. 
Candia,  Crete,  40, 57, 11.3,  285,  410. 
Canino,  Pr.  Charles  of  (ka  ne'- 

no),  417. 
Cannes  (kan),  396. 
Canning.  See  Stratford  deRed- 

clifife. 
Cano'puH,  .377. 
Canos'sa,  55. 
Canterbury,  86,  87, 181. 
Canton',  430,  431. 
Cape  Breton  Isles,  328,  334. 
Cape  Verde  Isles,  1.32. 
Capets  rka  pa'),  48,  97, 173,  249. 
Capo  d'Istrias  (ka  po  dis'tre  a), 

409. 
Cap'ua,  .50,  141. 
Carac'cas,  312. 
Caraf  fa.    See  Paul  IV. 
Carbona'ri,  403,  404,  422. 
Cardis,284. 
Care'lia,  283,  308. 
Caribbee  Is.,  134. 
Carignano  (ka  ren  ya'no),  406. 
Carin'thia,  85,  140,  195,  394. 
Carlisle',  269. 
Carlos,    son   of  Philip   II.    of 

Spain,  199,  233. 
son  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain, 

320-323,334.    See  "Two  Sici- 
lies." 
bro.  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of 

Spain,  411,  446. 
Carlot'ta,  444. 
Carlovingians,  34,  44,  48,  52. 
Carlsbad',  404. 
Carlscro'na,  .378. 
Carlsruhe  (-roo),  388. 
Carlstadt',  176. 
Carmelites,  91. 
Carnio'la,  85. 
Carolina,  .315-317. 
(Carolina,  North,  440. 
South,  439,  4«2. 

464 


Carpathian  Mts.,  16,  285. 
Car'rickfer'gus,  334. 
Carrier,  364,  365. 
Cartage'na  in  Spain,  186,301. 

in  South  America,  229, 312. 
Carteret,  315,  326. 
Carthage,  77. 
Carthusians,  90. 
Cartier  (kar  te  a'),  133. 
Casa'le,  275,  323. 
Caspian  Sea,  16,  26,  401. 
Cassa'no,  301, 373. 
Cassel,  280. 
Cassiodo'rus,  21,  22. 
Castal'do,  195. 

Castiglione  (kas  tel  yo'na),  369. 
Castile  (-teel),  93,  9S,  99,  114, 148, 
154, 198. 
Sovereigns  of— 
Alfonso  the  Wise  (A.  D.  1252- 

1284),  85. 
Pedro  the  Cruel  (1350),  98,  99. 
Henry  II.  (1368-1379),  98. 
John  II.  (1406),  114. 
Henry  IV.  (1454),  114. 
Isabella  (1474),  114-116,  133-135, 
140,  143,  148,  181. 
Catalonia,  36,  114,  132,  259,  262, 

275,  296,  301,  302,  390. 
Cateau   Cambresis    (kiitokam 

bra'se),  202,  203,213. 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  143,  181, 

197. 
Catinat  (ka  te  na),  295,  299. 
Caucasian  Mts.,  16,  27. 
Cavaignac  (ka  ven  yak'),  412. 
Cavour  (ka  voor'),  423. 
Cawnpore,  433. 
Cayenne',  368,  419. 
Celebes  (sel'e  bez),  318. 
Celts,  17. 

Cerignola  (cha  ren  yo'la),  146. 
Cerdagne  (ser  dan'),  106. 
Cerro  Gordo,  438. 
Cerroni  (cher  ro'ne),  100. 
Cesarini,  Card,   (cha  sa  re'ne), 

110,  111. 
Ceuta(su'ta),  31,  259. 
Ceva  (cha'va),  368. 
Cevennes'  (sa  ven'),  16,  156. 
Ceylon,318,  368,  378. 
Chalcedon  (kal'se  don),  27. 
Chalons  (sha  Ion),  448. 
Chambord  (shox  bor'),  Castle, 
194,  387. 

Count  of.      See    Duke  of 
Bordeaux. 
Champagne  (sham  pane),  67,  70, 

71,90,  172,  187. 
Championnct  (shox  peonna'), 

373. 
Champlain,  1.30,  317. 
Lake,  317,  400. 
Champs  Elysees  (shiiNs  a  le  sa'), 

412. 
Changarnier     (shuN  gar'ne  a"*., 
419. 


Cha 


INDEX. 


Den 


Chapultepec  (cha  pool  ta  pek'), 

436. 
Chaiette  (slia  ret'),  367. 
Chaiite  (sha  re  ta,'),  207. 
Charlemont  (shar  rmoN'),  223. 
Charles  of  Austria,  archduke, 

377,  381,  3SS,  339. 
candidate  for  Sp.  crown, 

297,300-303.    See  Rom.  Em- 
pire, Charles  VI. 
Charles  of  Durazzo,  100, 101, 1 12. 
Charles   of   Lorraine,   bro.    of 

Lothaire,  48. 
Charleston,  346,440,  412. 
Chartres  (shartr),  230,  23!>. 
Chateaubriand  (shii  to'bre  on'), 

Countess,  168. 
Chatillon  (sha  te  yoN'),  451. 
Chattaiioo'ga,  441. 
Chaucer,  120. 
Chauni  (sho'iie),  201. 
Chemnitz  (kein'nits),  2:59. 
Cherasco  (ka  ras'ko),  368. 
Cherbourg  (sher'boorg),  295. 
Cherson  (ker'son),  28,  .50,  341. 
Cherubusco  (ker'oo  bus'ko),  438. 
Chesapeake  Bay,  315,  4(X). 
Chester,  272. 
Chiari(kea're),299. 
Chiavenna  (ke  a  ven'na),  153. 
Chihuahua  (che  wa  wa'j,  433. 
Chili  (che  le),  138,  402. 
China,  Chinese,  25,42,  78,  79, 118, 

119,  124,  132,200,  235,  31.3,430, 

431,443. 
Chios,  Scio,  209. 
Chippewa,  400. 
Chium,  426. 

Choiseul  (sliwa  zul'),  1).  de,  333. 
Cholula,  137. 
Chotzim,391. 

Christi'aa,  Regent  of  Spain,  411. 
Chrysochir,  56. 
Cilicia,  27. 
Ciutra,  387. 
Circassians,  78. 

Cisalpine  Republic,  370,  374-380. 
Cistercians,  91. 
Citeau.x  (so  to'),  91. 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  (the  oo dad'  rod 

re'go),  302,  390. 
Civitel'la,  50. 
Clairfait  (-fa),  .368. 
Clairvau.x:  (-vo),  67,  80. 
Clamart  (-maR'),  450. 
Clara  Eugenia  Isabella,  232,233. 
Clarendon,  273,292,  315. 
Claude  of  France,  146,  155. 
Claverhouse,  292,  294. 
Clay,  Henry,  439. 
Clement  III.,  antipope,  C-6. 

VII.,antipope,  100,  101. 
Clermont,  62. 
Cleves,  184,  186,  187,  239,  240,  212, 

401. 
Clinchy,  451. 
Clissow,  308. 


Olive,  429,  430. 

Clotil'da,  IS. 

Cluny,  80. 

Coblentz',261,35S,  394. 

Cochin,  132,  368. 

Cognac  (kon  yak'),  207. 

Cohorn,  295. 

Colbert  (-ber),  277,  291,  305,  306, 

313. 
Coligny    (ko  leen'ye),  201,   206, 

207,  210,211,316. 

Cologne  (kolon'),  17,  160,  184, 
224,260,  271,297,300,304. 

Colombia,  402. 

Colon'na,  Card.,  171. 
Prosper,  157. 

Columbia,  City,  442. 

Columbus,  C,  133-136, 138. 
Diego,  136. 

Communes,  88,  360,  365. 

Comnenian  Dynasty,  .58,  72. 

Como,  248. 

Compiegne  (koni  pe  ane'),  103. 

Concini  (kon  che'ue),  241. 

Concordia,  151. 

Conde,  201,  206,  207. 

Henry,  Pr.  of,  207,  219,  220, 
230,  240,  241. 

the  Great,  260,  263,  274,  275, 
278,  280,  295. 

Coni  (ko'ne),  374.  . 

Connecticut,  314. 
River,  315. 

Conrad,  son  of  Emperor  Henry 
IV.,  56. 
of  Montferrat,  68-70,  74. 

Conradin,  84. 

Constance,  108, 193. 

Constance,  Q.  of  Aragon,  84. 

Constantia  of  Sicily,  S3. 

Constantine,  viceroy  of  Poland, 
406. 

Constantinople,  19,  21-28,  31,  36, 
40-42,  49,  50,  61,  63,  69,  72,  73, 
78,  85, 109-111, 122, 125, 127, 178, 
187,  3.50,  375,  385,  408,  409,  420. 

Contreras  (-tra'ras),  438. 

Cook,  Capt.,  434. 

Copenliagen,  283,  284,  377,  385. 

Cor'bach,  .334. 

Corday,  Charlotte,  363. 

Cor'dova,  31,  33.  35,  39, 42,  93,  115, 

208,  390. 
Corinth,  287. 
Corna'ro,  C,  149. 
Corneille  (kor  nal'),  306. 
Corneto  (-na  to).  Card.,  146. 
Cornwall,  16,  43. 
Cornwallis,346. 
Corona'do,  138. 

Cor'sica,  17,  23,  25,  196,  366,  446.     1 
Cortenuova,  84.  I 

Cortereal,  G.  (kor  ta  ra'al),  136.  j 
Cor'tez,  136,  137,  157. 
Corun'na,  169,  388. 
Cossacks,  244,  282,  284,  286,  309, 
333,  .374,  .392. 

465  M 


Cosso'va,  111,  127. 

Coulmiers  (kool'mc  a),  450. 

Courland,  79,  307,  308. 

Courtrai',  261,  290. 

Coutras  (koo  tra'),  230. 

Cracow,  124,  282,  308,  339. 

Cranmer,  181. 

Crecy  (kra'se),  97,  102,  118. 

Cremieux  (kra  me  uh'),  412,  449. 

Cremo'na,  168,  299,  423. 

Crescentius,  54. 

Crespy,  187. 

Crime'a,  26,  28,  286,  324,  339,  341, 

350,419,421. 
Croatia,  Croats,  179,  252,258,325, 

415. 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  269-273,  275, 

283. 
Richard,  272. 
Cron'stadt,  308. 
Crusades,  58-80,  90,  121. 
Cuba,  133,  136,  312,  335, 336. 
Cullo'den,  326. 
Cumae,  23. 
Cuma'na,  134.         • 
Cumberland,  Dukes  of,  326, 327, 

331,431. 
Custozza  (-tod  za),  416,  426. 
Custrin,383. 
Cuthred,  42. 

Cyprus,  70,  76,  79, 113,  149,  209. 
Cyprus,  Isaac,  King  of,  70. 
Czartoryski  (char-),  406. 
Czaslau  (chaz'low),  325. 


Dalecai-'lia,  245. 

Dalma'tia,  41,  51,64,71,  149,  179, 

287,  385,  394. 
Damas'cus,  30,  66,  68,  71. 
Damiet'ta,  74,  76. 
Dan'dolo,  71. 
Dan'te,  121. 
Danton,  360,  364,  365. 
Dantzic,  282,  322,  .340,  384. 
Danube,  17,  21,  23,  26,  32,36,37, 

57,  68,  179,  253,  2.56,  260,  261, 

287,  300,  373,  381,  401,  410,  420, 

422. 
Da'ra,  26. 
Darn  ley,  210. 

Daun  (down),  302,  332-334. 
Dauphiny.    See  Vienne. 
Davis,  Jefferson,  440. 
Davoust  (da  voo'),  372,  383,  .391, 

393. 
Debreczin  (da  bret'sin),  415. 
Deccan,429. 
Deira,  43. 

Delaware  River,  315. 
Delft,  217. 

Dellii  (del'Iee),  123,  42S,  433. 
Demera'ra,  346, 368. 
De  Monts  (dQh  moN'),  139. 
Den'dermon'de,  216,  226. 
Denmark,  43, 81,  94, 100, 182, 186, 

187,  2.39,  245-247,  251,  261,  278, 

H.— 30 


Den 


INDEX. 


Eng 


Denmark,  2S2-2S4,  307,  309,  321, 
332,  331,  34C,  362,  377,  3S5,  391, 
394,  413,  414. 
Sovereigns  of— 
Waldemar   II.   (A.    D.    1202- 

1241),  91. 
Margaret    AValdemar    (1387- 

1412),  21J. 
Eric,  Christian  I.,  John,  245. 
Christian  II.  (1513-1523),  245, 

246. 
Frederic    I.,  Christian  III., 

Frederic  II.,  246. 
Christian  IV.  (1588),  247,  250, 

251. 
Frederic  III.  (1648),  2S3, 
Christian  V.  (1670),  284. 
Frederic  IV.  (1699-1730),  307. 
Christian  VII.  (1766-1808),  342. 
Christian  VIII.  (1839),  413. 
Frederic  VII.  (1848),  424. 
Christian  IX,  (1863),  424. 
Desaix  (deh  sa),  372,  375,  377. 
Descartes  (da  kart),  281,  352. 
Dessau  (-ow),  Prince  of,  327. 
D'Estaing  (des  tax'),  345.  346. 
Detroit',  399. 
Det'tingen,  326. 
Dev'onshire,  IS. 
De  Witt,  277,  299. 
Diana  of  Poitiers  (pva  te  a'), 

192,  194. 
Diaz  (de'az),  132. 
Dieppe  (de  ep'),  132,  450. 
Diu  (de'oo),313. 
Dixmude',  290. 

Dnieper  (ne'per),  16,340,342,392. 
Dniester  (nee'ster),  342. 
Dolet  (-la),  Stephen,  189. 
Dominic  Guzman  (gooth  man'), 

91. 
Domin'icans,  75,  91,  96,  163. 
Do'mitz,  258. 

Domremy  (doN  ra'me),  102. 
Don,  16,  284. 
Donatel'lo,  122. 
Donauwerth  (do'now  vert),  239, 

253,  256. 
Do'ria,  Andrew,  175, 180,  186, 187. 
Dorogobourg,  392. 
Dorset,  Marquis  of,  154. 
Dort,  215,  241. 
Dorylfe'uni,  64, 
Dorj^stolon,  57. 
Do\\ iah,  429. 

Drach'enburg  (-boorg),  190. 
Dragaschan,  408. 
Draghut  (dra  goof),  196. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  229. 
Dresden,  308,  327,  331,  333,  391, 

393. 
Dreux  (drilh),  206. 
Ducos  (-co),  Koger,  375. 
Dufour  (dii  foor'),  414. 
Dumouriez  (dii  moo  re  a'),  361, 

368. 
Dunbar,  269. 


Dundee.    See  Claverhouse. 

Dunes,  275. 

Dunkirk,  226,  261,  271,  273,  275, 

277,304,306,  333,334. 
Dupleix  (dU  pla'),  429. 
Dupont  (dii  poN),  387. 

de  I'Eure  (deh  lur'),  412. 
Duprat  (dii  pra'),  156. 
Durance',  182,  1S8. 
Durazzo  (doo  rat'so),  50. 
Duren,  186. 
Dus'sel  dorf ,  240. 
Dutch    Republic.     See  United 

Netherlands. 
DwI'na,  16,340,392. 

E 

Early,  Gen.,  441. 

Ebro  (a'brO),  36, 159. 

Eck,  164. 

Edes'sa,  26,  64,  65,  67. 

Edgeworth,  362. 

Ed'inburg  (-bur  ruh),  269,  293, 
405. 

Edward,  Black  Prince,  97,  98. 

Effingliam,  Lord  Howard  of, 
229. 

Egmont,  213-215, 

Egypt,  27,  30,  32,  40,  65,  66,  68,  71, 
74-77,  127,  128,  160,  178,  372, 
374-379,  409. 

Ehrenberg  (a'ren  berg),  189, 195. 

Ehrenbreitstein  (a'  ren  brlt'- 
stln),  253,  257. 

Eisleben  (Is'la  ben),  162. 

Elba,  395,  396. 

Elbe,  16-18,  27,  36,  190,  393,  426. 

Elbing,  284. 

Eleanor  of  Aqiiitaine,  67,  86,  88. 
of  Austria,  155,  173,  198. 

Electors  of  Rom.  Emp.,  107, 179, 
215,  379. 
Palatine- 
Louis  v.,  177. 
Frederic  IV.,  240. 
Frederic  V.,  240,  243,  244,  255, 

256,  268. 
Charles  Louis  258,  263. 

Elizabeth  of  France,  202. 

Electress    Palatine,    243, 
244,  268. 
of  York,  140. 
of  Parma,  320. 

Ella,  43. 

Elliot,  316. 

Elsterburg,  259. 

Em'den,  215. 

Enckhuisen  (-hoi'sen),  215, 

Enghien  (on  ge  on),  Dukes  of, 
260,  261,. -580. 

England,  16,  37,  47,  49,  64,  68,  69, 
72,  74,  86-89,  94-100,  103,  108, 
117-120,  133,  140,  148,  181,  182, 
193,  197,  202,  213,  229,  235,  248, 
249,  262,  267-273,  275,  277-280, 
283,  291-307,  310-316,  319,  321, 
324-336,  343-348.  362,  .366,  372, 

466 


England,  376-389, 393-401, 409-412, 

419-422,  425,  440-444,  449.    Seo 

Great  Britain. 
Sovereign.s  of— 
Egbert  (A.  D.  827-836),  42,  43, 

47,  49. 
Alfred  (871-901),  21,  47,  120. 
Ath'elstan  (924-940),  47. 
Ethelred  (978-1016),  47. 
Knut,  Harold,  Hardiknut,  47. 
Edward  the  Confessor  (1042- 

1066),  49. 
Harold  II.  (1066),  49. 

Norman  Line- 
William  I.  (1066),  49,  86. 
William  II.  (1087),  86. 
Henry  I.  (1100),  86. 
Stephen  I.  (1135),  86. 

Plantagenets— 
Henry  II.  (11.54),  68,  69,  86, 88. 
Richard  1.  (1189),  69-71,  75,  87, 

121. 
John  (1199),  69,  87. 
Henry  III.  (1216),  77,  85,  87. 
Edward  I.  (1272),  76,  77,  87,  88, 

93. 
Edward  II.  (1307),  96. 
Edward  III.  (1327), 97, 103, 118, 

202. 
Richard  II.  (1377),  98,  99,  103, 

108. 
House  of  Lancaster- 
Henry  IV.  (1399),  103,  156. 
Henry  V.  (1413),  102,  103,  156, 

161, 
Henry  VI.  (1422),  103,  156. 

House  of  York- 
Edward  IV.  (1461),    103,    104, 

156. 
Edward  V.  (1483),  103. 
Richard  III.  (1483),  103, 156. 

Tudors— 
Henry  VII.  (1485),  103,  106,136, 

140,  148,  156. 
Henry  VIII.   (1509),  151,  152, 

155,  156,  161,  170,  171,  174,  180- 

182,  184,  186,  187,  191,  267. 
Edward  VI.  (1.047),  186,191, 197. 
Mary  I.  (15.33),  181, 197,  201,  202, 
Elizabeth  (1558),  202,  206,  210, 

211,215,  216,  223,  224,  227-229, 

232,  233,  235,  238,  267,  280,  430, 
Stuarts- 
James  I.  (1603),  238,   240,   243, 

249,  267,  314. 
Charles  I.  (1625-16-10),  249,  258, 

267-269. 
[Commonwealth,    see  Crom- 
well.] 
Charles  II.  (1660),  269-273,  277- 

280,  292,  293,  315. 
James  II.  (1685-1C88),  293-295, 

297,  299. 

r  William  III.  (16S9),288,  294- 
S    299. 
^Mary  II.,  280,  294. 

See  G't  Britain,  Sov'ns  of. 


Eng 


INDEX. 


Fro 


English  Language,  49,  120. 

Epidaii'rus,  408. 

Epi'rus,  407. 

Erfurt,  162,  3S3,  387. 

Erie,  400. 

Erlau  (-low),  196,  234. 

Ernest  of  Austria,  229. 

Espartero  (-ta'ro),  411. 

Essek,  180,  285,  287. 

Essequibo  (es  sake'bo),  346,368. 

Essex,  Earl  of,  293. 

Essling,  389. 

Estrees  (es  tra'),  331. 

Ethanclune,  47. 

Et.ruria,  Kingdom  of,  377,  386. 

Eudes  of  Aauitaine,  32. 

Eugene  of  Savoy,  287,  295,  298- 

304,  319. 
Eugenie  (ii  zha'iie),  423,  447-449. 
Euphra'tes,  26,  66, 125,  410. 
Europe,  15,  16,32,45,  78,  79,  117. 

120,  131,  139,  202,  263,  297,  330, 

351,453. 
Evesham,  87. 
Eylau  (i'low),  384. 


Faen'za,  149. 
Falkirk,  88. 
Falkland,  Lord,  268. 
Falster,  283. 
Famagus'ta,  209, 
Faneuil,  317. 
Farragut,  440. 
Fatimites,  33,65,125,12(1. 
Favre(favr),  449. 
Fayal',  233. 
Fehrbcriin,284. 
Fenelon,301, 306.  ' 

Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  333. 
of  Spain,    Card.     Infant,  | 

256,  257.  I 

of  Styria,  239,  242.      See  ; 

Eoman  Emp.  Ferd.  II.  j 

Fer'mo,  167.  | 

Ferra'ra,  109,  150-153,    175,  369,  ! 

370.  I 

Ferrieres,  449. 

Ferry,  449.  i 

Feudalism,  13,20,45,78,103,359. 
Finland,  Fins,  IS,  283,  310,  385, 

387. 
Flanders,  105,  167,  176,  198,  216, 

229,  275. 
Counts  of,  64-68, 
Flemings,  79,  87,  93,  94,  97,  104, 

117,118,  159. 
Flourus,  295,  366. 
Fleury,  418. 

Cardinal,  322,  326. 
Flodden,  155. 
Florence,  110-114,   121,  122,  141, 

143,  144,  149, 153,  154,  158,  175, 

179,201,  374,449. 
Florida,  136,  138,211,229,314,324, 

336,  346,  347,  437,  439. 
Flushing,  228. 


roi.x  (fwji),  Andrew  de,  166. 
Eleanor  de,  115. 
Gaston  de,  152, 153. 
Germaine  de,  148. 
Fontainebleau  (-blG),  350,  361, 

389,  394,  395. 
Fontenay,38,  44. 
Foochoo,  431. 
Forbach,  448. 
Forey,  444. 
Forli(-le),406. 
Forno'vo,  142. 
Foth'eringay',  228,  269. 
Fouquet  (foo  ka'),  277. 
France,  20,  23,  26,  32-35,  39,  44- 
48,  62,  63,  74,  86-90,  93,  97-106, 
140,  155,  167,  187-189,  201-207, 
210,  211,  222,  230-237,  256-263, 
274-280,  283,  290.  295-306,  313- 
336,  345-398,  400,  401,  409-413, 
417-423,  425,  428,  429,  440,  444- 
453. 
Kings  of— 
Hugh  Capet  (-pa),  (A.  D.  987), 

48. 
Robert  (996),  48. 
Henry  I.  (1031),  note,  p.  88. 
Philip  I.  (1060),  note,  p.  88. 
Louis  VI.  (1108),  88. 
Louis  VII.  (1137),  67,  86,  88. 
Philip  II,  (1180),  68,  69,  71,  87, 

89. 
Louis  VIII.  (1223),  87,  89. 
Louis  IX.  (1226),  76,  78,  84,  ?>% 

90. 
Philip  III.  (1270),  85,  90. 
Philip  IV.  (1285),  79,  93-97. 
Louis  X.  (1314),  97. 
Philip  V.  (1316),  97. 
Charles  IV.  (1322),  97. 

Family  of  Valois— 
Philip  VI.  (1328),  97. 
John  (1350),  97,  98,  173. 
Charles  V.  (1364),  98. 
Cliarles  VI.  (1380),  99-102. 
Charles  VII.  (1422),  102,  103. 
Louis  XI.  (1461),  104-106,  118, 

157, 173,  219. 
Charles  VIII.  (1483),  106,  140- 
144. 
House  of  Orleans- 
Louis    XIT.   (1498),    106,    142- 

155. 
Francis  I.  (1515),  138,  155-161, 

166-176,  180-188,  191. 
Henry  II.  (1547),  181,  191-195, 

201-20.3,213. 
Francis  II.  (1559),  202-205. 
Charles  IX.  (1560),   205,   210, 

216-219. 
Henry  III.  (1574),  219-222,  230, 
231. 
Family  of  Bourbon — 
Henry  IV.  (1589),  231-233,  236, 

240,248,291,356. 
Louis   XIII.   (1610),  240,   241, 
253,259,260,291. 

467 


Louis  XIV.  (1643),  260,262,273- 
260,  284,  287,  290-292,  295-306, 
316,318,320,323,372,451. 
Louis  XV.  (1715),  319-324,  326, 

329,  330,  352. 
Louis  XVI.  (1774),  345,  352-362. 
Louis  XVII.  (1793-1795),  62, 67. 
Louis  XVIII.  (1814),  367,  395- 

397,  404. 
Charles  X.  (1824),  395,  ?,%,  404, 
405. 
Sec'd  House  of  Orleans—  '• 
Louis  Philippe  (1830),  405,  406, 
410-412,  418,  449. 
France,  Isle  of,  428,  429. 
Franche     Comte    (froNsh  koN 
ta),  105,  169,  227,  233,  277-280, 
3.58. 
Francis  of  Assisi  (-se'se),  91. 
Franciscans,  75,  91. 
Francisco  of  Assis,  411. 
Franco'nia,  39,  44,  52,80, 109,177, 

253-256,  336,  383. 
Frangipani  (-pS'ne),  80. 
Frankfort,  on    Main,  107,  185, 
243,  325,  401,  413,  414,  424-426. 
on  Oder,  333. 
Franklin,  345. 

Franks,  17-23,  27,  32,  3;-)-38,  43, 
278. 
Kings  and  Leaders  of— 
Clovis,  18,  19,  404. 
Theod'oric,  Sigebert,  Chilpe- 

ric,  19. 
Theod'ebert,  19,  22. 
Childebert,  27. 
Clotairell.,  Dag'obert,(-ber), 

20. 
Pepin  of  Landen,—of  HerislaV, 

20. 
Charles  Mattel,  20,  32, 34. 
Pepin  le  Bref,  Carloman,  34, 

35. 
Chai'lemagne,  34-36. 
[See   Romans,   Emperors  of, 
Charlemagne     to     Charles 
III.l 
Eudes,  46. 

Charles  the  Simple,  46,  47. 
Louis  IV.,  Lothaire,  47. 
Louis  v.,  48. 
Fred'egonde,  19,  20. 
Fredei-ic  of  Austria,  97. 
Fredericshall,  310. 
Fredericsod'de,  283. 
Freiberg  (fri  berg),  in  Saxony, 

260, 336. 
Freiburg  (fri'boorg),  in  Baden 

261. 
French,  68,  69,  79,  85, 138-143, 175. 
Language,     39,    121,    183, 
.371. 
Frey'a,  IS. 

Friedland  (freed-),  .381. 
Friesland  (frees-),  216,  250. 
Friuli  (free  oo'le),  44, 46, 149,369. 
Fronde,  274,  275. 


Frn 


INDEX, 


Har 


Frundsberg  (froonts'perg),  165, 

174.    * 
Fuentes  de  Onov  (fwen  tas),  390, 
FU'nen,  283. 
Fust  Cfoost),  119. 


Gaetii  (ga  a'ta),  ^e,  382,  416,  417. 

Gage,  Gen.,  344. 

Galicia  (Spain),  3S8. 

Galilee,  66. 

Galit'zin,  340. 

Gallicia  (.Aiistria),  50,  340. 

Gallipoli,  126. 

Galswintlia,  19. 

Ga'ma,  Vasco  de,  132. 

Gambet'ta.  449-451. 

Gau'ges,  123,  433. 

Garibaldi  (-de),  416,  417,  423,  424, 
426,  450. 

Gaiiglia'no  (ga  reel  ya'no),  147, 
424. 

Garnier  Pages  (pa  zha'),412. 

Garonne',  31. 

Gascony,  Gascons,  95, 173. 

Gastein  (-tine),  425. 

Gaul,  17,  19,32. 

Gauthier  (go  te  a),  373,  374. 

Gaurides,  122. 

Ga'za,  69,  375. 

Gaz'na,  Gaznevides,  61, 122-125. 

Gcmblonrs  (zhoN  bloor'),  223. 

Gene'va,  City,  183,  193,  203,  212, 
210,379,401,442,443. 
Lake,  110. 

Gen'oa,  Genoese',  51,  52,  73,  78, 
112,  113,133,  142,  151,  167,  168, 
175,  176,  192,  193,  196,  198,  249, 
328,  368-370,  374,  376,  416,  423. 

Georgia,  Georgians  (Asia),  61, 
78,125,341. 
U.S.  A.,  440,  441. 

Gepidae,  17,  23. 

Gerard,  Balthazar  (-zha  zar'). 
226. 

German  Confederation,  401,  413, 
414,424-426. 

German  Ocean,  16,  32,  38,  82. 

Germans,  17,  IS,  32,  66,  68,  163, 
201. 

Germantown,  345. 
Germany,  17, 32,  37,  39,  44,45,  63, 
70,  74,  77,  82-84,  91,  96, 100, 104, 
107,110,  117,  124,  163-166,  172, 
181,  182, 189,  190,  207,  233,  248, 
253-258,  291,  300,  301,  .326-:336, 
358,377,  385,  388-391,  395,  396, 
400,403,404,  414,  424-426,  445- 
451. 
Kings  of— 
Arnulf  (A.  D. 887-899),  46. 
Conrad  1.(911),  .52. 
Henry  the   Fowler  (918-936), 
52. 

Rom.  Emperors— Otho  I., 
etal. 
Gerona  (ha  ro'na),  390. 


Gertruydenberg  (-troi-),  362. 
Gettysburg,  441. 
Ghent,  97,  184,  185,  214,217,218, 
223-225,  235,  280,  302,  327,  400. 
Ghib'ellines',  53,  80-85,  96,  168, 

175. 
Ghiber'te  (-te),  122. 
Gibraltar,  31,  182,  238,  301,  305, 

324,  334,  346,  347. 
Girond'ists,  359,  361-366. 
Giurgevo, 420. 
Gjatsk,392. 
Glar'us,  165. 

Glatz,  325.  * 

Glogau  (-gow'\  260. 
Gloucester  (glos'ter),  Dukes  of, 

99. 
Glucksburg  (glooks'boorg\  414, 

424. 
Go'a,  132,  313. 

God'frey  of  Bouillon,  63,  65,  66. 
Godoy  (go  do'ee),  367,  371. 
God'win,  Earl,  49. 
Golden  Fleece,  198,  215. 
Golet'ta,  182. 
Gousal'vo  de  Cor'dova,  142,  145- 

147,  15S. 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  132, 318,346, 

368. 
Gorgei  (gur'ga),  415. 
Gort'chakoff,  422. 
Giirtz,  358. 

Goths,  18-26,  31,  37,  43,  283,  371. 
Kings  of— 
Euric,  17,21. 
Theod'oric,  21,22,  25. 
Amalaric,  21. 
Athalaric,  22. 
Theodatus,  Vitiges,  22, 
Totila.  Teias,  23. 
Roderick,  31. 
Pehiyo,31,42. 
Gran,  286,  415. 
Grana'da,  93, 115,  116,390. 
Granson  (graN  son),  105. 
Grant,  Gen.,  441. 
Gran'velle,  212,  225. 
Grasse,  Count  de,  .^47. 
Gravelines  (griiv  len'),  161,  275, 
Gravelotte  (griiv  lot'),  448. 
Greece,  23-26,  37,  58,  62,  73,  127, 
209,320,408-410. 
Kings  of— 
Otho,  George,  410. 
Greek  Empire.   See  Ronu  Emp. 

in  East. 
Greek  Fire,  31,65,118. 
Greek  Language,  121. 
Greeks,  24,  28,  41,  43,  49,  56,340, 

407-410. 
Grego'rios,  408. 
Grenoble    (gren  obi"),    90,    104, 

389. 
Grey,  Lady  Jane,  197. 
Grisons  (gre  zon'),  218,  374. 
Gron'ingen,  215. 
i  Grossbeeren  (-ba'ren),  393. 

468 


Gro'tius,  241, 

Grouchy  (groo  she'),  397. 

Griins'berg,  335. 

Guadalete  (gwa  da  la'ta),  31. 

Guadaloupe    (ga  da  loop'),   347, 

367. 
Guadalupe'  Ilidal'go,  438. 
Guastalla  (gwas  tal'la),  379,  401. 
Guatemala  (gwa  ta  ma'la),  312. 
Guatemozin     (gwa  te  mo'ziu), 

137. 
Guayaquil  (gwi  a  keel'),  138. 
Guelders  (gel'derz),  105,  181,  186, 

279. 
Guelfs  (gwelfs),  80-83,    96,    113, 

175. 
Guiana  (ge  a'na),  280,  318. 
Guienne  (ge  en'),  151,   1.54,  172, 

193,  219,  220. 
Guinea  (gin'e),  132. 
Guise,  Cardinal  of,  231. 
Count  of,  172. 
Duke  Claude  of,  186,   191, 
192. 

Duke  Francis  of,  196,  201, 
202,  2(J6. 

Duke  Henry  I.  of,  211,  220, 
230,  231. 

Duke   Henry   II.   of,  261, 
262. 
Guises  (geezes),  191-194,  202-205, 

211,219-223,231. 
Guizot  (ge  zo'),  411. 
Guns,  180. 
Gusta'vus  Va'sa,  245,  246.    See 

Sweden. 
Gutenberg  (goo'ten  berg),  119. 
Gu'thrun,  47. 

H 

Haar'lem.  119,  216. 
Ha'ganon',  47. 
Hague  (haig),  ."07. 
Haguenau  (Jig'no),  70. 
Hainault  (Ti  no'),  224. 
Hal'berstadt',  251. 
Halifax,  :^4. 
Hal'Ie,  239,  240,  253. 
Halm'stadt,  284. 
Ham,  201,  406,412. 
Ha'math,  06. 
Ilam'burg,  .385,  391,  393, 
Hampden,  268. 
Hanau  (ha  now'),  391. 
Han'over,  Electorate,  298,  304, 

310,  332-336,  379,  .383,  390,  394. 
Kingdom,  413,  414,  424,  425. 
Hanover,  Kings  of— 
Ernest  Augustus  (A.  D.  1837), 

413. 
George  (1851-1866),  425. 
Hanse  Towns  and  League,  117, 

119,  246,  .381,390. 
Hapsburgs,  85,  191,  193,199,200, 

204,  236-210,  242,  349,  361,  380, 

426. 
Ilar'ald  Ilar'fagre,  4.3. 


Har 


INDEX. 


Ita 


Ilaroun  al  Rasch'id  (La  roon'), 

37,40,41. 
Harper's  Ferry,  441. 
Harrison,  400. 
Has'tembeck',  331. 
Hast'iug  the  Viking,  46. 
Hastings,  battle  at,  4<),  103. 

Warren,  429,  430. 
Hat'teras,  440. 
Havan'a,  136,  335. 
Havelock,  433,  434. 
Havre  (av'r),  2fJ6, 2y.5,  306,  333. 
Hawke,  334. 

Haye  Sainte  (a  saxt),  397. 
Haynau  (lil'now),  415. 
Hayti  (iia  ti),  133,  134,  312,  313, 

379. 
Hebertists  (a'ber  tists),  364, 365. 
Heem'skirk,  23S. 
Heidelberg  Hii'-),  243,  214,  366. 
Heilbronn  (hH'bronn"),  256,  257. 
Heinsius  (liln'se  lis),  299. 
Hel'igoland,  424. 
Hellas,  Helle'nes.    See  Greece, 

Greeks. 
Hel'lespout,  25,  43,  5S,  69,  126. 
Hel'singborg',  261,  309. 
Helvetic  Republic,  371,  377. 
Henrietta  Maria,  249. 
Henry  the  Lion,  82,  S3. 

son  of  Emp.  Fred.  II.,  83. 
of  Thuringia,  81. 
of  Cornwall,  87. 
the  Navigator,  132. 
Heracle'u,  51. 
Ileraclius,  exarch,  27. 
Herman  von  Salza,  79. 
Herrnhausen  (-how'zen),  321. 
Heru'Iians,  21. 

Od'oa'cer,  King  of,  17,  21. 
Herzegovina   (hert'seh  go  vee' 

na),  407. 
Iles'din,  167, 197. 
Hes'se,  3.)3-335,  382,  391,  414,  449, 

451. 
Alexander  of,  425. 
Philip,  Landgrave  of,  177, 

ISO,  189,  190,  191,  195. 
Landgravine  of.  413. 
Ilil'debrand.    See  Tope  Grego- 
ry VII. 
Hindu  Kush  (koosh),  123. 
Hindustan',  28,  30,  42,  78,  79, 123, 

124,  132-136,  235,  311,  428-430. 
Hochkirchen    (hoK  keer  Ken), 

333. 
Hoch'stedt,  3(J0. 
Ilo'fer,  Andrew,  388. 
Iloguc,  Cape  la,  295. 
Hohenfriedberg  (-freed-),  327. 
Ilolienlin'dcn,  377. 
Ho'henlo'ho,  Count,  243. 

Prince,  383. 
Hohenstaufen    (-stow'fen),  81- 

81,  90. 
Hohenzol'Icrn,  426. 

Sigmaring'en,  446,  447, 


I  Holland,  County,   44,  117,  118, 
213,  216,  227. 

Republic,  42,  248,  270,  277- 
280,  291,  295-300,  302,  307,  313- 
i  315,  319,  321,  322,  328,  346,  350, 

I  a51,  362,  366,  368. 

j  Kingdoni,385,  394,396,  405, 

445. 
Kings  of— 
William  I.  (A.  D.  1813-1840), 

394. 
William  III.  (1849),  445. 
Holstein  (-stin),  82,245,  250,  251, 

261,283,413,424,42.5. 
IIolstein-Got'torp,    Dukes   of, 

307,  310. 
Hol'yrood',  405, 
Hondu'ras,  135. 
Hongkong',  431,  443. 
Horn,  Count,  214,  215. 

Swed.  Gen.,  256,  257. 
Hoiuc,  182. 

See  Knights  of 


Hospitallers. 
St.  John. 
Hot'ze,  374. 
Hougouniont     (hoo  goo  moN), 

397. 
Howe,  345. 
Ilubertsburg,  336. 
Hudson,  Henry,  315. 
Hudson's  Bay,  136,  .304,  317,  318. 

River,  277,  315,345,  437. 
Hugh  the  Great  of  Paris,  47. 
Hugh  of  Vermandois  (ver  max 
dwa'),  64,  66. 
of  Cyprus,  77. 
Hugo,  Victor,  419. 
Huguenots,  203-207,  210,  211,  215, 
216,  219-224,  230-232,  237,  240, 
248-250,290-292,316,317. 
Hull,  399,  400. 

Hungary,  17,  23,  27,  63,  71,  74,  81, 
94,  ino,  108,  110,  111,  124,  127, 
149,  160,  163,  170,  178,  180,  185, 
190,  195,  199,  209,  218,  219,  239, 
285,286,300,  301,  321,  324-327, 
3.)0,  388,  403,  414,415,427. 
Kings  of— 
Andrew  II.  (A.  D.  1205-1235), 

74,  94. 
Louis    the   Great  (1342-1382), 

99-101. 
Sigismund  (1392-1437),  108. 
Ladislaus    of  Poland   (1440- 

1444),  111. 
Ladislaus  (1453),  111,160. 
Matthias  Corvinus(1458-1490), 

111,  122, 178. 
Louis  II.  (1516),  160,178. 
Ferdinand    I.   (1526),   178-180, 

185,  190,  191,  198. 
John  Zapolya  (rival),  178-180, 

185. 
[See  Enipei-orsof  the  Romans 

to  Charles  VI.] 
Maria  Theresa  (1740),321-.327, 
330, 331,  .336,  340,  350.  See  Ro- 

469 


mans,  and  Austria,  Empe- 
rors of, 

Huniades,  (-yii'daz),  110,  111, 

Huns,  23,  27,36. 

Huron,  Lake,  317. 

Huss,  Hussites,  108, 109, 164, 165, 
199. 


Ibeg,  127, 

Ibrahim  (eeb'ra  heem'),  409, 410. 

Iceland,  100, 131. 

Ico'nium,  69, 126, 

India,  British  in,  372,  428-430. 

India'na,  317. 

Indies,  212,  222,  238,  302,  387. 
East,  311,. 313, 345,  368. 
West,  135,  272,  313,  318,  33(), 
345,  346,  366,  368,  3.S5, 

Indus,  123,431. 

Ingoldstadt,  254,  388, 

Ingria,  283, 308, 

InnsbrUck,  195.  281,388, 

Illinois,  317, 

Illyr'ia,  Illyrians,  18,62,  389,394. 

Inkermann',  421. 

Inquisition,  Flemish,  212,  213, 

Ionian  Isles,  371,  378,  410. 

Ireland,  16,  17,  86,  87,  238,  269, 
270. 

Irene,  36,  40,41. 

Ireton,  273. 

Irne'rius,  Werner,  120. 

Iroquois  (ir'o  kwoy'),  316,  317. 

Isabel  of  Jerusalem,  69,  74. 

Iser  (eo'zer),  426. 

Islam,  30, 110. 

Ispahan',  125. 

Ismail  (is  ma  eel'),  391 . 

Isola  della  Sca'Ia  (ee'so  la-),  1.52. 

Issoire  (is  swar'),  189. 

Is'tria,  36,  41,.51. 

Italy,  Italians,  19-27,  33-46,  49- 
53,  56,  62,  74,79-85,  93-100, 109, 
112-114,  117-119,  121,  122,  133, 
140-158,    167-176,  179,  182-189, 
192-194,  196,  199,  201,  237,  248, 
285,  297-301,  304,  .320,  .323,  32S, 
349,  350,  368-.38I,  385-388,  395, 
396,  402,  403,  406,  408,  413,  415, 
416,  422-426,  453. 
Kings  of— 
[Rom.  Emperors  of  the  West, 
Charlemagne     to     Charles 
III.] 
Berengar  I.  (A.  D.  888-924), 

46,  52. 
Guy  (889),  Lambert  (S96),  46, 

52. 
Louis  of  Aries  (900-905),  52. 
Rudolph  of  Burgundy  (922), 

Hugh  of   Provence  (926),  52, 

53. 
Lothairell.  (945),  .53. 
Berengar  II.,  Adalbert  (950- 

961),  52,53, 


Ita 


INDEX. 


Leo 


Italy— 

•   [Kom.    Emp.   and  Kings   of 

Germany,  Kings  of  Naples, 

Sardinia,  etc.] 
Victor  Emmanuel  (1861),  424- 

426,  453. 
Iturbide  (e  toor'be'da),  402. 
Ivrea  (e  vru'a),  44,  52. 
Ivry  (e  vre';,  232. 


Jackson,  400,  439. 
Jac'obins,  357-362,  365,  366. 
Jacquerie  (zhak'a  re'),  9S. 
Jaffa,  66,  68-71,75,  76. 
Jagellon  dynasty,  246. 
Jagerndorf  (ya'cern-),  332. 
Jamaica,  134, 135,271. 
James  River,  441. 
Jamestown,  314, 
Janizaries,  102,  126,  127, 140,  160, 

180,  209,  245,  310. 
Jankowitz,  261. 
Jansenists,  305. 
Japan',  200,  235,  313,  314,  443. 
Jarnac  (zhar'nak),  207. 
Jassy  (yas'so),  245,  312. 
Ja'va,  235,  318. 
Jay,  317. 
Jefferson,  399. 
Jeffreys,  George,  292,  293. 
Jehan,  Shah,  124. 
Jellachich  (yel'Ia  kik),  415. 
Jemappes  (zhe  map'),  361. 
Jena  (ya'na),  383. 
Jerome  of  Prague,  109. 
Jerusalem,  37,  49,  61,  62,  &5-70, 
74-77,  125,  126,  180. 
Kings  of— 

Godfrey  (A.  D.  1099),  6:),  66. 

Baldwin  I.  (1100),  64,  66. 

Guy  of  Lusignan  (1186),  68-70, 
149. 

Conrad  of  Montferrat  (1192), 
69,  70. 

Henry  of  Champagne  (1192), 
70. 

Almeric  of  Lusignan  (1197),74. 

John  of  Krienne  (1210),  74,  75. 

Jesuits,  199,  200,218,  221,  227,  233, 

236,  239-243,  247,  287,  305,  313, 

317-320,  348,  349,  414. 

Jews,  21,  29,  30,  63,  93,  100,  115, 

116,.305,  33S. 
Joan  of  Arc,  102. 
Joanna,  Queen  of  Aragon,  115. 
John  of  Austria,  199,  209,  223. 
John  of  Austria,  archduke,  377, 

381 ,  .388. 
John  Casimir,  Prince  Palatine, 

219,  224,  230. 
John  of  Cap'istran,  111. 
John  Comne'nus,  53. 
John  of  Gaunt,  99. 
John  Huss,  lOS. 

.Tolin  of  Procida  (pro'che  dji),  84. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  442. 


Josephine,  Empress,  389. 
Joubert  (zhoo  ber'),  374. 
Jourdan  (zhoor  doN'),  368,  373. 
Juarez  (hwa'reth),  444,  445. 
Julian,  Count,  31. 
JUliers  (zhu'le  a'),  184,  186,  239, 

240,  260. 
Junot  (zhii  no'),  372,  382,  387. 
Jutland,  250,  251,424. 

K 

Kabyles,  411, 
Kah'lenberg,  286. 
Kaiserswerth     (kl'  zers  vert'), 

300. 
Kalafat,  420. 

Ka'leb  Medina  (-dee'na),  410. 
Kansas,  439. 

Ka'ra  Mus'tapha,  285,  286. 
Kashgar,  125. 
Katz'bach,  393. 

Kaunitz  (kow'nits),  330, 310, 350. 
Kearney,  438. 
Kempen,  260, 
Kentucky,  439, 
Kepler,  233. 
Keresz'tes,  234. 
Kertch,421. 
Kes'selsdorf,  327. 
Khev'enhiiller,  325. 
Khoras'mia,  Khorasmians,  75, 

126. 
Khorassan,  123. 
Kiel  (keel),  424. 
Kiev  (ke  ef ),  43,  124,  342. 
Kilia,  391.' 
Kilidge  Arslan,  63. 
Killiecran'kie,  291, 
Kirke,  Colonel,  293, 
Kleber  (kla'ber),  372,  377, 
Klesel(kla'zel),  242, 
Klo'ster,  334. 

Seven,  332. 
Klundert  (kloon'dert),  362. 
Knut,  47. 
Kolin,  332. 
Konigsbcrg,  299,  384. 
Konigsgratz,426. 
Konigsmark,  263. 
Kopi'o'li,  Achmet,  28.5. 

Mus'tapha,  287. 
Koran,. 30,  31,  169. 
Kor'sakofr,  374. 
Kos'cius'ko,  384. 
Kossuth,  L.  (kosh  shoot'),  403, 

414,415. 
Koster,  Laurence,  119. 
Kot'zebuo,  404. 
Kouli  Khan  (koo'Ie),324. 
KublaiKhan  (koob  li-),  124. 
Kufstcin  (koofstinc),  189,  388, 

422. 
Kunersdorf  (koo'ners-),  333. 
Kunobitza,  110. 
Kutschuk       Kainardji       (koo 

chook'  ka  nar'ge),  341. 
Kutusoff  (koo  too'soff ),  392. 

470 


Laaland  (law'laud),  283, 

Labrador,  136. 

Labuan,  436. 

Lafayette',  345,  356-359,  397, 404. 

Lahore',  123,  432, 

Lamartine',  412, 

Lambert,  Gen.,  272, 

Lancaster,   House  of,  103,  112, 
156,  229. 

Lan'dau  (-dow),300. 

Landscro'na,  261,  284. 

Landshut  (landz'hcsot),  334. 

Lang'eland,  283. 

Lang'ensal'za,  425. 

Langside,  210. 

Langton,  Stephen,  87. 

Languedoc  (lox  geh  dok'),  210, 
317. 

Lannes  (Ian),  372,  383, 

Lannoy,  172. 

Laon  (la  on'),  47,  395, 

La  Palisse  (Iji  pa  leess'),  153, 

La  Plata,  312, 

La  Salle',  437, 

Las  Cas'as,  137,  313. 

Latin  Race,  324,  444. 

Lateran,  81,  89. 

Latour  (la  toor),  415, 

Laud,  268. 

Laudon  (low'don),  334, 

Lauenburg  (low'en  boorg'),  421, 
425, 

Launay  (lo'na),  355, 

Laurens,  317. 

Lausanne  (lo  zan'),  371. 

Lautrec  (15  trek),  157,  158,  167, 
168,  175. 

Lavater,  .374. 

Law,  John,  320,  .321. 

Lawrence,  Sir  H.,  432,  4.^3. 

Laybach  (ll'bak),  388,  408. 

League,  The,  220,  222,  230-2.32. 
of  Cambray,  148-151, 
of  Public  Weal,  104, 
of  Smalcald,  180,  184,  189,' 
195, 
♦'Holy  "in  Italy,  151-154. 
"  Holy  "  in  Germany,  239, 
242-244. 

Leboenf  (leh  buf),  448. 

Lebrun  (leh  brtiN),  376, 380. 

Lech,  Eiv.,  253. 

Leclerc  (leh  kler'),  378. 
I  LedrU-Ilollin'(-laN'),412. 

Lee,  embassador,  345. 
I  Gen.,  441,  442. 

j  Lefevre  (-fgv'r'),  3SS. 
'■  Leghorn,  113, 
i  Legna'no  (Icn  yii'no),  82. 
I  Leicester  (les'ter).  Earl  of,  228. 
\  Leipzig    (llp'sik),   253,  258,  260, 
j  .327,  333,  383,  394,  403, 

Lem'berg,  415 
i  Lens,  263. 
'  Leon  (laon'),  93,  114,135. 


Leo 


INDEX. 


Mar 


Leonar'do  da  Vinci  (vin'chee). 

122,  Mf). 
Leopold  of  Styr'ia,  239,  210,251, 

252,  2f)0,  262. 
Lepan,  109. 
Lepan'to,  209. 
Ler'ida,  302. 
Leslie,  Gen., 268. 
Leutheu  (loi'teii),  3.32. 
Levant',  113,  180,  184. 
Lewes  (lu'ess),  87. 
Lexington,  344. 
Leyden(lI'den),2I6,  217. 
Leyva,  Antonio  de,  173. 
Liburnia,  36. 
Liege  (le  azli'),  300. 
Liegnitz  (leeg-'nits),  124,  334. 
Liesna  (lees'na),  .'i09. 
Ligny  (leen'ye),  397. 
Ligurian  llepublic,  370,  377, 380. 
Lille  (leel),  302,  359. 
Lincoln,  Gen.,  346. 

President,  439-442. 
Linz  (lints),  325. 
Lip'pe-Schaumbui-g     (-sliowm' 

boorg),  335. 
Lisbon,  221,  229,  259,  349,  387,  390, 

402. 
Lithua'nia,  50,  79,  282,  308,  392, 

406. 
Livo'nia,  50,  79,  117,  283,  340. 
Locar'no,  153. 
Lochlev'en,2I0. 
Locke,  John,  315. 
Lodi  (lo'dee),  171,369. 
Loire  (Iwar),  16,  17,  364,  452. 
Lombards,  Lombardy,  23,24,27, 

34,  35,  49-52,  56,  66,  72,  82-84, 

93,  117,  118,  144,  152,  154,  158, 

168,  179,  183,201,  299,  369,  403, 

415,416,  423. 
Kings  of— 
Alboin,  2.5,  24. 
Clepho,     Autharis,     Agilulf, 

Ilotharis,  24. 
Astolpluis,  34. 
Deside'rius,  35. 
London,  46,  88,  98.  117,  118,  234, 

272,  273,  277,  292,  293,  .326,  379, 

384,410,414,  434,4a%449. 
Londonderry,  294. 
Longi'n'.is,  23. 
Longwy,  360. 
Loo,  .350. 

Lookout  Mountain,  441. 
Lo'pez,  445. 
Lorraine',  46,  48,  03,  64,  71,  105, 

112,  139,  169,  172,  177,  187,  191, 

192,  195,  257,  297,  322,  .35?,  449, 

452. 
Duke  Charles  of,  276,  280, 

286,  295. 
Duke  Leopold  of,  297,  298. 
Duke  Francis  of,  .323.    See 

Rom.  Emp.,  Francis  I. 
Charles,  Cardinal  of,  192, 

201,  202. 


Lorraine',  Prince   Charles    of, 

327,  328,  3.32. 
Louis  uf  Nassau,  210,  215,  216. 
Louisa  of  Savoy',  1.56,  168,  172. 
Lou'isbourg,  328. 
Louisia'na,  Territory,  318,  320, 

330,  3.36,  343,  377,  379,  437. 
State,  440. 
Louvain',  46,  214,  295,  405. 
Louvois  (loo-vwa'),  279,  291,  295. 
Louvi-e  (loovr'j,  230,  452. 
Lo'wendahl,  328. 
Lowenhaupt,  309. 
Lowestoff,  277. 
Lowositz  (lo'vo  sits),  331. 
Loyo'la,  199. 

Lii'bec,  69,  251,  252,  383,  391,  393. 
Lublin  (loo'blin),  124,  308. 
Luck'now,  433,  434. 
Luines  (Iween),  241. 
Lunden  (loon'den),  284. 
Lunevill'j  (lu  na  vil),  377,  379. 
Lusatia,  SO,  244,  327. 
Luther,  M.,  It)2-lti8,  176,  177,254. 
Lutherans,  172,  174,  179,  180,  184, 

185,  194,  246. 
Lutter  (loot'ter),  250. 
Lutzen  (loot'sen),  254-256,  3a3. 
Luxembourg,  House  of,  96,  97. 
Duchy,    186,    187,    195,   202, 

223,261,277,  290,405,  445. 
Marshal,  279. 
Duke  of,  295. 
Lyons,  32,  84,  146,  151,  170,  360, 

364. 
Lysip'pus,  72. 

M 

Maca'o,  313. 

Macdonald,  .374, 393. 

Macedonia,  62. 

Machiavelli  (mak  ke  a  vel'lee), 

143,  note. 
Mack,  Gen.,  373,  380-383. 
Mackay',  Gen.,  294. 
MacIMah'on,  423,  448. 
Macqua'rio,  435. 
Madei'ra,  117, 1.32,  133. 
Madison,  399. 
Madras',  318,  .328,  429. 
Madrid',  159,  172,173,298,301,387, 

391,  402,  411,446. 
Maean'der,  67. 
Maestricht  (mas'trikt),  217,  225, 

279. 
Blag'deburg,   190,  193,    194,  251, 

2.'2,  .383. 
Magcl'lan,  137. 
Magen'ta,  423. 
Magnan  (man  yoN),  418. 
Magna'no  (man  ya'no),  373. 
3Iagyars,  44,  52,  .53,  .325,  403,  413- 

415. 
Mahmoud  of  Gazna,  123. 
Mahrat'tas,  428,  430. 
Maida  (nil'da),  .382. 
Maine  in  France.  86,  105,  MO. 

471 


Maine,  U.S.,  317. 
Mainotes,  407. 
Maintenon  (maNt'noN),  290. 
Malac'ca,  318,368. 
Mal'aga,  116,  390. 
Malakoff,  422. 
Mii'lekShah,61,125,  126. 

Sa'la,  127. 
Malplaquet  (mjil  pla  ka'),  303. 
Malta,  79,  170,  208,  372,  377-379, 

420. 
Mamelukes,  76,  77,  127,  372. 
Mandat  (maN  da'),  360. 
Mandeville,  120. 
Manfred,  84. 

Manhattan.    See  New  York. 
Mannheim  (-hinie),  394,  404. 
Mansfield,  Agnes  of,  234. 

Counts  of,  231,  242-214,  250. 
Mantchoo  Tartars,  124. 
Manteuffel    (-toi'fel),   425,   420, 

452. 
Man'tua,   111,  .369,  373,  ?^,  422, 

423. 
Maoris,  436. 

Marat  (niii  ra'),  300,  363. 
Marco  Polo,  79,  124. 
Mardyk,  261. 
Maren'go,  376,  377,  3&3. 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  103,  112. 

of    France,    daughter   of 

Francis  I.,  202. 
of  Navarre,  sister  of  Fr. 

I.,  172,  181,  194. 
of  Valois,  grand  daughter 

of  Fr.  I.,  211,221,236. 
Margat,  77. 

Maria  Leczin'ska,  321,  323. 
Maria    Louisa,    Empress,   389, 

401. 
Louisa,  Infanta,  411,  445. 
There'sa,    Empress.      See 

Hungary. 
There'sa,  Queen  of  Loui.i 

XIV.,  276-278. 
Marie  Antoinette,  355,  363. 
Marienburg    (ma  re'eu  boorg), 

223. 
in  Prussia,  2S4. 
Marignano  (mji  ren  ya'no),  1.57, 

423. 
Marion,  317. 
Marlborough,  280,  295,  299-302, 

305. 
Marmont,395,  404. 
Maro'zia,  .52. 
Marsaglia  (-sal'yii),  295. 
Marseillaise  (mar  sal  yaz),.3.59. 
Marseilles  (mar  ealz'),  171,  183, 

187. 
Mars    la   Tour    (mar  la  toor'), 

448. 
Marston  Moor,  268. 
Martinique  (-neek'),  347,  367. 
Martinsbrlick,  373. 
Martinuzzi  (-noot'se),  195. 
Mary  of  Montferrat,  74. 


Mar 


INDEX. 


Mun 


Mary  of  31o'dena,  294. 

of  Guise,  191,193,205. 
Tudor,  Queen  of  France, 
155. 
Empress,  218. 
Queen  of  Hungary,  198. 
Maryland,  315,  317,  441. 
Masaccio  (mji  siit'cho),  122. 
Mason,  440. 

Massachusetts,  314,  317,  344. 
Massena  (-sa'na),  371,  3/4,  3S2, 

390. 
Blassillon  (mas  se  yoN'O,  306. 
Massou'rah,  70. 
Matilda  of  Tuscany,  55,  80,  81. 

of  England,  86. 
Matthi'as,     archduke,    223-225, 
239,  242.    See  Rom.  Emperor 
Matthias  I. 
Maupas  (mo  pa'),  418. 
JIavrocoi-da'tos,  409. 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  239,  244, 

254,  203. 
Mayenne',  231,  232. 
Mazarin  (ma  za  rax'J,  260,  261, 

271,274-276,320. 
Mazep'pa,  309. 

Mazzini  (mat  se'ne),  415, 416. 
31eaux  (mo),  98,  189,  360. 
Mecca,  29,  30,  125. 
Mechlin  (mek'lin),  154,  216. 
Mecklenburg,  82,  117,  252. 
Medici  (med'e  che).  Family,  175, 
179,  201,  320,  323. 
Cosmo  de',  114. 
Lorenzo  de',  114,  121,  122, 
153. 
Piero  de',  141. 
John    de',    Cardinal 
Pope  Leo  X. 
Julian  de',  153,  154. 
Lorenzo  II.,  154,  158. 
Giulio  de'.  Cardinal. 
Pope  Clement  VII. 

Catherine  de',  181,  194,  203- 
207,  210,221,231. 
Marie  de',  236,  240,  241. 
Cosmo  de',  gr.  duke,  201. 
3Iedina  (-de'na),  30. 

del  Rio  Seco  (-re'o  sa'ko), 
387. 
Mediterranean,  15,  25,32,38-41, 
48,  51,61,  70,  89,  112,  117,  126, 
133,  140,  182,  196,  208,  209,  2S0, 
301  -303,  306,  340,  378,  385,  409. 
Meerut,  433. 
Mehemet  AH,  409,  410. 
Meissen  (mi'sen),  .327. 
Melanc'thon,  ISO. 
iMelas  (ma'las),  376,  .377,  383. 
Mel'bourne,  435. 
Mem'el,;i32. 
Memphis,  U.  S.,  138. 
]Menou  (mun  oo'),  377. 
]Mentz,56,  253,  366,  368. 

Electors  of,  90,  160, 163,  177, 
193,  278.  35,S. 


See 


See 


Men'schikoff,  323,  420,  421. 
Mercia,  42, 

Mercy,  Gen.  von  (mer'see'),  261, 
Merovingians,  18-20,  32,  220. 
Merseburg  (-boorg),  53. 
Mesopota'mia,  64, 160. 
Messina  (-se'na),  23, 182, 
Met'ternich  (-nik),  413. 
Metz,   19,  194-196,  202,  261,   263, 

326,  358,  447,  448,  450. 
Meudon  (mu  doN'),  450. 
Meuse,  15, 17,  38,  184,217,229,  448. 
Mexico,  Mexicans,  136, 137,  157, 
184,  312,  402,  437-439,  444,  445. 
City  of,  438,  444. 
Maximilian,  Emperor  of, 
444,445. 
Michael  Angelo,  122,  151,  179. 
Michigan,  317,  399. 
Miguel  of  Portugal,  402. 
Mil'an,  22,  52,  82,  83,  98,  109,  112- 
114,  140,  144,  149,  151-158,  167, 
168,173-175,  183,  185,  199,  204, 
233,  234,  248,  261,  298,  304,  328, 
309,  370,  373,  376,  380,  384,  416, 
423. 
Milecz,  108. 
Mincio,  .376,  394,  416. 
Min'den,3.33. 
3Iing  Dynasty,  124. 
Mingre'lia,  341. 
Minor'ca,  331,336,346. 
MiolHs  (me  ol  le),  .386. 
31irabeau  (me  rji  bo),  356,  358. 
Miran'dola,  151. 
31irowitch,  337. 
3Iissionary  Ridge,  441. 
Mississippi  River,  138,  314,316- 
318,  330,  336,  340,  317,  437,  440, 
441. 
Scheme,  320. 
State  of,  439. 
Missolonghi  (-ge),  409. 
Missouri,  439. 
Mod'ena,  107,  309,  370,  377,  401, 

422,  423. 
Modoc,  443. 
Mohacz,  178,  179,  286. 
Mohammed,  29,  30,  33,  61,  95. 

of  Gaur,  123. 
Mohammedans,  Moslem,  28-33, 
52,  65,  66,  70,  76,  78,  111,  118, 
123-128,  132,  179,  187,  421,  429, 
Molay,  Jacques  de,  95. 
Moldavia,  17,  23,  234, 245, 309,  340, 

341,387,391,407,  420,422. 
Moliere  (mo  le  er'),  300. 
Molino  del  Rey  (-le'no  del  ra'), 

438. 
Mollwitz,  325. 
Moluc'cas,  238. 
Moncey,  387. 

Moncontour  (-toor'),  207. 
Mongolians,  IMoguls,  78,  95, 123, 

124,  .31 1,428,  429. 
Monk,  Gen.,  270,  272,  .368. 
Monmoutli,  Earl  of,  29.3. 

472 


Mons     (moNSs),    216,    290,   30.3, 

328. 
Monselice  (-sa  le'cha),  150. 
Montauban  (moN  to  boN'),  207, 

219,  250. 
Montcalm,  334. 
Mont    Cenis  (moN  seh  no'),  35, 

71,  157,  .360,  370. 
Mou'tebel'lo,  423. 
Monte  Cassino  (-se'no),  90. 
Montecuculi   (-koo'ko  le),  278, 

279,  285. 
Montemo'lin,411. 
Montene'gro,  407. 
Montenot'te,  308. 
Montereau  (-ro'),.395. 
Monterey  (-ra'),4.38,  444. 
Monte  Suello,  420. 
Montezuma,  137,  1.07. 
Montferrat,  140,  179. 

Conrad,  Marquis  of,  68-70. 
Montfort  Family,  98,  106. 
Simon  de,  father,  89. 
Simon  de,  son,  87,  88. 
Mont  Genevre,  157. 
Montgomery,  Count,  203. 

City,  440. 
Montigny  (moN  teen'ye),  215. 
Mont  I'heri  (moN  la're),  104. 
Montmartre  (moN  martr"),  355, 

395,  452. 
Montmedy  (-ma'de),  186,  358. 
Montmorency,  184,  185,  191-194, 

202,  205-207,  230, 
Monto'ne  Braccio,  109. 
Montpensier      (moN  pOx  se  a')j 
Dukes  of,  142,  411,  445,  446. 
Mdlle.  de,  274. 
Montreal',  13S,  317,  318,  334. 
Montrose,  209. 
Moore,  Sir  J.,  388. 
Moor8,31,38,  73,  77, 11.5,  110,  118, 

140,  100,  109,221,305. 
Morat  (-ra'),  105. 
Moravia,  124,  239,  243,  260,  285, 

381,389,415. 
More'a,  110,  113,  180,  287,  340,  408, 

409. 
Moreau  (-ro),  368,  373,  374,  377, 

380. 
Morgar'ten,96. 
Morgel,  388. 
Morlscoes,  208,  237. 
Morny,  Count  de,  418. 
Moro'ne,  173,  174. 
Morosini  (-se'ne),  287. 
Mortara  (-ta'ra),  145. 
Mortier  (mor  te  a'),  395. 
Moscow,  124,  234,  308,  392,  394. 
Moselle',  257,  261,301. 
]Mo'sul,64. 
MUhlberg,  190. 
MUhldorf,  97. 

MUhlhausen  (-how'zen),  56. 
Muley  Hassan,  182. 

Mohammed,  221. 
MUnden,2.)0. 


Mun 


INDEX. 


Ori 


Munich  (mu'nik),  82,  261,  301, 

32o,  327,  377,  3S0, 
Miinnich,  324. 
Munster,  202,  263,  290,  333. 
Muiisterthal(-tal),373. 
Bluiizer,  Thos.  (moont'ser),  177. 
Murat  (mil  ra'),  372,  373, 383, 387, 

3'J3,  394. 
Musa,  31. 

Muscovy,  237,  286.     See  Russia. 
Mus'tapha,  245. 
Muta,  30. 
Mysore',  429,  430. 

N 
Na'dir  Shah,  124,324. 
Namur  (riS  mUr'),  223,  295,  296, 

328. 
Ma'iiaSii'hib,  433. 
Nancy  (noN'se),  105. 
Nankin',  431. 
Nantes,  364. 

Edict  of,  232,  291,  316. 
Naples,  24,  56,  115, 142,  175,  262. 
Kingdom  of,  50,  83,  84,  93, 
94,  96,  99-101,  112,  140-150,  158, 
159,167,  173,  183,  186,  187,  193, 
261,  302,  304,  323,  349,  373,  377, 
382,  387,  422,  424. 
Sovereigns  of— 
Charles  I,  of  Anjou    (A.  D. 

I265-1285),84,  85,  90,  99. 
Robert  the  Wise  (1309),  99. 
Joauna  1.  (1343),  99-101. 
Charles  of  Durazzo  (1382),  100, 

101, 112. 
Louis  I.  of  Anjou  (1382-1384), 

99, 101. 
Joanna  II.  (1414-1434),  109, 112, 

144. 
Alfonso   I.    (V.    of    Aragon, 

1435),  112-115. 
Ferdinand  I.  (1458),  111. 
Alfonso  11.(1494),  141. 
Ferdinand  II.  (1495),  141-143. 
Frederic  III.  (1496),  143,  145, 

148. 
[See  Aragon,  Ferdinand,  K. 
of;  Kings  of  Spain  to  Phil- 
ip v.;  Rom.  Emp.  Charles 
VI.,  and  Kings  of  the  two 
Sicilies.] 
Napoleon    Bonaparte,   37,    364, 

367-399,  404,  446. 
Narbonne',  32,34. 
Nar'ses,  23,  3(. 
Nar'va,  307,  308. 
Naseby,  268. 

Navarino  (na  va  re'no),  409. 
Navarre',  36,  90,  93,  114,  115,  147, 
152,  154,  159,  166,  167,  192,  203. 
Sovereigns  of— 
John  II.  of  Aragon,  114. 
lilanche,  Eleanor,  115. 
Henry  d'Albret,  192. 
Antony,  203-206. 
Janed'Albret,  211. 


Ileury  III.,  207,  211,  219-222, 

230,231. 
[Kings  of  France  from  Henry 

IV.] 
Navar'ro,  Pedro,  156, 157. 
Nazareth,  66,  75,  77. 
Nebraska,  439. 
Necker,  352-356. 
Nelson,  Adm.,  372,  377,  381. 
Nemours  (neb  moor'),  222. 
Nerac',  221. 
Netherlands,  82,  97,  101, 105,  106, 

113,  118,  140,  154-156,  159,  167, 

171,  181-189,  193-201,  210,  212- 

218,  221-233,  235,  238,  240,  246, 

257. 
Spanish,   259-201,     275-278, 

290,  295,  300-302. 
Austrian,  304,  321,  326-328, 

332,  342,  350,  351,  361,  366,  370, 

395. 
United  (Dutch  Republic), 

212,  216,  224-229,  232,  235,  238, 

250,  262,  203,  277-279,  300,  324, 

328,  346. 
Neuberg  (noi  berg),  239,  240,  292. 
Neuchatel  (nush  a  tel'),  304, 382, 

401. 
Neuhausel  (noi'howzel),  285. 
Neumark  (noi-),  251. 
Neustria,  19,  20. 
Neva,  308,  311. 
Newbury,  268. 

New  EngUind,  314,  316,  328,  344. 
New'foundhmd,  131,  138,304,318. 
New  Hampshire,  314,  347. 
New  Jersey,  278,  315,  345. 
New  Netherhinds,  315. 
New  Orleans,  320,  400,  440. 
Newport,  138. 
New  South  Wales,  435. 
Newton  Butler,  294. 
New  York,  13S,  278,  315-318,  343- 

345. 
New  Zealand,  428,  435,  436. 
Ney  (na),  383,  39.3,  397. 
Niag'ara,  399,  400. 
Nice  in  Bithynia,  40,  61,  63,  64, 

73,  126. 
in  France,  52,  183,  187,  368, 

309. 
Nic'omedi'a,  126. 
Nicop'olis,  127. 
Nicosia,  209. 
Niel  (neel),  446. 
Niemen  (nee'men),  .384,  .392. 
Niethard  (neet'hard),  278, 
Nieuport  (nu'port),  238,  327. 
Nightingale,  F.,  421. 
Nile,  27,  74,  372,  375. 
Nimeguon  (ne  ma'gen),  216,  280, 

290,  297. 
Nln'eveh,  15,  27. 
Ningpo,  431. 
Nis'ibis,  410. 
Nisnies  (neem),  219,401. 
Nuailles  (no  ay'),  290,  320,  345. 


Nogaret  (no  ga  ra'),  94. 
Niirdlingen  (ntirt'ling  en),  256, 

257,261,381. 
Nor'mandy,  47,  64,  70,  86,  172. 
Normans,  Northmen,  16,  35,37, 

43-.50,  64,  121,371. 
North  Foreland,  277. 
Northumberland,  197. 
Norway,  16,  43,  49,  63,  91, 117  245, 

246,  394. 
Notre  Dame  (notr  dam),  363. 
Noured'din,  OS. 
Nova'ra,  145, 155, 108,  410. 
Nova  Scotia,  138,  304,  318. 
Nov'gorod',  43,  117. 
Novi  (no've),  374. 
Noyon  (n6h  yoN'),  159,  201. 
Nu'remberg,  180,  253,  2.54. 
Nymphenburg  (-boorg),  .324, 326. 
Nystadt,  310. 

0 

Oates,  Titus,  292. 

Oczakoff,  342. 

Oder,  10,  30,  263,  391,  394. 

Odin,  18. 

Ofifa,  42. 

Ogdensburgh,  399. 

Ohio  River,  ."30,  334,  439. 

Oldenburg,  245,  391,  394,  424. 

Christian  of,  245. 
Olga,  50. 

OUivier  (ol  le've  a'),  446,  448. 
Ol'mutz,  260,  285. 
Oltenit'za,  420. 
Omar,  Caliph,  31,  65. 

Pasha,  420. 
Ommy'ah,  Ommiades,  32,  33,  40, 

208. 
Onta'rio,317,  399. 
Oppede,  Baron  d',  188. 
Opslo,  240. 
Oran,  160,347. 
Orange,  Principality,  213. 

Prince  Philibert  of,  174, 
179. 

-Nassau,  House  of,  179, 
.304,  405. 

-Nassau,  William  I.,  Pr. 
of,  198,  212-218,  223-227,  241. 

-Nassau,  Maurice.  Prince 
of,  227-229,  233,  238,  241-243, 
250. 

-Nassau,  Frederic  Henry, 
Prince  of,  250. 

-Nassau,  William  Henry, 
Prince  of,  277-280,  288,  291- 
295. 

[See  England,  K.  William 
III.  of.] 
-Nassau,  William  IV., 328. 
-Nassau,  William  V.,  350, 
366. 

-Nassau,    William    Fred- 
eric, 3S3,  .394.     See  Holland, 
William  I.,  King  of. 
Orino'co,  135. 


473 


Ork 


INDEX. 


Pop 


Orkneys,  229,  270, 

Or'leans,   88,   102,   205,  20f.,  SCO, 

450. 
House  of,  in  France,  144, 

155,  157,  405. 
Duke   Louis    of,    bro.   of 

Charles  VI.,  101. 
Duke    Louis  of,   106,    142. 

Louis  XII.,  K.  of  France. 
Duke  Cliarles  of,  113. 
Duke  Gaston  of,  274,  275, 

291. 
Duke  Philippe  II.,  Ilegent 

of  France,  319-321. 
Duke  Louis  Philippe  (Eg- 

alite),  355,  361,  363. 
Duke  Louis  Philippe.  See 

France,  Louis  Philippe,  K. 

of. 
OrlofT,  Alexis,  337, 339. 
Ormuz,  Gulf,  132,  313. 
Orsini  (-se'ne),  99,  100. 
Orthez  (or  ta'),  395. 
Orthogrul,  126. 
Ortok,  126. 
Osnabriick,  262. 
Ostend,  238. 
Ostrach,  373. 
Ostrogoths,  17-23. 
Oswe'go,  334. 
Otran'to,23,  111. 
Ot'tavva,  317. 
Ottoman    Empire,  123,  125-127, 

140,  141,  160,209,234,323. 
Oude(o\vd),432,  433. 
Oudenarde  (ow'de  nar'deh),  216, 

290,  302,  327. 
Oudinot  (oo'de  no),  393,  417. 
Overj's'sel,  279. 
Oxenstiern  (-steern),  247,   256, 

261. 
Oxford,  108, 120. 


Pacific  Ocean,  1.35-137,  435,  439. 

Pad'ua,  149,  150,  243. 

Palat'inate,  244,  253,  255,  258,  259, 
280,291,  292,  297,  .301,  .324. 

Paler'mo,  85,  ,304,  323,  373,  403. 

Palestine,  48,  49,  62,  66,  69-78, 
420. 

Palikii'o,  448. 

Palmerston,  421. 

Pa'los,  133,134. 

Pampelu'na,  159, 199,  394. 

Pan'dourR,.",25. 

Panno'nia,  .36. 

Para',  1.34. 

Par'aclete,  81. 

Par'aguay,  200,  349. 

Paris,  43-46,  81,  88,  95,  98,  101, 
102,  106,171,  172,  189,  199-203, 
211,  23(1-2.32,241,  258,  274,  275, 
330,  3.36,  .347,  3.50,  35.5-369,  374- 
377,  .380,  383,  388,  C89,  393-400, 
401,  405,  411-413,  418-420,  422, 
446-4.53. 


Parma,  153,  168,  192,  193,  320, 328, 

369,379,401,422,423. 
Alexander,  Prince  and  D. 

of,  223-229,  232. 
Margaret,  Duchess  of,  212- 

214. 
Par'thenon,  287. 
Pai-'thenope'an  Republic,  373. 
Paskie'witch,  420. 
Passarowitz,  319. 
Passau  (pas'sow),  195, 196,  251. 
Patay',  102. 
Pau  (poj,  446. 
Paulicians,  42,  56. 
Pavia  (pa  vee'u),  19,  22,  23,  34, 35, 

52,82,  153,171-175,328. 
Pelay'o,  31,42. 
Pel'opoune'sus,  407. 
Pembroke,  76,  87. 
Penn,  Adm.,271. 

"William,  316. 
Pennsylvania,  441, 
Penob'scot,314. 
Pensaco'la,  346. 
Perpignan  (per  peen  yoN'),  186, 

260. 
Perry,  Com.,  400. 
Persia,  Persians,  17,  25-.30,  58, 

123,  124,  160,  178,  185,  235,  313, 

401, 
Chosroes,  King  of,  27. 
Persigny  (-seen'ye),  418. 
Peru,  137,184,312,402. 
Perugia,  167,  168. 
Pesca'ra,  171-174. 
Peschiera  (pes  ke  a  ra),  373, 423. 
Pesth  (pest),  185,  286,  287,  415, 
Peter,  the  Hermit,  62,  63. 

du  Breuil,  188. 
Petersburg,  St.,  217, 308,311,350, 

392,  400,441,449. 
Peterwardein  (-din),  288. 
Petrarch,  98,  121. 
Philadelphia,  316,  344,  345,  347. 
Philip  of  Hohenstaufen,  83. 
Philippine  Is.,  137,  312,  335,  336. 
Philipsburg,  257,  292. 
Phoenicians,  16. 
Phrygians,  43,  67. 
Piacej)za  (pe  a  chen'za),  62,  153, 

168,  192,  194,  320,  328,  379,  401. 
Piagnoni  (pe  iin  yo'ne),  143. 
Piave  (pe  a'va),  388. 
Pic'ardy,  172, 173, 183, 186,  220. 
Piccolomini    (-lom'enee),   256, 

257. 
Pichegru  (pesh  grii),  368. 
Pled'mont,  183,  187,  188,  202,  295, 

300,  369, 379,  403,  425. 
Pignerol  (pen  ye  rol'),  263,  374. 
Pilsen,242,  256. 
Pinzon  (pen  thou'),  136. 
Pir'na,  2.59,  .331. 
Pisa  (poe'sii),  51,  52,  81, 113, 149, 

323. 
Pisid'ia,  67. 
Pisis'tratus,  90,  ill. 

474 


Pitt,  William,  332,  335,  362,  380, 

381,430. 
Pizar'ro,  137. 
Plantag'enets,  77,  86. 
Plassy,  429. 
Plato,  122. 
Plattsburg,  400. 
Plessis    les     Tours     (ples'se  la 

toor'),  105,  231. 
Plymouth,  Eng.,  ai6. 

Mass.,  314. 
Po,  157. 

Podo'lia,  283,  288. 
Poissy  (pwa  se),  205. 
Poitiers  (pwa  te  a'),  19,  32,  76,  97. 

102. 
Poitou  (pwa  too'),  86,  219, 241. 
Poland,  Poles,  IS,  79,  81,  84,  95, 
124,219,  244-247,  2.^0,  251,  262, 
282-284,  308-310,  322,   337-341, 
351,  358,  366,  .384,  388,  389,  401, 
406,415,  425. 
Kings  of— 
Ladislas  I.,  Casimir  III.,  95. 
Henry  of  Yalois,  S.  Ba- 
thori,  219. 
Sigismund  III,,  246,  247. 
John  Casimir,  282,  283,  339. 
John  Sobieski,  286,  287. 
Augustus  II.,  287,  307-309,  .322. 
Stanislaus  Leczinski,  308,  309, 

321-323. 
Augustus  III.,  322,  327,  336, 

338. 
Stanislaus  II., 338,  339,341,342. 
Pole,  Card,  de  la,  197. 
Polignac  (po  leen  yak'),  404. 
Polk,  438. 

Pombal',  Marquis  de,  348,  349. 
Pomera'nia,  79,  2.52,  263,  284,  310, 

332,  333,  391,  394. 
Pompadour  (-door'),  .3.30. 
Ponce  de  Leon  (pou'  tha  da  la 

on'\  136,  1.38. 
Pondicherry  (-sha  re'),  .345,  428, 

429. 
Pon'te  Cor'vo,  .382. 
Popes- 
Gregory  I.  (A.  D.  590-604),  18. 

20,  24. 
Gregory  II.  (715),  .33. 
Gregory  111.(731),  33,34. 
Zacharias  (741),  34. 
Stephen  II.  (752-757),  34. 
Adrian  I.  (772),  35. 
Leo  III.  (795-816),  36,  83. 
Leo  IV.  (847-855),  40. 
Gregory  VI.  (1044),  54. 
Clement  II.  (1046),  54. 
Leo  IX.  (1048),  .50. 
Victor  IT.,  Stephen  IX., Nico- 
las II.,  Alexander  II.,  54. 
Gregory  VII.    (1073-1086),  50, 

54-56,  62,  82,  200. 
Urban  II.  (1088),  62,  64. 
Paschal  II.,  Gelasius  II.,  Ca- 
lixtus  III .,  Ilonorius  II. ,.'-(>. 


Pop 


INDEX. 


Hob 


Popes— 
Iimocent  II.  (1130-1143),  80,  81. 
Innocent  III.  (1198),  71-74,83, 

87,  91,200. 
Honoriiis  III.  (121G), 
Gregory    IX.    U227-I241),    83, 

84. 
Innocent  IV.  (1213-1254),  84. 
Martin  IV.  (1281-12SJ),  ?,o. 
Celestine  V.  (1294),  94. 
Boniface  VIII.  (1294),  93-95. 
Benedict  XI.  (1303),  '^'i:^ 
Clement  V.  (1305),  78,  95. 
Innocent  VI.  (1352-1.3G2),  100. 
Gregory  XT.  (1370),  100. 
Urban  VI.  (1378-13S9),  100. 
John  XXIII.  (1410),  108. 
Martin  V.  (1417),  109. 
Eugenius  IV.  (1431),  100,  110, 

132. 
Nicolas  V.  (1447-1455),  110,  111. 
Pins  11.(1458-1464),  110,  111. 
Sixtns     IV.    (1471-1484),    115, 

162. 
Alexander  VI.  (1492),  134,  141- 

147,  162,  163,  199. 
PiusIII.  (1503),  147. 
Julins  II.  (1503),  147-154,  160, 

162,416. 
Leo  X.  (1513),  153-155,  158,  163- 

168, 199. 
Adrian  VI.  (1.522),  163, 170,  ^71. 
Clement  VII.  (1523),  171-175, 

179-1S2, 
Paul  III.  (1534),  182,  189,  192, 

194,  199. 
Julius  111.(1550),  194,  197. 
Marcellus  II.  (1555),  197. 
Paul  IV.  (1555),  197,  200,  201, 

204. 
Pius  IV.  (1559),  204,  207. 
Pius  V.(  1566),  207-212. 
Gregory  XIII.  (1572),  212,  228. 
Sixtus  V.  (1585-1590),  228,  231- 

233. 
Paul  V.  (1605),  248. 
Gregory  XV.  (1621),  248. 
Urban  VIII.  (1623),  249. 
Innocent  X.  (1644),  264. 
Alexander    VII.     0655-1667), 

277. 
Innocent  XII.  (1691-1700),  296. 
Clement  XIII.  (175S),  349. 
Clement  XIV.  (1769),  349. 
Pius  VI.  (1775),  350,  357,  370, 

371. 
Pius  VII.  (1800),  378,  380,  386, 

389,394,  401. 
Leo  XII.  (1823),  404, 
Pius  Vin.(1820),  406. 
Gregory  XVI.  (1831),  406,  411. 
Pius    IX.   (1846),  413,  415-417, 

453. 
Port  Hudson,  441. 
Port  Koyal,  440. 
Porto  Bello,  312,  324. 
Porto  Legnano  (len  ya'no),  150. 


Porto  Pwico  (re'ko),  229,  347. 
Portugal,  Portuguese,  93-96, 132- 
140, 173,  221,  226,  259,  262,  302, 
313,  335,  336,  346,  348,  349,  362, 
371,  377,  379,  385-387,  390,394, 
402,410. 
Sovereigns  of— 
John   II.    (A.    D.   1481),   132- 

134. 
Emmanuel  I.  (1495),  116,  136, 

143. 
John  III.  (1521),  221. 
Sebastian  (1.557),  221. 
Henry  I.  (1578),  221. 
Antonio  (1580),  221,  222,  229. 
[See  Spain,  Philip  II.,  III.. 

IV.] 
John  IV.  (1640-16.56),  259. 
Pedro  II.  (1683),  300. 
John  V.(.  1706),  .348. 
Joseph  I.  (17.50),  335, 349. 
Maria  I.  (1777-1807),  386. 
John  VI.  (1S16),  402. 
Maria  da  Gloria  (1826),  402. 
Poteni'kin,341,  342. 
Poto'mac  River,  439,  441. 
Prague,  108,  109, 178, 191,  233,  239, 
242-244,  263,  325,  327,  332,  393. 
Presburg,  .381,  388,  3.S9. 
Presthla'va,  57. 
Procopius,  109. 
Propon'tis,  110. 

Provence  (-voNss'),  34,  46,  52,  53, 
90, 105,  170,  172,  188. 
Count  of,  358,  362. 
Providence,  314. 
Prussia,  79,  94,  240,  284,  299,  310, 
321,  324,  337,  340,  346,  358,  362, 
377,380-385,  391,  400,  401,  410, 
424-426,  415-451. 
Kings  of— 
Frederic  I.  (A.  D.  1701),  299, 

301. 
Frederic  William  I.  (1713),  310, 

321,  322,  325. 
Frederic    II.  (1740),  325,    327, 

.329-340,  342,  3S1,  3S3. 
Frederic  William   II.  (1786), 

342,  350,  366. 
Frederic  William  III.  (1797), 

381-385.  393,  413,  414. 
Frederic  William  IV.  (1840), 

413,414,451. 
William  I.  (1861),  447-451. 
Frederic  William,  Crown 
Prince  of,  425,  426,  447-419. 

Frederic   Charles,  Prince 
of,  425,  426,  450. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  31. 
Puebla  (pweb'la),  440. 
Pulcheria,  25. 
Pulta'wa,  .309. 
Pnltusk,  3as. 
Punjab',  431-433. 
Pym,  268. 

Pyrenees,  16,  17,  31,  .32,  36, 156, 
167,  272,  276,  27S.  .394. 

475 


Quatre  Bras  (kat'r  bra'),  397. 
Quebec',  317, 334. 
Queretaro  (ka  la  tii'ro),  445. 
Quir'iual,  389,  416. 

B 

Raab,  389. 

Ilacine  (ra  seen'),  306. 

Radetzki,  416. 

Eadziejow'ski,  308. 

Radzivil,  339. 

Ragnar  Lodbrog,  43. 

Ragotzki,  283,300. 

Rainer,  416. 

Rarabouillet  (roN  boo'ya),  395, 

405. 
Ram'illies,  302. 
Raphael  d'Urbino,  122. 
Rastadt,  304,  373. 
Rathenow,  284. 
Ratisbon,  ISO,  252,  256,  259,  300, 

366,  367,  378,  382. 
Raucoux  (ro  coo'),  328. 
liaven'na,  21-25,  33,  34,  41,  152, 

153,  175. 
Ravensberg,  184. 
Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse,  65, 

66,  89. 
VII.  of  Toulouse,  89. 
Re,  Isle  of  (ra),  249. 
Redan',  422. 

Reggio  (red'jo).  142, 167, 187. 
Reichenbach  (ri  Kcn  ban),  342. 
Renee  of  France  (reh  na'),  155. 
Repnin,  Prince,  339. 
Requesens,  216,  217. 
Retz,  Cardinal  de,  274,  275. 
Eheims  (reemz),  18,48,102,232, 

360,404. 
Rhenskiold,  309. 
Rhine,  15-17,  20,  37-39,  63,  68, 119, 

184,  253,  257,  260,  261,  279,  292, 

294,  296,  3O0,  304,  331,  366,  3t)8, 

370,  373,  .3.S0,  394,  401,  445,  447. 
Confederation  of,  382,  393. 
Rhode  Island,  314,  317. 
Rhodes,  78,  79,141,  170. 
Rhone,  17,31,38,39,303. 
Rialto  (real'to).  51. 
Richard  of  Cornwall,  75,  85,  87. 
Richelieu    (resh  le  uh'),  Card., 

240,  241,  248-253,  257,  260,  305. 
Duke  of  (Gen.),  331-333. 
Duke  of  (statesman),  401. 
Richmond,  440-442. 
Rienzi  (re  en'zee),  99, 100. 
Riga  fre'ga),  284,  307,  308. 
Rimini  (re'mg  ne),  149. 
Rio  Gila  (re'o  he'la),  438. 
Grande,  4.3.S. 
Janeiro  (j3i  na  ro),  386. 
Riviera  (re  ve  a'ra),  376. 
Riv'oli  (-le),  369. 
Robert  the  Strong,  46. 
Duke  of  France,  47. 


Rob 


INDEX. 


Ens 


Ilobert  of  Flanders,  fii,  65. 

Guiscard,  50,56,  62. 
Roberval,  138. 
Ilobespierre  (-peer'),   359.   SCO, 

303,  305. 
RochcUe',  207,  211,  249,  250,  317. 
Rocroi  (rok  rwa'),  200. 
Rodn2y,  Adm.,  333,  340,  347. 
Roger  Guiscard,  50, 
Roland,  Mme.,  303. 
Romagna  (ro  rnau'ya),  146,  153, 

369,  370,  423. 
Romagnano  (ro  man  ya'no),  171. 
Romainville  (ro  max  reel),  395. 
Romanoff  Dynasty,  247,  391. 
Romanzoff,  340. 
Roman  Emperors,  Ancient- 
Hadrian,  22,  20. 
Diocletian,  52. 
Theodosius  the  Great,  30. 
Roman  Republic,  Ancient,  51, 
52. 

Republic,  Revived,  82,  99, 
100,  370,  410. 
Roman  Empire  of  the  East,  2'i- 
32,  30,  40-43,  50,  53,  .50-58,  04, 
72,  73,  109-111,  125-127,141. 
Emperors  of  the  East— 
Arcadius,     Theodosius     II., 
Marcian,  Leo  II.,  Zeno,  25. 
Anastasius,  19,  25. 
Justin,  25. 
Justinian   (A.  D.  527-505),  19, 

22-27,  120. 
Justin  II.,  Tiberius,  Maurice, 

Phocas,  Heraclius,  27. 
Ileraclius,  Constantine  III., 
Heracleonas,  Constans  II., 
28. 
Constantine    IV.,  Justinian 

II.,  Leontius  Absimar,  28. 
Philippicus,  Anastasius  II., 

Theodosius  III.,  28. 
Leo  III.  (717-741),  28,  29,  40. 
Constantine  V.,  Leo  IV.,  40. 
Constantine  VI.  (780-797),  36, 

40,41. 
Nicephorus,  Stauracius,  Mi- 
chael I.,  Leo  v.,  Michael 
II.,  41. 
Theophilus,  42,  58. 
Michael  III.,  42,  56. 
Basil  I.,  50. 
Leo  VI.,    Constantine  VII., 

Romanus  I.,  .^7. 
Romanus  II.,  Nicephorus  II., 

John  Zimiskes,  53,  fu. 
Basil   II.,  Constantine  IX., 

57,  58. 
Zoe,  Theodora,  Isaac  I.,  5,S. 
Romanus  IV,  (1068-1071),  61, 

125. 
Alexis  Comnenus  (1081-1092), 

50,  58,  62-64,  67. 
Manuel  I.  (1143-1180),  67. 
Isaac    II.,    Angelus,   Alexis 
III.,  Alexis  IV.,  71,72. 


Roman   Empire  of  the  East, 

Latin  Emperors- 
Baldwin  I.  (1204-1261),  72. 
Henry,  Peter,  Robert,  John, 

Baldwin  II.,  73. 
Greek  Emperors- 
Michael    Palaeologus    (1261- 

1282),  73,  77. 
John  Palaeologus   II.    (142.0- 

1448),  109, 110. 
Constantine  XII.  (1448-1453), 

111,  141. 
Roman  Empire  Revived  in  the 

West,  32-38,  53,  50,  105,  107- 

109,140,  178,  181,  191,  190,20.3, 

204,  379-382,  428. 
Romans,  Emperors  of,  in  the 

West- 
Charlemagne  (A.  D.  800),  13, 

34-38,  41-40,  83,  149,  220,  aso, 

382. 
Louis  I.  (814),  37,  38. 
Lothaire  (840),  38,  40,  105. 
Louis  II.  (855),  38,  39,  40. 
Charles  II.  (875),  38,  39,  40. 
Charles  III.  (870),  40. 
Guy  of  Spoleto  (891),  46. 
Lambert  (894-898),  46. 
Otho  I.,  the  Great  (962),  47, 

53. 
Otho  II.  (973),  53. 
Otho  III,  ^983),  .03,  54. 
Henry  II.  (1002),  Conrad  II, 

(1024),  Henry  III.  (10.39),  .54, 
Henry  IV.  (1056),  50,  54-50,  62, 

03, 
Henry  V.  (1100),  .56,  80,  86. 
Lothaire  II.  (1125),  80,  81. 

House  of  Hohenstaufen— 
Conrad  III.  (1138),  61,81. 
Frederic  I.,  Barbarossa  (1152), 

68,09,81,82. 
Henry  VI.  (1191),  71,  82,  S3, 
Otho  IV„  Philip  (rivals,  1I9S), 

83, 
Frederic  II.  (1212),  75,  83,  84, 

90,  121. 
Conrad  IV.  (1250),  84,  85,  96. 
William    of   Holland   (rival, 

1250-1250),  84,  85. 
House  of  Hapsburg— 
Rudolph  I.  (1273),  77,  85,  93. 
Adolph  of  Nassau  (1292),  93. 
Albert  I.  (1298),  93,  90,    . 
Henry  VII.  (1308),  90, 
Louis  V.  (1314),  97,  99, 
Charles  IV,  (1347),  97, 107. 
Wcnceslaus  (1378),  107,  108, 
Rupert  (1400),  108, 
Sigismund  (1410),  108, 109,  127, 

105, 
Albert  II.  (I4.3.S),  111, 
Frederic  III.  (1440),  105,  110, 
Maximilian  1.(149.3),  10.5,  100, 

140,  14.3,  148-1.50,  159,  104. 
Charles  V.  (1519),  138,  146,  148, 

155-161,164-200,218,313, 

476 


Romans,  Emperors   of,  Hotis© 
of  Hapsburg— 
Ferdinand  I,  (1558),  198.  200, 

204,  207. 
Maximilian  II,  (1564),  207,  209, 

211,  214,  217. 
Rudolph  II,   n.570),  219,    224, 

233,  234,  239,  242. 
Matthias  (1612),  242,  243. 
Ferdinand  II,  (1619),  243,  244, 

251-258,  324. 
Ferdinand  III.  (1037),  258,  202, 

263,  275,  276. 
Leopold  I.  (1658),  276-279,  283, 

285-288,  295-.301. 
Joseph  I.  (1705),  301-303,  324. 
Charles    VI,    (1711),   303,   304, 

319-324. 
Charles  VII.  (1742),  324-327. 
Francis  I.  (1745),  323,  325,  327. 
Joseph  II.  (17C5),  325,  336,  340, 

342,319-3.51,3.55. 
Leopold  II.  (1790),  351,  a55, 358, 

359. 
Francis  II,  (1792-1806),  359, 360, 

370,  374,  382, 
[See  Austria,  Francis  I.  of.] 
Rome,  15,22,  23,  20,  33-41,  .52-56, 
80-84,  95,  99,  100,  107,  110,  1.52, 
153,162-164,174,175,  187,  193, 
201,  228,  281,  3.50,  370,  373,  374, 
386,  389,  416,  417,  422,  424,  453. 
King  of  (Duke  of  Reich- 
Stadt),380,  401,  418. 
Rom'ulus  Augus'tulus,  17,  30. 
Roncaglia  (cal'yii),  81. 
Rooke,  Adm.,  301. 
lloon.  Count  von,  425. 
Rosas,  296. 
Rosecrans,  441. 
Roskild,  283. 
Ross,  400. 
Rossbach,  332. 
Rossi  (-se),  416. 
Rotterdam,  212,  217. 
Rouen  (rwoN),  103,  144,  200,  4.50, 
Rouget   de  I'lsle   (roo  zha,  d§h 

leel'),  359, 
Roum  (room),  42,  61,  64,  126. 
Solyman,  King  of,  120. 
Roumania,   Roumanians,   407, 

422,  426. 
Roussillon  (roo  sel  yox'),  36, 106. 
Roveredo  (ro  va  ra'do),  149,309. 
Roxola'na,  2(i9. 
Rudolph  of  Suabia,  50. 
Ru'gen,  284,  394. 
Rupert,   Prince   Palatine,  258, 

268,  269. 
Rureuionde  (rlir  moxd'),  300, 
Russell,  Lord  Wm.,  293. 
Russia,  Russians,  18,  26,  43,  50, 
57, 117,  124,  209,  23;5,  247,  262, 
282-2&5,  307-311,  322-324,  32S, 
331-343,  362,  372-374,  381-385, 
391-394,  401,  406,  410,41.5,420- 
422,  425, 


Rus 


INDEX. 


Sco 


Kussia,  Sovereigns  of— 
Ruric  (A.  D.  862-S79),  43,  r)0, 

247. 
Vladimir  I.  (980-1015),  50,  57, 

5S. 
Yaroslav  I.  U019-1055),  50. 
Michael  III.  (1613),  247. 
Alexis  (1645),  282-284. 
Feodor  (1676),  2S6. 
Ivan  V.  (1682),  286. 
Peter  I.  (Emperor— 1689),  282, 

286,287,307-311. 
Catherine    I.  (1725),  310,  321- 

323. 
Peter  IT.  (1727),  323,  324. 
Anna  (1730),  324. 
Ivan  VI.  (1740),  337. 
Elizabeth  (1741),  325,  330,  335. 
Peter  III.  (1762),  335-337,  384. 
Catherine  II.   (1762),  3,36-342, 

346,  350,  358,  372,  408. 
Paul  I.  (1796),  377,  378. 
Alexander  I.  (1801),  378,  380, 
aSl,  384,  385,  391-396,  400-405, 
408. 
Nicholas  (1825),  405,  406,  409, 

415,  419-421. 
Alexander  II.  (1855),  421. 
Rlitli  (-le),  96. 
Ilutow'ski(-ske),327. 
Rymenants,  223. 
Ryswick  (ris'wik),  296,  318. 


Saalfeld(sal'felt),383. 

Saarbriickeu  (sar  bruk'en),  448. 

Sabatz,  170. 

Sad'owa,  426. 

St.  Aldegonde,  225,  227. 

St.  Andrfi  (an  d re),  205. 

St.  Angelo,  Castle  of,  22,  56,  174, 

175,  373. 
St.  Ariiaud  (-no),  418. 
St.  Augustine,  town  of,  136,  211. 
St.  Bartholomew's,  211,  216,  219. 
St.  Bavon,  185. 
St.  Benedict,  90. 
St.  Bernard,  376. 
St.  Boniface,  18,  35, 
St,  Bruno,  90. 
St.  Cloud  (kloo).  401,  405. 
St.  Croix,  Iliver  (krwa),  347. 

Island,  385. 
St.  Denis  (siiN  d'nee'),  232. 
St.  Dizier  (de  ze  a),  187,  395. 
St.  Germains  (zher  maN'),   207, 

210. 
St.  Gildas   do  Piliuys  (zheelda 

dehrwe'),  81. 
St.  Gothard,  285,  374, 376. 
St.  Ilele'na,  397. 
St.  Ildefon'so,371. 
St,  Janua'rius,  373. 
St.  Jerome,  Order  of,  198. 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights 

of,  66,  69,  75-79,  96,  141,  170, 

208,  372,  377,  378. 


I  St.  John  River,  211,343,347. 
I  St.  Lambert,  397. 

St.  Lawrence,  River  and  Gulf, 
136,138,314,330,343, 

St.  Lucie,  367, 

St,  Ma'Io,  138, 

St,  Mark,  51,  72,  426. 

St.  Maura,  288. 

St.  Onier  (saNt  omer'),  280. 

St.  Peter  (Papacy),  64, 152,  200. 

St.  Quentin  (saN  koN  tax';,  201, 
202. 

St.  Stephen,  crown  of,  179,  350, 

415,  427. 

St.  Thomas,  385. 

St.  Vincent,  Cape,  132. 

Saladin,  68-71,  78,  127. 

Salaman'ca,  390. 

Salankemen,  287. 

Salem,  314, 

Saler'no,  50,  56,  83. 

Salians,  Salic  Laws,  17,  18,  21, 

97,411. 
Salle,  Robert  dela,  317,  318. 
Salzburg  (saltz'boorg),  379,  389. 
Samarcand,  39,  119,  125. 
San  Doniin'go,  229,  367,  378. 
San  Francis'co,  439,  443. 
San  Gabriel,  438. 
San  Juan   de   Ulioa  (-hwan-), 

438. 
San  Salvador',  133.  . 
San  Sebas'tian,  394,  446. 
Santa  Anna,  437,  438, 
Santa  Cruz,  272. 
Santa  Fe  (fa'),  438. 
Santarem  (-reN'),  390. 
Santa  Sophia  (so  fe'a),  26. 
Santiago  (siin  te  a'go),  138,  229. 
Saone  (son),  39. 
Saphadin,71,  73. 
Saphouiy,  76. 
Saracens,  13,  17,  28-33,  39,  42,  44, 

48-53,  56-62,  65,  68,  70,  78,  83, 

95,  119. 
Saragos'sa,  3.5,  387,  390. 
Saratoga,  345. 
Sardinia,  17,  23,  25,  52,  140,  182, 

206,  302,  304,  320,  324,  328,  358, 

362,368,416,421,422, 
Kings  of— 
Victor    Amadeus    (1720-1730j, 

320. 
Victor  Amadeus    III.  (1773- 

1796),  .369. 
Victor  Emmanuel   I.   (1802), 

403. 
Charles  Felix  (1821),  403. 
Charles  .\lbert  (1831),  406,  416. 
Victor  Emmanuel  II.  (1849), 

416,  422,  423.    [King  of  Italy, 
1861.] 

Sarre,  257,  301,  401. 
Sassan'ida;,  27. 
Savan'nah,  346,  441, 
Save,  .369. 
Savonaro'la,  141,143, 175. 


Savoy',  139, 140, 149, 169,  179,  182, 
183, 187,  197,  262,  295,  296,  300. 
Dukes  of— 
Amadeus    VIII,     (1391-1451), 

110. 
Emmanuel    Philibert    (1553), 

197,  198,201,202. 
Chai'les  Emmanuel(  1580-1630), 

236,  249. 
Victor   Amadeus    II.    (1675), 
302,  304,  320.     [King  of  Sar- 
dinia, 1720.] 
Saxe,  Marshal,  326-328. 
Saxe  Weimar  (vi'mar),    Duke 

Bernhard  of,  255-258. 
Saxons,  17-20,  35,  37,  43. 
Saxony,  44,  71,  80-82,   109,    250, 
253,  254,  327,  331,  336,  393,  394, 
413,  414,  424,  425. 
Electors  of— 
Frederic  the  Wise  (A.  D,  1486), 

162-165. 
John  the  Steadfast  (1525),  180. 
John  Frederic  (1532),  180,  189, 
190,  193,  195. 
■  Maurice  (1548),  190, 194-196. 
Augustus  (1553-1586),  196. 
[See  Poland,  Augustus  I.  and 

II.,  Kings  of.] 
Christian  II,  (1591),  239. 
John  George  I.  (1611-1656),  244, 

252,  257,  258. 
Frederic  Augustus  111.(1763), 
383,  335.    [King  of  Saxony, 
1807.] 
Dukes  of— 
George,  177. 
Henry  the  Pious,  185. 
Maurice,_lS9,  190. 
Scanderbeg,  127,  note. 
Scandinavians,  38,43. 
Scheldt  (skelt),  15,  17,  210,  229, 

239,361,406, 
Schel'lenberg,  300. 
Sche'rer  (sha'rer),  373. 
Schleitz  (slillts),  383. 
Schleswig    ('-vig),  245,  250,  251, 
261,  283,  310,  413,  414,  424,  425. 
Schoeffer,  Peter,  119. 
Scliomberg  (shom'berg),  291. 
Schonbrunn  (shon  broon),  .3S'.). 
Schonen  (sho'nen),  251,  261. 
Schwartz  (shviirts^,  118. 
Schwartzenberg,  394,  395, 
Schwatz,  3.S8. 
Schweidnitz    (shvit  nits),   260, 

335,  .33(5. 
Scilly  Isles,  16. 
Scinde  (sind),  431. 
Scio,  340, 409. 

Scotland,  17,  63,  86,  88,  93,  94, 186, 
191-193,  202,  203,  205,  269,  273, 
294,  302. 
Sovereigns  of— 
John  Baliol  (A.  D.  1292-1296), 

88. 
James  IV.  (1488),  155, 


477 


SCO 


INDEX, 


Swi 


Scotland,  Sovereigns  of— 
James  V.  (1513),  184,  186,  191. 
Mary  (1542),  1S6,  191,  194,  202, 

205,  206,  210,  223,  228. 
James  VI.  (1567),  210.    [King 

of  England,  1603.] 
Scott,  Gen.,  438. 
Scotus,  Duns,  120. 
Scythians,  30,  43, 124,  126. 
Sedan   (seh  doN'),  237,  240,  448, 

449. 
Sedgenioor',  293. 
Segur,  Count  de  (sa  giir'),  345. 
Seine  (san),   16,  17,  43,  46,  379, 

380,  449. 
Seld,  Chancellor,  198. 
Seljukian  Dynasty,  61,  65,  123- 

126. 
Semina'ra,  142,  146. 
Seminoles,  437. 
Semlin,  170. 
Sem'pach,  107. 

Senegal,  280,  334,  336,  345,  347. 
Senlis  (son  le'),  106. 
Sens  (SON),  81,  189. 
Septima'nia,  32,  34. 
Sering'apatam',  430. 
Ser'via,  126,  324,  407,  422. 
Sestos  River,  132. 
Sev'asto'pol,  57,  342,  420-422. 
Sev'ille,  134,  135,  312,  387,  390. 
Sevres  (sev'r),  450. 
Sforza,      Giacomuzzo      (jak'o 

moot'sO  sfort'sa),  109. 
Francesco,  113. 
Gian  Galeazzo    (jan  gal  a 

at  so),  140. 
Ludovico      (loo  do  ve'ko), 

140,  142,145,  149,^53. 
Maximilian,  153,  155,  157. 
Francesco  II.,  158, 173,  174, 

248. 
Shaftesbury,  315. 
Shanghai  (-hi),  431. 
Shenando'ah,  441. 
Sherman,  Gen.,  441,  442. 
Shovel,  Sir  C,  302. 
Sibe'ria,  323,  406. 
Sicily,  21-23,  26,  28,  40,  50,  57,  68, 

77,83-85,  93,  94,  115,  117,  142, 

304,  323,  382,  403,  416,  423,  424. 
Sick'ingen,  176, 177. 
Sidney,  Algernon,  293. 

Philip,  228. 
Sidon,  71. 
Sien'a,  147,201. 
Siei-'ra  Leo'ne,  132. 
Sievershausen        (se'vers  how' 

zen),  196. 
Siey6s  (se  ya'),  356,  375. 
Sigisniuiid  of  the  Tyrol,  133. 
Sikhs,  431,432. 
Sile'sia,  124,  321,  322,  325,327,329, 

330,  332-336,  394. 
Silis'tria,  420. 

Silvio  rellico  (pel  le'ko),  403. 
Simplon  (saN  ploN),  371.  .378,  390. 


Simson,  451. 

Singapore',  430. 

Sino'pe,  420. 

Sissek,  234. 

Sisto'vo,  342. 

Sitvatorok,  234. 

Slavonia,  64, 149, 179,  268,  286. 

Slavonians,  18,  25,  27,  28,  53,  58, 

126,  407,  413,  415. 
Slidell,  440. 
Sluys  (slois),  238. 
Smith,  Capt.  John,  314. 

Sir  Sidney,  375. 
Smolen'sko,  282,  392, 
Smyr'na,  409. 
Sobies'ki,  James,  308. 
Soissons  (swas  son'),  71,  81. 
SoItikofF,  333. 
Solway  Moss,  186. 
Somerset,  Duke  of,  193, 194. 
Som'mering  Pass,  180. 
Sophia  of  Russia,  286,  288. 
Soi'bonne',  231. 
Sorr,  327. 
Sorren'to,  56. 
So'to,  Ferd.  de,  138. 
Soubise  (soo  bez'),  331. 
Soult  (soolt),  374,  388,  390,  394. 
Spain,  Spaniards,  17,  19,  21,  26, 
30-32,  35,  37,  40,  42,  44,  91,  93, 
96,    106,   114-121,   131-143,  155, 
158-161,166,172,  184,  189,  198- 
206,  235-244,  248,  249,  258-263, 
271-280,  295-298,   305,  312-314, 
321-324,  328,  334-336,  345-349, 
351,  358,362,  371,378,385-391, 
394,  402,  410,  411,  437,  444-446, 
453. 
Sovereigns  of— 
Philip   and   Joanna    (A.    D. 
1504  in  Castile),  143,  146,  Its, 
156,  159,  166,  198. 
Charles  I.  (1516).   Ilom.Emp. 

Charles  V. 
Philip  II.  (1556),  13S,  185,  197- 

233,  235,  280. 
Philip  III.  (1591),  233,  237,  238, 

248,  312. 
Philip  IV.  (1621),  240,  248,  262, 

271,277,278. 
Charles  II.  (1665),  296-298,  313. 

House  of  Bourbon- 
Philip  V.  (1700),  297,  298,  300- 

30.5,313,  31 9-.321,  324,  328. 
Ferdinand  VI.  (1746),  328,  3.34. 
Charles  III.  (1759).    [King  of 

Two  Sicilies,  1734.] 
Charles  IV.  (17S8),  367,377,387. 
Joseph  I.   (1808).    See  Bona- 
parte, Joseph. 
Ferdinand    VII.    (1814),   386, 

3S7,  394,401,411. 
Isabella   II.    (1833-1868),    411, 

445,  446. 
Amadeo  (1870-1873),  4.53. 
Spezzia  (spet'ze  ii),  52. 
Spiuo'la,  238,  244. 

478 


Spires,  56, 178,  187,  35S,  447. 
Spole'to  (-la'to),  44,  46,  75. 
Stafford,  Lord,  292. 
States  General,  French,  97, 117, 

204,  205,  220, 241,  353-359. 
Steinkirk  (stin  kerk),  295. 
Stenbock,  309. 
Stephen  of  Chartres,  64,  66. 
Stettiu,  263,284,  310,383. 
Stirling,  88. 
Stockach,  373. 
Stockholm,  245,  285, 
Stockton,  438. 
Stofflet  (-fla),.367. 
Stolbo'va,  247. 
Strafford,  Earl  of,  26S. 
Stralsund  (striil'soond),  310. 
Stras'bonrg,  189,   195,    290,   358, 

406,  418,  450. 
Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  410,  420. 
Stuart,  James  Francis,  299,  302, 
319,  322. 
Charles  Edward,  326,  333. 
Stuttgart  (stoot'gart),  388. 
Stuyvcsant  (sti'vc  sant),  315. 
Styria,  85,  93,  140,  285. 
Suabia,  38,  44,  56,  69,  72,  105,  107, 

177,  336. 
Suevi,  17. 

Suger  (sii  zlia),  88, 
Sully  (sul'ye),  236,  240,  248. 
Surrey,  Earl  of,  168. 
Susa,  374. 
Sntlej,43I. 

Suwarof,  339,  342,  373,  374. 
Sweden,   Swedes,    245-247,    250, 
258-261,  278,  280-285,  307-311, 
315,  321,  325,  334,  336,  3.38,  342, 
346,    362,    377,    385,    391,    394, 
401. 
Kings  and  Queens  of— 
Margaret   Waldcmar  (A.  D. 

1389),  245. 
Eric,  Christian  I.,  John  II., 

Christian  II.,  245. 
Gustavus  Vasa  (1523),  245,  246. 
Eric  IV.,  John  III.,  246. 
Sigismund,  Charles  IX.,  246, 

247. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  (1611 ),  247, 

250-255,  258,  260. 
Christina  (1633),  252,  261,  281. 
Charles  X.  (1654),  263,  281-284. 
Charles  XI.  (1660),  284,  285. 
Charles  XII.  (1697),  285,  307- 

310. 
Ulrica    and    Frederic    (1719- 

1751),  310,  336. 
Gustavus  III.  (1771),  338,  358. 
Gustavus  IV.  (1792),  385. 
Charles  XIII.  (1809),  385,  391. 
Charles  XIV.  (1818),  404,  413. 
Oscar  I.  (1844-1859),  413. 
Switzerland,  Swiss,  17,  38,  93, 
96,  107,  139,  145,  150-159,  165, 
166, 182,  263,  355,  360,  362,  371, 
374,390,401,406,  414,452. 


Sya 


INDEX. 


Utr 


Sya'grixis,  18. 

Sydney,  434. 

Symeon,  Patriarch,  62. 

Symmaclius,  22. 

Syracuse,  57. 

Syria,  27,  30-32,62,  66,  6S,  71, 

125,  160,  375,  410,  420. 
Szegedin  (sej'ed  een'),  HI. 
Szigeth  (se  getli,i,  209, 


Taborites,109. 

Tacitus,  IS. 

Tagina  (ta  ge'na),  23. 

Tagus,  133,  3S7,  390. 

Talnvera  (-va  ra),  390. 

Talleyrand,  371,  382,  401. 

Tancred,  64, 66. 

Tanucci  (tii  noot'che),  323. 

Taran'to,  62,64,  111. 

Tarik,  31. 

Tartars,  Tartary,  27,  28,  42,  61, 

75,  79,  84,  123-125,  283-287,  324, 

333,339,341,421,  432. 
Tarsus,  61. 
Tasma'nia,  435. 
Taunton,  293. 
Tau'rida,  341. 
Taylor,  Zacliary,  438. 
Tekeli,  285. 
Temesvar   (tern  ash  var'),   195, 

287,  320,  415. 
Templars,  66-69,  75-79,  93,  95,  96. 
Tennessee',  440,  441. 
Tephri'ke,  42,  56. 
Terouenne',  155,  196. 
Testri  (-tre),  20. 
Tet'zel,  163,164. 
Teutonic  Knights,  66,  69,  75,  79, 

94,  124,  234. 
Teutonic  Race,  17-23,  32,  39, 162. 
Texas,  317,  318,  437-410. 
Texel,  379. 

Thames  (temz),  47,87. 
Theatins,  197. 
Theiss  (tis),  287. 
Theodolin'da,  24. 
Theodo'ra,  Empress,  25. 

Empress  regent,  42. 
Theoph'aiio,  53. 
Thermopylai,  40S. 
Thcs'saloni'ca,  57. 
Thibaud(tebo'),  71. 
Thierry,  Chateau  (sha  to'  te  er' 

re),  187. 
Thiers  (te  er'),  410,  411,  449,  451. 
Thionville  (te  on  veel'),  261, 
Thor,  IS. 

Thorn,  284,  30S,  340. 
Thrace,  25,  40,  126. 
Thuringia,  Thuringians,  17,44, 

165,  332. 
Thurn,  Count  (toorn),  242,243. 
Tiber,  187,  380. 
Tiberias,  Lake,  68. 
Ticino  (te  che'no),  423. 


Tigris,  37, 40. 

Tilly,  Count,  244,  250-254,  258. 
Tilsit,  384,  385,  391,  392. 
Timour  (te  moor),  Tamerlane, 

123-125,  127. 
Tippoo  Saib,  430. 
TIascala,  136. 
Todlebeu  (tot'Ia  ben),  421. 
Togrul  Beg,  61,  125. 
Tokay,  179. 
Tole'do,  183, 
Tolentiuo  (-te'no),  369, 
Tolna,  178. 
Tonquin  (-keen),  124. 
Torbay',  294. 
Tordesillas,  134,  136, 
Torgau  (-gow'),  177,  333,  334, 
Tor'res  Vedras  (va'dras),  390. 
Torstenson,  260,  261. 
Torto'na,  368, 374, 
Tortu'ga,  313, 

Toul  (tool),  194, 195,  202,  263,  3.58. 
Toulon  (too  Ion'),  187,  306,  333, 

334,  364,  372. 
Toulouse  (too  looz),  48,  64,  74, 

89,  90,  91,  395,  401, 
Touraine  (too  ran),  86,  220. 
Tournay  (toor  na'),  167,  188,  327. 
Tours  (toor),  32,  450. 
Tourville  (toor  veel'),  296. 
Toussaint  I'Ouverture  (too  saN' 

loo  ver  tlir'),  378. 
Trafalgar',  381. 
Transylvania,   23,   94,  195,  218, 

234,  243,  283,  286-288. 
Travendal',  307,  309. 
Trebia,  374. 
Treb'izond,  73, 
Trent,  159,  299. 

Council    of,    188,   189,  192, 

194,  195,  204,  207. 
Steamer,  440. 
Treves,  105,  257,  261,  279,  290,  301, 

366. 
Electors  of,  160,  177,  253, 

257,  261,278. 
Treviso  (tra  ve'so),  149. 
Trina'cria,  94. 
Trinidad',  378. 
Trip'oli  in  Africa,  27,  271. 

in  Syria,  66,  67. 
Tripolit'za,  40S. 
Trivulzio    (tre  voolt'ze  o),    145, 

157. 
Trochu  (tro  shli'),  449. 
Troyes  (trwa),  102. 
Tudors,  103,  156. 
Tuileries     (twel  rees),    3.')7-360, 

367,  376,  396,  405,  412,  449,  452., 
Tunis,  77,  182,271. 
Turenne',  261,  275,  279,  280,  295. 
Turin',  24,  157,  302,  374,  376,  423. 
Turks,  Turkey,  18,  26,  27,  58,  61- 

69,  77,  82,  109-112,  116,  122-127, 

139,149,  151,  163,  170,  178-180, 

184-188,  195-199,  208,  209,  2&5- 

288,  338-342,  352,  372,  374-378, 

479 


Turks,  Turkey,  385,  391, 401,407- 
410,  415,  419-422. 
Sultans  of— 
Othman,   Orchan,   Amurath 

I.,  126. 
Bajazet,  Mohammed  I.,  Am- 
urath II.,  Mohammed  II,, 
127. 
Solyman  I.  (A.  D.  1520),  127, 
140,  170,  178-182, 1&5, 195,  209. 
Selim  II.  (1566),  127,  208,  209. 
Amurath  III.  (1574),  234. 
Mohammed  III.  (1595),  234, 
Othman  II,  flOlS),  245, 
3Iustapha,      Amurath      IV, 

(1623),  245. 
Mohammed  IV.  (1649),  287. 
Solyman  III.  (1687),  287. 
Mustapha  II.  (1695),  287. 
Achmet  III.  (1703-1730),  309, 
Mahmoud  II.  (1808),  409,  410. 
Abdul  Medjid  (1S40-1S61),  410, 
420. 
Turn'hout,  233. 

Tuscany,  44,  SO,  93,  113,  201,  262, 
304,  320-323,  351,  366,  369,  373, 
379,401,416,422,423. 

Ferdinand,  Grand   Duke 

of,  379. 

Two  Sicilies,  .50,  83,  334,  362,  382. 

Kings  of— 

Charles  III.  (1734),. 320-323, 334. 

Ferdinand  I.*  (1759),  334,  373, 

374,  382,  403. 
Francis  I.  (1825),  406. 
Ferdinand  II.*  (1830),  406,  416. 
Francis  II.  (        -1860),  424. 
[*  I.  and  II.  of  the  united 
kingdom,  IV.  and  V.  of  Na- 
ples.] 
Tybee  Island,  440. 
Tyburn,  249,  273. 
Tycho  Brahe  (bra),  233,  246, 
Tyre,  68,  69,  71,77. 
Tyrol,  Tyrolese,  105, 140, 144, 189, 
195,  325,  369,  370,  381,  388, 394. 


U 

Uhlans  (oo'Iiins),  426. 
Ukraine,  282,  284,  288,  309,  324. 
Ulni  (oolm),  380,  381,  383. 
United  States  (Am.),  211,  316, 

346,347,352,  377,  379,  399-401, 

406,  414,437-445. 
Universities,  83, 104,108,120, 162, 

164,  176,  181,  188. 
Unterwalden  (oon'ter  val'den), 

96. 
Uranienborg  (oo  rii'ne  en-),  246. 
Urbino  (oor  be'no),  167, 168,  175, 

179. 
Uri  (oo'ro),  96. 
Ush'ant,  366. 
U'tica,  182. 
U'trecht,  184,  216,  217,  224,  227, 

279. 


TTtr 


INDEX. 


Zwi 


U'trecht,  Treaty  of,  303-505,  313, 
319,  330. 

V 

"Valais  (vji  la),  379,  390,  401. 
Talencai  (va  Ion  sa'),  387. 
Valence  (va  loNss'),  104,  371. 
Valen'cia,  114,  301,  302,  387. 
Valenciennes  (va  Ion  se  en'),  217, 

359,  363. 
Valentinois  (vii  Ion  te  nAva'),192. 
Valet'ta,  La  Valette',  208,  372. 
Val'ladolid',  135. 
Valois,  House  of  (val  wa'),  98, 

104,  144,  231. 
Charles  of,  90. 
Valtellitie',  153,  2AS,  249. 
Vandals,  17,  IS,  22,  23,  25,  82,  371. 

Kings  of  the,  25. 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  435. 
Van  Tromp,  270. 
Varangians,  43.  . 
Varennes  (va  ren'),  3.58. 
Var'na,  111,  127. 
Var'nitz,  310. 
Vasa  Dj'nast}',  245. 
Vasvar,  285. 
Vatican,  40,  71,  110,  IC.S,  174,  212, 

389. 
Vaubau  (vo  boN'),  279,  290,  292, 

295. 
Vancelles  (vo  selM,  201. 
Vaud  (vo),  371. 

Vaudois  (vo  dwa),  188,  189,  275. 
Venables,271. 

Vendee,  La  (von  da'),  363,  3()7. 
Vendome,  Dnkes  of  (von  dom'), 

172,  301,  .302. 
Venotia,  423-426. 
Venice,  Venetians,  24,  41,  51,  .52, 

71-73,  78,  79,  &2,  111-114,  119, 

132,  133,  142,  144,  148,  149-153, 

158, 159,  173,  175,  184,  209,  234, 

285-288,  320,  369,  370,  373,  381, 

393,  416. 
Venloo',  300. 
Vera  Cruz,  .302,  438. 
Vercclli  (ver  chel'le),  197. 
A^erde,  Cape,  346. 
Verdun',  38,  39,  194,  195,  202,  263, 

358,  361 . 
Verniandois  (ver  maN  dwa'),  (U. 
Vernon,  Adni.,  .324. 
Vero'na,  149,   1.50,  370,  373,  393, 

408,  423. 
Vcrrazano  (-tsa'no),  138. 
Versailles    (ver  say'),   345,   353, 

3.^7, 449-453. 
Vervins  (ver  vaN'),  236. 
Vesprim,  234. 

Vespucci  (ves  poot'che),  136. 
Vezelay',  67. 
Viazma,  392. 

Vicenza  (ve  chen'za),  149-151. 
Vicksburg,  440,  441. 
Victoria,  435. 


Vien'na,  71,  SO,  179,  234,  240,  243, 
260,  285,  286,  321-323,  350,  366, 
369,  373,  381,  383,  368,  389,  396, 
400,  401,  414,  415,  420,  424,  449. 

Vienne',  Dauphiuy,  104,  170,  374. 

Viglius,  212. 

Villafran'ca,  in  Piedmont,  157. 
in  Lombardy,  423. 

Villars,  300,  304,  322,  323. 

Vil'la  Vicio'sa,  303. 

Villeroy  (vel  rwa),  299. 

Vimeira,  387. 

Vinceunes',  89,  380. 

Vinea,  Peter  de,  121. 

Vinoy  (ven  -wa'),  452. 

Violante,  75. 

Virginia,  314,  316,  330,  440,  441. 

Visconti  (-te),  112,  142. 

Valentina,  <)8,  113,  144. 

Visigoths,  17-21. 

Vist'ula,  16,  384,391,394. 

Vitto'ria,  .394. 

Volhyn'ia,  283. 

Voltaire',  notes,  352,  378. 

Vorarl'berg,  381. 

Vosges  (vozh),  450. 

AV 

Wa'gram,  389. 

Waitzen  (vit'sen),  234,  266,  415. 

Walcheren  (val  ke  ren),  215, 

Waldstatten  (vald  stet  ten),  96. 

Wales,  17,  63,  88. 

Wallace,  William,  88. 

Wallachia  (-la'ke  a),  17,  23,  234, 

287,  324,  340,  341,  387,  407,  420, 

422. 
Wallenstein  (val'Ien  stin'),  213, 

244,  250-256,  268. 
Walloons,  Walloon  Provinces, 

210,  212,  224,  225,  252,  278. 
Walpole,  326. 
Walter  the  Penniless,  63 
Warsaw,  282,  283,  308,  322,  341, 

406. 
Grandduchy,  391. 
AVarwick,  Earls  of,  76,  103,  194. 
Washington,  344-348. 

City,  400,  440-442. 
AA'aterloo,  397,  404. 
AA'einsberg  (vinz'berg),  81. 
AVeissemburg     (vi'sem  boorg), 

448. 
AVellinghausen  (-how'zen),  a35. 
Wellington,  Duke  of,  387,  390, 

.394,  395,  397. 
Werner,  Irnerius,  120. 
Wessex,  17,  42, 
Westminster,  280. 
Westphalia,  91,  92,  ^f,,  332. 

Kingdom  of,  .385,  390,  .394, 

449. 
Treaty  of,  262-264,  274-276, 

279,281,  297. 
Wicliffe,  108,  120,  199. 
Wil'helmshii'he,  449. 


AVilliam  Bras  de  Fer  (.bra  deh 
fer),  49. 

William    the   Silent.     See  Or- 
ange-Nassau, AVni.  I.  of. 

Williams,  Roger,  314,  315. 

AVindischgratz  (vin'dish  grets), 
415. 

AVinifrid,  IS. 

Winkelried  (vink'el  reet),  107. 

AVirtemberg,  377,  381,  382,  3&S, 
413,414,447,451. 

Wismar,  310. 

Wissegrad,  234,  286. 

AVitgenstein  (vit  gen  stIn),  392. 

Wittenberg,  162-164, 176,190,333. 

Wittstock,  258. 

AVolfe,  Gen.,  334. 

AA'olsey,  161,  167,  168,  171. 

Worcester,  Eng.  (woos  ter),270. 

AVorms,  36,  161, 164,  165,  167. 

AVorth  (vert),  448. 

AVrangel  (Ger.)  (vrang'el),  424. 
(Swede),  263,  283. 

Wurmser  (voorm'zer),  369. 


Xavier  (zav'ier),  313. 

Xeres  (ha  res'),  31. 

Xerxes,  .393. 

Ximenes  (zl  niee'  nez),  159,  160. 


Yenikale  (-kii'la),  421. 
A'ork,  37,  46,  210,  268. 

House  of,  103,  104,  156,  197. 

Edmund,  Duke  of,  99. 

Richard,  Duke  of,  103. 

James,  Duke  of,  277,  292, 
29.3,  315.  [James  II.,  King 
of  England.] 

in  Canada,  399. 
Yorktown,  .346. 
Ypres  (eep'r),  275,  280,  366. 
Ypsilanti  (ip'se  lan'te),  408. 
Yssel(is'sel),217. 
Yuste  (yoos'ta),  198. 

Z 

Zanow',  108. 

Zapolya,  son,  19.'5,  209. 

Za'ra,  70-72. 

Zealand  (zee'land),  213,  215,  216, 

227,  250. 
Zendecan,  125. 
Zenghi  (ge),  67. 
Zenghis    Khan,   75,  84,   123-127, 

341. 
Zeuta,  287. 
Ziska,  109. 
Zizim,  141. 
Znaym  (znlni),  389. 
Zulpich  (tsul'pik),  18. 
Zurich  (zu'rik),  l(i5,  374. 
Zut'phen,  105, 164.  186,228. 
Zweibriicken  (tswi'-),  240. 
Zwingli,  Ulrich,  165,166. 


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